Solutions

MIXTURES:
When two or more chemically non-reactive substances
are mixed they form a mixture. Most of the materials
we encounter in our daily lives are in the form of
mixtures. They have no fixed ratio. For example: the air
we breathe, is a gaseous mixture of primarily Oxygen
and Nitrogen.
HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURE it consists of single phase
i.e. it is uniform and its properties are same throughout
the mixture. It’s components cannot be seen by the
naked eye or with the help of microscope. For example:
Salt in water, alcohol in water etc.
HETEROGENEOUS MIXTURE it consists of distinct
phase i.e. it is not uniform. It’s components can be
seen through naked eyes or with the help of
microscope. For example: sand in water.

1. SOLUTIONS (TRUE SOLUTIONS)

1|solutions
 A homogenous mixture of two or more
components whose composition can be varied
within certain limits. We can’t filter out the
components of solutions. All solutions can be
characterized by
 Homogeneity
 Absence of settling
diameter of true solutions is less than 0.001
micrometer or 1 nanometer. For example:
salt or sugar solution in water.

NOTE: When the solution is composed

of two or more components, it is
termed as a binary solution. Similarly,
ternary and quaternairy.

2. SUSPENSIONS
the size of particles is usually more than 1000 nm
and they are visible by the naked eye. For
example: the mixture of chalk and water.

3. COLLIODS
Their range of diameters of colloidal particles is
between 1 and 1000 nm, i.e. from 10-9 to 10-6 m
and they are not visible by the naked eye or an

2|solutions
 ordinary microscope. For example: butter, blood,
coloured glass.
SOLUTE AND SOLVENT:
The substance which dissolves into another
substance is called solute and the substance
which dissolved solute into it, is called solvent.
Solution= solute + solvent

METHODS OF EXPRESSING THE

CONCENTRATION OF A SOLUTION:

(i) Mass percentage (W/W):

It is defined as the amount of solute in grams in 100g of
the solution.
Mass percentage of solute= (mass of solute ÷ mass of
solution) x 100

3|solutions
(ii) Volume percentage (V/V):
It is defined as the volume of solute in mL present in
100mL solution.
Percentage of solute by volume= (volume of solute ÷
volume of solution) x 100
(iii) Mass by volume % (W/V):
Defined as the mass of solute present in 100mL of
solution.
Percentage of solute mass by volume= (mass of solute
÷ volume of solution) x 100
(iv) part per million:
When the solute is present in trace quantities, it is
convenient to express the concentration in parts per
million(ppm). It is defined as the quantity of solute in
gram present in 106gm of the solution.
Ppm= (mass of solute ÷ mass of solution) x 10⁶
OR
Ppm= [(mass of solute mass÷ of solution) x 100] x 10 4

= Ppm = mass% x 10 4

(v) mole fraction:

It is defined as the ratio of number of moles of one
component to the total no. of moles of the solution.
4|solutions
Mole fraction of solute = no. of moles of solute ÷no. of
moles of solute + no. of moles of solvent
Mole of fraction of solvent = no. of moles of solvent ÷
no. of moles of solute + no. of moles of solvent
Mole fraction is a unit less quantity
(vi) Molarity:
Defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved in
one litre of solution.
It is denoted by ‘M’. the unit of molarity is mol/litre.
Molarity = no. of moles of solute ÷ volume of solution
(in litre)
(vii) Molality:
Number of moles of solute is dissolved in 1kg of solute.
It is denoted by ‘m’. S.I. unit of molality is mol/kg.
Molality = no. of moles of solute ÷ mass of solvent (in
kg)
4. CONCENTRATION IN TERMS OF SYMBOL:
A= solvent , B = solute
w= mass / weight
M = molar mass
V = volume
n= no. of moles
D = density
5|solutions
 Mass % = ¿÷w ) x 100
A +B

vA
Volume % = v A +B x 100

5. COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES:
Properties depends only on the number of solute
particles present in the solution irrespective of
their nature.
These properties are as known as colligative
properties.
SOME COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES ARE:
 Relative lowering of vapour pressure of
solvent.
 Depression of freezing point of the solvent.
 Elevation of boiling point of the solvent.
 Osmatic pressure of the solution.

Elevation of boiling point of solution:

-The vapour pressure of liquid increases with increase

of temperature. It boils at the temperature at which its
vapour pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure.

-Vapour pressure of the solvent decreases in the

presence of non volatile solute.

6|solutions
-The boiling point of a solution is always higher than
that of the boiling point of the pure solvent.

-The elevation of boiling point also depends on the

number of solute molecules rather than their nature.

Applications of elevation in Boiling point:

1.Can calculate molar mass of unknown substance.
2.In cooking (By adding salt or other solutes to water,
the boiling point is increased, resulting in faster
cooking times).
3.To check purity of solvent.

7|solutions
 Depression of freezing point:
6. Lowering of vapour pressure of a solution causes
a lowering of the freezing point compared to pure
solvent. Freezing point is the temperature at
which the vapour pressure of the substance in
liquid phase is equal to its vapour pressure in the
solid phase.
-A solution will freeze when its vapour pressure
equals to the vapour pressure of the pure solid
solvent.
-According to Raoult’s law, when a non-volatile
solid is added to the solvent its vapour pressure
decreases so the freezing point of solvent
decreases.

8|solutions
Applications of depression in freezing point:
 To melt snow after snowfall from streets.
 To shape ice into desired figure.
 To make anti freezing solutions.

9|solutions
 OSMOSIS AND OSMATIC PRESSURE:

OSMOSIS:
It is defined as the spontaneous flow of solvent
molecules through semi permeable membrane
from a pure solvent to a solution or form a dilute
to concentration solution.
(i) Exosmosis: It is outward flow of water or
solvent from a cell through semipermeable
membrane.
(ii) Endosmosis: It is inward flow of water or
solvent from a cell through a semipermeable
membrane.

Osmotic pressure:
10 | s o l u t i o n s
 The hydrostatic pressure developed as result of
osmosis is a measure of osmotic pressure of the
solution or the solution which just stop the
osmosis.
Osmotic pressure = hydrostatic pressure
Osmotic pressure can be determined by anyone
of the method listed below
(i) Pfeffer’s method
(ii) Berkeley and Hartley’s method (very good
method)
(iii) Morse and Frazer’s method
On the basis of osmotic pressure, -the solution
can be
(i) Hypertonic solution: A solution is called
hypertonic if its osmotic pressure is higher than
that of the solution from which it is separated by
a semipermeable membrane.
When a plant cell is placed in a hypertonic
solution, the fluid from the plant cell comes out
and
cell shrink’s, this phenomenon is called
plasmolysis.
(ii) Hypotonic solution: A solution is called
hypotonic if its osmotic pressure is lower than
that

11 | s o l u t i o n s
 of the solution from which it is separated by a
semipermeable membrane.
(iii) Isotonic solution: Two solutions are called
isotonic if they exert the same osmotic
pressure. These solutions have same molar
concentration. 0.91% solution of pure NaCl is
isotonic with human RBC’s.
Two solutions are isotonic if they have the same
molar concentration, e.g., if x % solution of X
is isotonic with y % solution of Y, this means
molar concentration of X = Molar concentration
of Y
x 1000 y × 1000
100
x M = 100× M
x y

x y
=M =M x y

Osmotic pressure method is the best method for

determining the molecular masses of polymers
since observed value of any other colligative
property is too small to be measured with
reasonable accuracy.

Diffusion Osmosis
No semi permeable Semi permeable
membrane is required. membrane is required.
to lower concentration.
In diffusion both It involves the
12 | s o l u t i o n s
 solvent and solute movement of solvent
particle move. molecule only.

Diffusion cannot be Osmosis can be

stopped. stopped or reversed by
applying additional
pressure on the side of
higher conc. of solute.
It is common in liquids It is common in liquids
as well as in gases. only.

Particles of both Molecules of solvent

solvent and solute move from lower
move from higher conc. To higher conc.

REVERSE OSMOSIS AND WATER PURIFICATION:

The direction of can be reversed if a pressure
larger than the osmotic pressure is applied to the
solution side. The pure solvent flows out of the
solution through the semi permeable membrane.
This phenomenon is called reverse osmosis.
Osmotic pressure: π
π ∝T - eq. 1
π∝ conc. of solute

combining eq . 1 & 2
π ∝C- eq. 2

13 | s o l u t i o n s
 π ∝ CT
π = RCT (R=gas constant
C= molarity)
n
π = v R πT

πv = nRT

Abnormal Molecular Masses:

In some cases, observed colligative properties deviate
from their normal calculated values due
to association or dissociation of molecules. As we
know,
Colligative property ∝ 1 / MB
lienee, higher and lower values of molar mass is
observed in case of association and
dissociation respectively, e.g., in benzene, acetic acid
gets associated, so, its observed molecular mass is 120.
Similarly KCI undergoes dissociation in aqueous
solution, so its
observed molecular mass is 37.25.

14 | s o l u t i o n s
These observed values are corrected by multiplying
with van’t Hoff factor (i).
VAN’T HOFF FACTOR:
It is the ratio of observed value of colligative property
to the calculated value of colligative
property.
i = observed value of colligative property / calculated
value of colligative property
or i = normal molecular mass / observed molecular
mass
or i = number of particles after association or
dissociation / number of particles initially
So to correct the observed value of molar mass, van‟t
Hoff factor (i) must be included in
different expressions for colligative properties.

Relative lowering of vapour pressure:

15 | s o l u t i o n s
 1) when we add a non-volatile solute in volatile
solvent vapour pressure decreases.
2) Due to decrease in surface area of volatile
substance.
SOLUBILITY: maximum amount of solute which
can be dissolved in a solvent at given temperature
and conditions.
Factors affecting solubility:
 Nature of solvent
 Nature of solute
 Temperature
 Pressure

HENRY’S LAW:
The mass of the gas dissolved by a given
volume of a liquid, at constant temperature is

Mass of gas dissolved ∝ pressure of the gas

proportional to the pressure of the gas.

Also, pressure ∝ mole fraction of gas in

M =kp

solution.
p∝x
p=k x
B

S.I. unit = pascal (Pa)

H B

16 | s o l u t i o n s
The partial pressure of the gas in vapour
phase(p) is proportional to mole fraction of
the gas(x) in the solution.
Different gases will have different k value at
same temperature. This means value of k
H

depends on the nature of gas.

H

Higher the value of k at a given

temperature the lower is the solubility of
H

the gas in liquid.

The k values for both N and o increases with

increase in temperature which indicates
H 2 2

that the solubility of gases increases with

decreases of temperature. Due to this
reason aquatic species are more
comfortable in cold water than warm water.
Effect of temperature:
Solubility of gases in liquid decreases with
rise in temperature.
17 | s o l u t i o n s
ROULT’S LAW:
For a solution of volatile liquids, the partial
vapour pressure of each component in the
solution is directly proportional to its mole
fraction.

DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL

PRESSURE:
Total pressure over the solution phase in
the container will ne the sum of partial
pressure of the components of the solution.
IDEAL SOLUTION:
Those solutions in which solute-solute (B-B)
and solvent-solvent (A-A) interactions are
almost
similar to solvent solute (A-B) interactions
are called ideal solutions. These solutions
satisfy

18 | s o l u t i o n s
the following conditions :
(i) Solution must obey Raoult’s law
(ii) ΔHmix = 0 (No energy evolved or
absorbed)

(iii) ΔVmix = 0 (No expansion or

contraction on mixing)
Some solutions behave like nearly ideal
solutions, e.g., benzene + toluene. n-hexane
+ nheptane, ethyl iodide + ethyl bromide,
chlorobenzene + bromobenzene.

NON-IDEAL SOLUTION:
19 | s o l u t i o n s
Those solutions which shows deviation from
Raoult’s law is called non-ideal solution.
For such solutions,
ΔHmix ≠ 0
ΔVmix ≠ 0
(a) Non-ideal solutions showing positive
deviation in such a case, the A – B
interactions are
weaker than A – A or B – B interactions and
the observed vapour pressure of each
component
and the total vapour pressure are greater
than that predicted by Raoult’s law.

20 | s o l u t i o n s
(b) Non-ideal solution showing negative
deviation in such a case, the A – B
interactions are
stronger than A – A or B – B interactions
and the observed vapour pressure of each
component
and the total vapour pressure are lesser
than that predicted by Raoult’s law.
AZEOTROPIC MIXTURE:
A mixture of two liquids which boils at a
constant temperature and distils over
without any change in composition is called
azeotropic mixture. These are constant
boiling mixture. We cannot separate
azeotropes using fractional distillation.
Azeotropic mixtures which boils at a lower
temperature than either of two components
is known as azeotropic mixture with
minimum boiling point. This is formed by
non-ideal solution showing positive
deviation. For example: ethanol-water.
Azeotropic mixture which boils at higher
temperature than either of two pure
components is known as azeotropic mixture

21 | s o l u t i o n s
with maximum boiling point. This is formed
by non-ideal showing negative deviation.
For example: 68% nitric acid and 32%
water by mass with a boiling point of
393.5K.

22 | s o l u t i o n s