Contents

Chapter – I.................................................................................................................................... 3
Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 3
Chapter – II ............................................................................................................................... 11
Manufacturing Processes (FRPMC) ................................................................................... 11
Chapter – III .............................................................................................................................. 26
Composite Manufacturing Related Companies .................................................................. 26
Chapter – IV .............................................................................................................................. 30
Issues with Composite Manufacturing ................................................................................ 30
Chapter – V ............................................................................................................................... 31
Emerging Methods for Composite Manufacturing ............................................................. 31
Chapter – VI .............................................................................................................................. 37
Composite Manufacturing Process Design and Modeling Software Solutions ................. 37
Chapter – VII ............................................................................................................................ 41
Industrial Visit and Case Studies ......................................................................................... 41
Chapter – VIII ........................................................................................................................... 50
Composite Materials Resources ........................................................................................... 50
References ................................................................................................................................. 51

1
“Man's evolution has been tied to his
progress in materials. Yesterday it was
the Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages.
Today it is the Age of Composites.”
Preface to the Dictionary of Composite Materials Technology

2
 Chapter – I

Introduction

What are Composites?

 A Composite material is a material system composed of two or more macro

constituents that differ in shape and chemical composition and which are insoluble in
each other. The history of composite materials dates back to early 20th century. In
1940, fiber glass was first used to reinforce epoxy.

OR

 Two inherently different materials that when combined together produce a material
with properties that exceed the constituent materials.

 Reinforcement phase (e.g., Fibers)

 Binder phase (e.g., compliant matrix)

Advantages

 High strength and stiffness

 Low weight ratio

3
 Figure 1.2 Composites: Getting the best of all worlds

Figure 1.3 Representative strengths of various categories of materials

4
A composite material consists of two phases:

 Primary

 Forms the matrix within which the secondary phase is imbedded.

 Any of three basic material types: polymers, metals, or ceramics.

 Secondary

 Referred to as the imbedded phase or called the reinforcing agent.

 Serves to strengthen the composite. (Fibers, particles, etc.)

 Can be one of the three basic materials or an element such as carbon or boron.

composite
materials

Ceramic Polymer
Metal Matrix Matrix Matrix
Composites Composites Composites

Figure 1.4 Classification of composite material (Matrix based)

 Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)

 Include mixtures of ceramics and metals, such as cemented carbides and other
cermets, as well as aluminum or magnesium reinforced by strong, high stiffness
fibers

 Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs)

 Least common composite matrix. Aluminum oxide and silicon carbide are
materials that can be imbedded with fibers for improved properties, especially
in high temperature applications

5
  Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs)

 Thermosetting resins are the most widely used polymers in PMCs. Epoxy and
polyester are commonly mixed with fiber reinforcement

METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES

Common reinforcing phase includes

 Particles of ceramic (commonly called cermets)

 Fibers of various materials, including other metals, ceramics, carbon, and boron

 FRMMC – combine the high tensile strength and modulus of elasticity of a fiber with
metals of low density, thus achieving good strength-to-weight and modulus-to-weight
ratios in the resulting composite material.

Cemented carbides are composed of one or more Carbide compounds bonded in a metallic
matrix. Common cemented carbides are based on:

 Tungsten carbide (WC)

 Titanium carbide (TiC)

 Chromium carbide (Cr3C2)

 Tantalum carbide (TaC)

CERAMIC MATRIX COMPOSITES

Ceramic matrix composites represent an attempt to retain the desirable properties of ceramics
while compensating for their weakness.

Advantages

 High stiffness

 High hardness

 High hot hardness

 High compressive strength

 Relatively low density

Disadvantages

 Low toughness and bulk tensile strength

 Susceptibility to thermal cracking

6
POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES

These are the most important of the three classes of synthetic composites.

 Resins are also referred to as ‘polymers’ as they are made up of many (poly) long-chain
molecules (mers).

 Thermoplastic polymers melt when heat is applied. This is because their long chains are
not chemically bound together (i.e. they are not cross-linked).

 Thermosetting polymers, on the other hand, do not melt when heated because their long
chains are chemically bound together (i.e. they are cross-linked). The resins used in
composites are mostly thermosetting polymers.

 There are a great variety of resins. The most common groups are polyester, vinyl ester
and epoxy. Whilst fire retardant versions of these resins are available, phenolic resins
are also used in situations where fire retardant properties are required.

 Polyester and vinyl ester resins supplied to the composite industry are dissolved in
styrene monomer. This reduces the viscosity, so that the resin flows more readily to
allow ease of spreading and ensures full fiber-wetting, complete impregnation and
minimal voids. The styrene monomer is also a key component in the curing process of
polyester and vinyl ester resins, forming the cross-links between the polymer chains.

 Polyester resins provide good strength at a relatively low cost and are used widely in
the marine industry, and in pools, spas, transport, casting, infrastructure and automotive
applications. Various types of polyester resins provide a wide variety of properties
relating to water and chemical resistance, weathering and shrinkage during curing.

Composites

Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

Large- Dispersion- Continuous Discontinuous Laminates Sandwich

particle strengthened (aligned) (short) panels

Aligned Randomly
oriented

Figure 1.5 Classification of composites (Reinforcement based)

FRP

• FRP (Fiber reinforced polymers) are most closely identified with the term composite.

7
  A composite material consisting of a polymer matrix imbedded with high-strength
fibers.

 Widely used in rubber products such as tires and conveyor belts.

 Principle fiber materials are: glass, carbon, and Kevlar 49 with glass (E-glass) the most
common fiber material

Advanced composites – use boron, carbon, Kevlar as the reinforcing fibers with epoxy as the
common matrix polymer.

Hybrids

When two or more fibers materials are combined in the composite they are known as hybrids.

 Intraply hybrids (within) - Alternate strands of different fibers in a single layer

or ply.

 Interply hybrid (across) – Different plies of different fibers.

 The most widely used form if a laminar structure, made by stacking and bonding thin
layers of fiber and polymer until the desired thickness is obtained.

Attractive features of FRP:

 High strength-to-weight ratio

 High modulus-to-weight ratio

 Low specific gravity

 Good fatigue strength

 Good corrosion resistance, although polymers are soluble in various chemicals

 Low thermal expansion, leading to good dimensional stability

 Significant anisotropy in properties

Fibers

 Diameters range from .0001 in to about .005 in depending on the material.

 Generally circular in cross-section, but can also be in the form of tubular, rectangle,
hexagonal.

 Fibers used can be either continuous or discontinuous

 Continuous fibers – are very long; in theory, they offer a continuous path by
which a load Can be carried by the composite material

 Discontinuous fibers – are short lengths

8
 Orientation of fibers is an important consideration.

 One-dimensional

 maximum strength and stiffness are obtained in the direction of the fiber

 Planar

 in the form of two-dimensional woven fabric

 Random or three-dimensional

 the composite material tends to posses isotropic properties

Figure 1.6 Classification of textile reinforcement systems

Types of fibers

Currently, the most common fibers used in composites are glass, graphite (carbon), boron and
Kevlar 49.

 Glass – most widely used fiber in polymer composites, the term fiberglass is applied to
denote glass fiber-reinforced plastic (GFRP)

 E-glass – strong and low cost, but modulus is less than other (500,000 psi)

 S-glass – stiffer and its tensile strength is one of the highest of all fiber materials
(650,000 psi). Has about five times the tensile strength of steel and has a
density of about one third that of steel

9
 Carbon – are generally a combination of graphite. Graphite has a tensile strength three
to five times stronger than steel and has a density that is one-fourth that of steel.

 Boron – very high elastic modulus, but its high cost limits its application to aerospace
components

 Ceramics – Silicon carbide (SiC) and aluminum oxide (Al2O3) are the main fiber
materials among ceramics. Both have high elastic module and can be used to strengthen
low-density, low- modulus metals such as aluminum and magnesium

 Metal – Steel filaments, used as reinforcing fiber in plastics

10
 Chapter – II

Manufacturing Processes (FRPMC)

Figure 2.1 Classification of manufacturing processes for fiber-reinforced polymer

composites.

11
There are two main approaches for manufacturing of composites, based on whether the resin is
introduced before or after shaping the fibers. Choices made in the design of a part influence
which branch is followed, and the types of processes and equipment that are used. Cost effecti-
ve parts need to be designed with knowledge of the processes involved. Repeatable quality and
cost are achieved by properly specifying all parameters.

Figure 2.2 Manufacturing approaches for composites

Figure 2.3 Resin applied prior to shaping (Prepeg material)

12
 Figure 2.4 Resin applied after shaping (Dry material)

Pultrusion
Description:

Fibres are pulled from a creel through a resin bath and then on through a heated die. The die
completes the impregnation of the fibre, controls the resin content and cures the material into
its final shape as it passes through the die. This cured profile is then automatically cut to
length. Fabrics may also be introduced into the die to provide fibre direction other than at 0°.
Although pultrusion is a continuous process, producing a profile of constant cross-section, a
variant known as ‘pulforming’ allows for some variation to be introduced into the cross-

Figure 2.5 The Pultrusion process

13
section. The process pulls the materials through the die for impregnation, and then clamps
them in a mould for curing. This makes the process non-continuous, but accommodating of
small changes in cross-section.

Materials Options:

Resins: Generally epoxy, polyester, vinylester and phenolic.

Fibres: Any.

Cores: Not generally used.

Main Advantages:

i) This can be a very fast, and therefore economic, way of impregnating and curing materials.

ii) Resin content can be accurately controlled.

iii) Fibre cost is minimised since the majority is taken from a creel.

iv) Structural properties of laminates can be very good since the profiles have very straight
fibres and high fibre volume fractions can be obtained.

v) Resin impregnation area can be enclosed thus limiting volatile emissions.

Main Disadvantages:

i) Limited to constant or near constant cross-section components

ii) Heated die costs can be high.

Typical Applications:

Beams and girders used in roof structures, bridges, ladders, frameworks.

Filament winding
Description:

This process is primarily used for hollow, generally circular or oval sectioned components,
such as pipes and tanks. Fibre tows are passed through a resin bath before being wound onto a
mandrel in a variety of orientations, controlled by the fibre feeding mechanism, and rate of
rotation of the mandrel.

Materials Options:

Resins: Any e.g. epoxy, polyester, vinylester, phenolic.

Fibres: Any. The fibres are used straight from a creel and not woven or stitched into a fabric
form.

14
Cores: Any, although components are usually single skin.

Main Advantages:

i) This can be a very fast and therefore economic method of laying material down.

ii) Resin content can be controlled by metering the resin onto each fibre tow through nips or
dies.

iii) Fibre cost is minimised since there is no secondary process to convert fibre into fabric prior
to use.

iv) Structural properties of laminates can be very good since straight fibres can be laid in a
complex pattern to match the applied loads.

Figure 2.6.The filament winding process

Main Disadvantages:

i) The process is limited to convex shaped components.

ii) Fibre cannot easily be laid exactly along the length of a component.

iii) Mandrel costs for large components can be high.

iv) The external surface of the component is unmoulded, and therefore cosmetically
unattractive.

15
 v) Low viscosity resins usually need to be used with their attendant lower mechanical and
health and safety properties.

Figure 2.7 Types of filament winding orientations

Typical Applications:

Chemical storage tanks and pipelines, gas cylinders, fire-fighters breathing tanks.

16
 Wet Lay-up/Hand Lay-up
Description

Resins are impregnated by hand into fibres which are in the form of woven, knitted, stitched or
bonded fabrics. This is usually accomplished by rollers or brushes, with an increasing use of
nip-roller type impregnators for forcing resin into the fabrics by means of rotating rollers and a
bath of resin. Laminates are left to cure under standard atmospheric conditions. This is the
traditional method, needing trained technicians. It can be done with prepreg and dry material.
To form the material around tight contours without wrinkling, relief slits or „darts‟ are cut.
Fibers within a ply shear and skew as they are placed onto contoured molds. The pattern of
darts and the sequence of laying down the perimeter of large plies needs to be repeated from
part to part.

Figure 2.8 Hand lay up process

For repeatability when using hand layup, guides are needed to align ply directions and edges.
These guides can be scribe lines on moulds, Mylar sheets, or fabricated metal or composite
templates that pin into location at the edge of the mold. Plies at the edge of a part may have
extra tabs designed into the flat patterns to allow verification by an inspector. These tabs are
trimmed off after cure.

Figure 2.9 Laser guided ply placement Figure 2.10 Video guided ply placement

17
Materials Options:

Resins: Any, e.g. epoxy, polyester, vinylester, phenolic..

Fibres: Any, although heavy aramid fabrics can be hard to wet-out by hand

Cores: Any.

Main Advantages:

i) Widely used for many years.

ii) Simple principles to teach.

iii) Low cost tooling, if room-temperature cure resins are used.

iv) Wide choice of suppliers and material types.

v) Higher fibre contents and longer fibres than with spray lay-up.

Main Disadvantages:

i) Resin mixing, laminate resin contents, and laminate quality are very dependent on the skills
of laminators. Low resin content laminates cannot usually be achieved without the incorpora-
tion of excessive quantities of voids.

ii) Health and safety considerations of resins. The lower molecular weights of hand lay-up
resins generally mean that they have the potential to be more harmful than higher molecular
weight products. The lower viscosity of the resins also means that they have an increased
tendency to penetrate clothing etc.

iii) Limiting airborne styrene concentrations to legislated levels from polyesters and vinylesters
is becoming increasingly hard without expensive extraction systems

iv) Resins need to be low in viscosity to be workable by hand. This generally compromises
their mechanical/thermal properties due to the need for high diluent/styrene levels.

Typical Applications:

Standard wind-turbine blades, production boats and architectural mouldings.

Figure 2.11 Composite made by hand lay up process

18
 Resin Transfer Moulding (RTM)
Description:

Fabrics are laid up as a dry stack of materials. These fabrics are sometimes pre-pressed to the
mould shape, and held together by a binder. These preforms are then more easily laid into the
mould tool. A second mould tool is then clamped over the first, and resin is injected into the
cavity. Vacuum can also be applied to the mould cavity to assist resin being drawn into the
fabrics. This is known as Vacuum Assisted Resin Injection (VARI). Once all the fabric is wet
out, the resin inlets are closed, and the laminate is allowed to cure. Both injection and cure can
take place at either ambient or elevated temperature.

Figure 2.12 Resin transfer moulding process

Materials Options:

Resins: Generally, epoxy, polyester, vinylester and phenolic, although high temperature resins
such as bismaleimides can be used at elevated process temperatures.

Fibres: Any Stitched materials work well in this process since the gaps allow rapid resin
transport. Some specially developed fabrics can assist with resin flow.

Cores: Not honeycombs, since cells would fill with resin, and pressures involved can crush
some foams.

Main Advantages:

i) High fibre volume laminates can be obtained with very low void contents.

ii) Good health and safety, and environmental control due to enclosure of resin.

19
iii) Possible labour reductions.

iv) Both sides of the component have a moulded surface.

Figure 2.13 RTM Transmission Fitting

Main Disadvantages:

i) Matched tooling is expensive and heavy in order to withstand pressures.

ii) Generally limited to smaller components.

iii) Unimpregnated areas can occur resulting in very expensive scrap parts.

Typical Applications:

Small complex aircraft, and automotive components, train seats.

Vacuum Bagging or Vacuum Assisted Resin Infusion

[VARI] Process
Description:

Uses atmospheric pressure to suck air from under vacuum bag, to compact composite layers
down and make a high quality laminate. Resin is drawn into the preform with vacuum. A high-
flow media can be placed over the preform so that resin quickly spans large parts. The bagged
side has a rougher surface than the mold side after cure.Mechanical properties are typically
lower than with an autoclave pressure cure or with matched mold RTM. Parts can be up to
10‟ s of feet in size.

Materials Options:

Resins: Generally epoxy, polyester and vinylester.

20
Fibres: Any conventional fabrics. Stitched materials work well in this process since the gaps
allow rapid resin transport.

Cores: Any except honeycombs.

Figure 2.14 Lay up sequence for vacuum bagging

Main Advantages:

i) As RTM above, except only one side of the component has a moulded finish.

ii) Much lower tooling cost due to one half of the tool being a vacuum bag, and less strength
being required in the main tool.

iii) Large components can be fabricated.

iv) Standard wet lay-up tools may be able to be modified for this process.

v) Cored structures can be produced in one operation.

Main Disadvantages:

i) Relatively complex process to perform well.

ii) Resins must be very low in viscosity, thus compromising mechanical properties.

iii) Unimpregnated areas can occur resulting in very expensive scrap parts.

iv) Some elements of this process are covered by patents (SCRIMP).

Typical Applications:

Semi-production small yachts, train and truck body panels.

21
 Resin Film Infusion (RFI)
Description:

Dry fabrics are laid up interleaved with layers of semi-solid resin film supplied on a release
paper. The lay-up is vacuum bagged to remove air through the dry fabrics, and then heated to
allow the resin to first melt and flow into the air-free fabrics, and then after a certain time, to
cure.

Figure 2.15 Resin film infusion process

Materials Options:

Resins: Generally epoxy only.

Fibres: Any.

Cores: Most, although PVC foam needs special procedures due to the elevated temperatures
involved in the process.

Main Advantages:

i) High fibre volumes can be accurately achieved with low void contents.

ii) Good health and safety and a clean lay-up, like prepreg.

iii) High resin mechanical properties due to solid state of initial polymer material and elevated
temperature cure.

iv) Potentially lower cost than prepreg, with most of the advantages.

v) Less likelihood of dry areas than SCRIMP process due to resin travelling through fabric
thickness only.

22
Main Disadvantages:

i) Not widely proven outside the aerospace industry.

ii) An oven and vacuum bagging system is required to cure the component as for prepreg,
although the autoclave systems used by the aerospace industry are not always required.

iii) Tooling needs to be able to withstand the process temperatures of the resin film ( which if
using similar resin to those in low-temperature curing prepregs, is typically 60-100°C).

iv) Core materials need to be able to withstand the process temperatures and pressures.

Typical Applications:

Aircraft radomes and submarine sonar domes.

Compression Molding Processes

Prepreg materials can be cured in a matched mold as in RTM, giving good surface finish
throughout [as opposed to bag methods such as autoclave or VARI]. Maximum size is
governed by press capacity, typically up to several feet. Vacuum is typically not needed.
Proper sequencing of pressure during the heat cycle is critical to making void-free parts with
proper fiber alignment. Typical parts are stator vanes.

Figures 2.16 (a) & (b) Compression molding process

23
 Prepregs
Description:

Fabrics and fibres are pre-impregnated by the materials manufacturer, under heat and pressure
or with solvent, with a pre-catalysed resin. The catalyst is largely latent at ambient
temperatures giving the materials several weeks, or sometimes months, of useful life when
defrosted. However to prolong storage life the materials are stored frozen. The resin is usually
a near-solid at ambient temperatures, and so the pre-impregnated materials (prepregs) have a
light sticky feel to them, such as that of adhesive tape. Unidirectional materials take fibre
direct from a creel, and are held together by the resin alone. The prepregs are laid up by hand
or machine onto a mould surface, vacuum bagged and then heated to typically 120-180°C.
This allows the resin to initially reflow and eventually to cure. Additional pressure for the
moulding is usually provided by an autoclave (effectively a pressurised oven) which can apply
up to 5 atmospheres to the laminate.

Materials Options:

Resins: Generally epoxy, polyester, phenolic and high temperature resins such as polyimides,
cyanate esters and bismaleimides.

Fibres: Any. Used either direct from a creel or as any type of fabric.

Cores: Any, although special types of foam need to be used due to the elevated temperatures
involved in the process.

Main Advantages:

i) Resin/catalyst levels and the resin content in the fibre are accurately set by the materials
manufacturer. High fibre contents can be safely achieved.

ii) The materials have excellent health and safety characteristics and are clean to work with.

iii) Fibre cost is minimised in unidirectional tapes since there is no secondary process to
convert fibre into fabric prior to use.

iv) Resin chemistry can be optimised for mechanical and thermal performance, with the high
viscosity resins being impregnable due to the manufacturing process.

v) The extended working times (of up to several months at room temperatures) means that
structurally optimised, complex lay-ups can be readily achieved.

vi) Potential for automation and labour saving.

Main Disadvantages:

i) Materials cost is higher for preimpregnated fabrics.

24
ii) Autoclaves are usually required to cure the component. These are expensive, slow to
operate and limited in size.

iii) Tooling needs to be able to withstand the process temperatures involved

iv) Core materials need to be able to withstand the process temperatures and pressures.

Typical Applications:

Aircraft structural components (e.g. wings and tail sections), F1 racing cars, sporting goods
such as tennis racquets and skis.

Machining

Figure 2.17 Drilling of CFRP composites

The tool bits, feeds, speeds and coolants used to machine composites are specific to the matrix
and fiber combination.Excessive heating causes polymeric resins to decompose. Improper
cutting tools can pull fibers out of the resin locally. Lasers and waterjets are used, especially on
ceramic matrix composites where the part is made out of similar materials as the cutting tools
themselves. Residual stresses locked into the part during cure can cause parts to deform or
delaminate during machining.

25
 Chapter – III

Composite Manufacturing Related

Companies

Finished Part Manufacturers

Method Company Web site
V Systems www.vsc-inc.com
ITT Integrated Structures [ex Fiber www.defense.itt.com
Innovations]
Manual Layup AAR Composites www.aarcorp.com/composites
/ Albany Engineered Composites www.albint.com/aec
RTM GKN-CT/AL/St Louis www.gknaerospace.com
Cobham [ex Sparta] www.composites.sparta.com
North Coast www.northcoastcomposites.com
GKN-CT/AL/St Louis www.gknaerospace.com
Manual Lauyp CTL Aerospace www.ctlaerospace.com
/ CHI www.chi-covina.com
Compression Matrix www.matrixcorp.com
Mold Cobham [ex Sparta] www.composites.sparta.com
Spirit Aerosystems www.spiritaerosystems.com
GKN-AL www.gknaerospace.com
ITT Integrated Structures www.defense.itt.com
Manual Vermont Composites www.vtcomposites.com
Layup/ V Systems www.vsc-inc.com
Autoclave Hexcel www.hexcel.com
Mold Kaman www.kamanaero.com
Matrix www.matrixcorp.com
Cobham [ex Sparta] www.composites.sparta.com
Tighitco http://www.tighitco.com/

Filament Lincoln www.lincolncomposites.com

Winding

Pultrusion Kazak www.kazakcomposites.com

Automated
Tow Vought www.voughtaircraft.com
Placement/ ATK www.atk.com
Autoclave Hitco www.hitco.com
Mold

26
Finished Part Manufacturing Technology Providers
Method Equipment Maker Web site

Wabash www.wabashmpi.com
Compression
Pacific Press www.pacific-press.com
Molding Press
Technical Machine Products www.techmach.com

Tarrico www.tarrico.com
Autoclave American Autoclave www.americanautoclave.com
ASC Process Systems www.aschome.com

MAG Cincinnati www.mag-ias.com

Automated
Ingersoll www.ingersoll.com
Fiber
Automated Dynamics www.automateddynamics.com
Placement
Electroimpact www.electroimpact.com
Machine
Accudyne www.accudyne.com

Filament Entec www.entec.com

Winder McClean Anderson www.mccleananderson.com

Wisconsin www.wisoven.com
Oven
Grieve www.grievecorp.com

Robotic Ply Composite Systems www.compositemfg.com

Layup Diaphorm www.diaphorm.com

Ancillary Manufacturing Methods

Equipment Equipment Makers Web site
Virtek www.virtek.ca
LAP Laser www.lap-laser.com
Ply Projection Anaglyph www.anaglyph.co.uk
Laser Projection Technologies www.lptcorp.com
Assembly Guidance Systems www.assemblyguide.com
Gerber www.gerbertechnology.com
Ply Cutters American GFM www.agfm.com
Eastman www.eastmancuts.com
Radius www.radiusengineering.com
RTM Injectors
Graco/Liquid Control www.graco.com
Non-contact Stienbichler www.steinbichler.de
Dimensional Creaform www.creaform3d.com
Measurement Twin Coast www.twincoastmetrology.com

27
 Inspection Methods
Equipment Equipment Makers Web site

Laminate • Physical Acoustics - Acoustic www.mistrasgroup.com

NDI Emmission
• Imperium - Digital Acoustic Video www.imperiuminc.com
• A2 - Exoscan handheld FTIR www.a2technologies.net
• Evisive - Microwave Scanning www.evisive.com
• LSP Technologies - Laser Bond www.lsptechnologies.com
Inspection
• Photo Emission Tech - UV Surface www.photoemission.com
Excitation
• Advanced Structural Imaging - www.asi-nde.com
Computer-Aided Tap Tes
• Boeing - Mobile Automated Ultrasonic www.boeing.com
Scanner [MAUS]
• Digiray - Motionless Laminography www.digiray.com
X-Ray
• Steinbichler - Laser Shearography www.steinbichler.de

Laminate • Laser Technology - Laser www.laserndt.com

NDI Shearography
• Thermal Wave Imaging - Pulsed www.thermalwave.com
Thermography
• Wichitech - Electronic Digital Tap www.wichitech.com
Hammer
• Quality Material Inspection - Air- www.qmi-inc.com
coupled Ultrasound
• Honeywell International - Structural www.honeywell.com
Anomaly Mapping
System [SAM], acoustic/laser
• Lockheed - Laser Ultrasonic www.lockheedmartin.com
Technology
• PaR Systems - Laser Ultrasonic www.par.com
Technology
• iPhoton - Laser Ultrasonic Technology www.iphoton.com
• Mitsui Engineering - Woodpecker www.mes.co.jp
automated tap tester
• Sonatest - Ultrasonic wheel probe www.sonatest.com
array

28
 Precursor Manufacturing Technology Providers
Material type Equipment Makers Equipment Users

Uniweave, Dry
Hexcel, Cytec, Nelcote,
& Western Advanced Engineering
APCM, YLA
Prepreg

Plain & Satin

Textile Products Inc,
Weave, Numerous
Hexcel
Dry & Prepreg

ITT, A&P, Bally Ribbon,

Braid, Dry Wardwell, Steeger, Hacoba, Herzog Albany Techniweave,
Fabric Development

Non Crimp
Liba, Malimo, Mayer Saertex
Fabrics

Filament Wind Entec, McClean Anderson Lincoln

3TEX, Bally, Fabric

Development,
3D Weave 3TEX
TEAM, Albany
Techniweave

Stitched
Puritan Boeing
Fabrics, Dry

Z-pins,
Albany Techniweave
Prepreg

29
 Chapter – IV

Issues with Composite Manufacturing

Activity Issues

• Need automation; constitutes large

Ply Layup & Forming
portion of part fabrication labor.
• Labor content and accuracy can be
Part Trimming
improved by multi-axis CNC.
• Need a nondestructive method to verify
Nondestructive Evaluation
ply angles and ply boundaries.
• Laminate integrity
• Need NDI instruments that can reach into
• Cure state
tight spaces.
• Ply Angle Verification, Post-Cure
• Need to map defects into 3D CAD files.

Physics-Based Process Simulations

• RTM – avoid dry spots, resin
• Need software to be more user-friendly
Race tracking, local exotherm.
for front-line engineers.
• Compression Molding – avoid
“horsetails” expelled from mold
• Need to quantify material processing
• Autoclave Flow – ensure thermal
parameters accurately.
uniformity with an arbitrary loading of
parts

• Use physics-based design tool to account

for warping [see Convergent Mfg. Tech.
Mold Design for In-tolerance Parts Inc].
• Need to quantify material parameters
accurately.

• Better control than a canned

time/temperature profile.
Molecular Sensors For Process Control.
• Need user-friendly systems to install in
•fiber optic
production molds.
•dielectric
• Need accurate material characterization.
• Need affordable systems.

• Avoid manual data logging. RFID is

Prepreg Perishability being applied to insure that material is used
on time.
• Reduce energy consumption and capital
expense of pressure vessel.
Out-of-Autoclave Curing
• Need materials designed for vacuum-only
cure cycles.

30
 Chapter – V

Emerging Methods for

Composite Manufacturing
Roctool Inc Rapid heating by an array of induction
heads.
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Quickstep Inc Applies heat and pressure by liquid instead

of gas for quicker heat transfer.
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isquickstep

2PHASE Inc Reconfigurable mold surface for rapid

prototyping or repairs.
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Electron Beam Curing Quick cure without thermal effects. Need

radiation shielding and resins designed for
www.ebeamservices.com this process
www.acsion.com

3D Shape Weaving [Shape3 Inc] Seamless net-shape preforms; no cut fibers.

http://www.shape3.com/

P4 Process Discontinuous fibers applied onto molds in

controlled patterns to avoid manual ply
http://www.compositecenter.org/index.ph layup.
p/rapid-fiber-preform.html

Out-Of-Autoclave processes Prepreg materials are being developed to

enable curing and acceptable properties
http://www.structures.ethz.ch/education/ without the capital investment for an
master/advanced/FS2012/1- autoclave.
ACP_Lecture_31.05.2012-
OOA_Prepreg_Introduction.pdf

31
 Roctool technology
Induction heating is used to selectively heat the mold for rapid cycling and low energy use
compared to conventional heating. This is used for RTM with dry preforms and compression
molding with prepregs

Figure 5.1 (a) (b) and (c) Roctool concept and applications

Net-Shape Weaving [Shape3 Inc]

Net shape contoured weaving has been demonstrated by Shape3, but has not been in high rate
production. To cure the final composite a process such as VARI would be used.

Figure 5.2 (a) 3D woven shells, (b) 3D woven tubes and (c) Orthogonal 3D cylinders

32
 Quickstep Molding System

Figure 5.3 The Quick step molding system

This is a self-contained molding system with a rapid heatup/cooldown system. Molds float in
a liquid media, so molds require less stiffness than in other cure processes. It can be used for
bagging processes such as autoclave/prepreg, VARI and RFI.

The Quickstep Process is a unique and patented out-of-autoclave processing method for
advanced composites. A circulating heat transfer fluid supports the mould and rapidly heats
and cools the part. Low pressure processing (vacuum plus up to 0.8 bar) facilitates low cost
tooling.

Reconfigurable Mold, 2Phase, Inc

Figure 5.4 Reconfigurable mold

This is a reconfigurable mold that uses a liquid/particle media contained by a membrane that
solidifies against a master shape. The media can be re liquefied and re-solidified, and can

33
potentially be sculpted to net shape with a CNC machine. Molds up to several feet on a side by
2 feet deep have been delivered.

Electron Beam Curing

Composites are cured without heat in a radiation-shielded accelerator. The beam is scanned
over the entire part. Only resins designed for e-beam cure can be used. Molds can be made
from wood or rigid foam.

Figure 5.5 EB curing of an automated tape-placed bulkhead section at Acsion's 10 MeV

accelerator facilities

Discontinuous Fiber Preforming, P4 Process

Figure 5.6 P4 Process

34
 Chopped, tackified fiber is sprayed onto a porous vacuum form with a CNC robot. The
preform then goes into an RTM mold for resin injection and cure. This reduces labor content
and increases deposition speed compared to hand layup. Somewhat lower mechanical
properties result than with continuous fibers.

Out-of-Autoclave Prepreg
The Perceived Benefits of OoA Processing:

•Reduces capital expenditure requirements by avoiding autocalves

•Reduces overheads

•Allows for increased production flexibility

•Increases manufacturing rates

•Facilitates the manufacture of very large structures

•Reduces core-crush and core stabilization problems in sandwich panels

•Can result in lower cost tooling options

The Challenges of OoA Processing:

•Achieve internal voidage levels as low as autoclave cured materials

•Maintain high fibre volume fraction

•Maintain structural performance

•Achieve flexible cure and offer format options

-Prepreg: ud, fabric, biaxial, ATL, AFP, combinations

•65°C –180°C cure options

•Reduce lay-up times for large structures

•Maintain acceptable product outlife whilst achieving OoA objectives

Notable Applications for OoA Prepregs:

•Primary/secondary and prototype aerospace structures

•Airbus secondary wing panel sets

•Automotive body panels

•Aesthetic fabric moldings

•Marine & racing yacht hulls, decking, bulkheads

35
•Marine hull tooling

•Infrastructure programmes, bridges and repairs

•Wind turbine blade tooling and blade parts

Figure 5.7 Boeing demonstrator launch fairing constructed of Cytec 5320 (OOA) prepeg

36
 Chapter – VI

Composite Manufacturing Process

Design and Modeling Software
Solutions

Figure 6.1 Composite processing steps and simulations

37
 CAD Tools
Tool Features Web Site

NX Has fabric draping features and www.plm.automation.siemens

[formerly UG] micromechanics calculator. .com

Dassault product, has fabric

CATIA draping, integration between www.3ds.com
design/analysis/manufacturing.

Sister product is Pro Mechanica

Pro-E
FEA.

Structural Finite Element Analysis Software

Tool Features Web Site
General purpose, has composite
ANSYS www.ansys.com
Elements
www.mscsoftware.com
General purpose, has composite
NASTRAN www.plm.automation.siemen
Elements
s.com
General purpose, has composite
www.simulia.com/products/a
ABAQUS elements. Affiliated with
baqus_fea
Dassault/CATIA.
www.mscsoftware.com/prod
MARC Good for nonlinear materials ucts/marc.cfm?Q=131&Z=3
96&Y=400
Pro-E/ Sister product of Pro-E, has www.ptc.com/products/proe
Mechanica composite laminate features ngineer/advanced-mechanica

LS-DYNA Impact & crash simulation www.lstc.com/lsdyna.htm

General purpose, has composite www.lusas.com/products/co

Lusas
Elements mposite

ARPPAS Specialized package for repairs http://www.fea-llc.com/

StressCheck Has composite laminate features www.esrd.com

38
 Finite Element Based Process Simulation Tools
Tool Features Web Site
RTM Flow
www.esi-group.com/
Resin flow, fabric draping,
PAM-RTM products/ composites-
reacting resin, transient heating.
plastics/pam-rtm

www.ccm.udel.edu/Pubs/tech
LIMS Resin flow
briefs/LIMS.pdf

RTM-Worx Resin flow www.polyworx.com

Composite Cure Springback

Plug-in to ABAQUS and MARC,

calculates residual stresses and
springback due to resin cure. www.convergent.ca/products/
COMPRO
Point solutions for resin cure can compro%203d/overview.html
be obtained using their Raven
package.

Laminate Property Calculation

Tool Features Web Site
Calculator to determine stiffness
properties of laminates, and
Composite Pro www.compositepro.com
structural
response of simple shapes.
Calculator to determine stiffness
properties of laminates. Will be
Helius www.fireholetech.com
adding
textile composites.

Texcad, Calculator to determine stiffness K. Shivakumar

mmTexlam properties of textile composites. [[email protected]]

Determine stiffness properties of

ITOOL www.itool.eu
textile composites
Calculator to determine stiffness
properties of laminates, and
Hypersizer www.hypersizer.com
structural
response of simple shapes.

39
 Process Simulation Software Tools
Tool Features Web Site

Fabric Draping and Flat Patterns

Fibersim Plug-in to NX, CATIA, Pro-E. www.vistagy.com

Stand-alone CAD/FEA interface

Laminate Tools www.anaglyph.co.uk
for composite plies.

Simulayt Plug-in to CATIA/ABAQUS. www.simulayt.com

PAM- www.esi-group.com/produ cts
Part of PAM-RTM.
RTM/Quickform /composites-plastics/ pa m-rtm
Interactive, inexpensive fabric
Interactive Drape www.interprot.com/
draping simulator.
Patran/Laminate
Has fabric draping function. www.mscsoftware.com
Modeler

‘Soup to Nuts’

European effort to model fabric

ITOOL unit cells, fabric draping, RTM www.itool.eu
flow and structural response.

Filament Winding

Models tensioned fibers on a

Entec www.entec.com/
rotating mandrel.
Models tensioned fibers on a www.material.be/filament-
CADWIND
rotating mandrel. winding-software

Auto Tape Laying, Auto Fiber Placement

Vericut Can model various machines. www.cgtech.com

Fiber Placement www.compositepro.com/Fipes.h

Can model various machines.
Expert System tml

http://cinmach.mag-
By MAG Cincinnati for their
ACES ias.com/produc ts/automated-
machines.
composites-processi ng/aces

40
 Chapter – VII

Industrial Visit and Case Studies

Objectives of visit:

 To study different manufacturing processes and applications of GFRP composites.

 To learn about testing and quality assurance methods.

Name and address of company:

Chemical Process Equipments Limited.

B.S.D. Marg, Govandi, Mumbai - 400 088, India.

Tel : +91 (22) 67978141-44, +91 (22) 67230500,

Fax : +91 (22) 25562248. http://www.cpel.com/

Date of visit: 21/9/2012

Products of the company:

Field Storage Tanks, Reaction Vessels, Pressure Vessels, Wet Gas Electrostatic Precipitators,
Scrubbing Systems, Exhaust Systems, Polymer Concrete Cells, Gratings, Linings etc.

Majority of CPE's products are custom-made conforming to the International standards like:
(a). BS 4994 : 1987 (b). ASTM D 3299 – 81 (c). ASME - Section X (d). ASME RTP-1-2000
(e). AD 2000 - Merkblatt N1 f. NBS Voluntary Products Standard, PS 15 – 69

Manufacturing Processes Observed:

(1) Filament winding (2) Pultrusion (3) Hand Lay up (4) Drilling (5)Grinding (6)Mechanical
and adhesive joining.

Components are made from Glass fiber reinforced polymers

Resins used

Polyester , Vinylester , Phenolic.

Reinforcement forms used :

Rovings , woven mats , woven fabrics and Chopped strand mats.

41
 Case Study 1
Bloodhound SSC

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 Bloodhound SSC is exactly what it says - a Supersonic Car!

 It is supersonic because it is designed to go faster than the speed of sound.

 It is a car because it has four wheels and is under full control of its driver.

 Bloodhound SSC is a jet and rocket powered car designed to go at 1,000 mph (just
over 1,600 kph). It has a slender body of approximately 14m length with two front
wheels within the body and two rear wheels mounted externally within wheel fairings.
It weighs over 7 tones and the engines produce more than 135,000 horsepower - more
than 6 times the power of all the Formula 1 cars on a starting grid put together!

Vehicle Structure

 The car is of hybrid construction with the forward half of the car carbon fibre and the
rear section a metallic fabrication

 The front section of the car consists of a carbon fibre monocoque, similar in concept to
a Formula 1 tub. This provides the driver with a very secure, rigid safety cell

 The rear of the car is a metallic fabrication split along its centerline.

 The upper chassis is of a rib and stringer type, typical of aerospace construction.
The ribs and stringers are fabricated in Titanium and the outer skin is also
Titanium, this has been necessary to reduce the weight at the rear of the car
whilst maintaining stiffness.

 The lower section consists of a series of aluminium frames and bulkheads that
are skinned in steel. The lower structure mounts the Cosworth CA2010
Auxiliary Power Unit, the jet fuel tank and the rocket system.

42
 Figure 7.1 Model of the vehicle structure

Figure 7.2 (a) Forward structure and (b) upper chassis of rear structure

Figure 7.3 Lower chassis of rear structure

43
 Carbon fiber monocoque manufacturing stages
 This is manufactured by UTR Composites. The story starts back in July 2012 when the
patterns for the moulds were machined out of two tonnes of tooling block.

 Two moulds were made, one for the lower section and one for the upper section.

 A "splash" was made from each mould - a quick first make of the sections - and
delivered to the Bloodhound Technical Centre in Bristol. The splashes were used to
mock up driver Andy Green's cockpit to give an early realistic impression of the space
inside the cockpit to determine where all the instruments and controls go.

 URT then set about manufacturing the real monocoque.

 The team at URT continued to add more layers of carbon fibre, making sure that the
structure was strong where it needed to be.

 Once all the layers on carbon fibre had been added to the moulds, the two halves were
then brought together and vacuum-packed and baked in an autoclave.

 Several hours later, the monocoque was unwrapped.

Figure 7.4 (a) Monocoque pattern and (b) Upper monocoque mould

44
Figure 7.5 Monocoque in Autoclave

Figure 7.6 Monocoque out of mould

45
 Case Study 2
BOEING 787 DREAMLINER

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Figure 7.7 composite solutions applied throughout Boeing 787 Dreamliner

46
 Composite Fuselage Manufacturing

Figure 7.8 One piece barrel sections of 787 (New design concept)

Figure 7.9 (a) Laying out the framework

47
Figure 7.9 (b) Wrapping the Fuselage

Figure 7.9 (c) Curing and hardening

48
 Figure 7.9 (d) Cutting out the windows

composite one-piece fuselage section built to demonstrate the advanced production concepts
that define the 787. The twenty-two-foot-long, 19 foot wide aft fuselage Section 47 incorporat-
ed advanced features such as co-cured stringers and was made from composite tape laid down
by a computerized machine over a mold made from interlocking mandrels. The tape, presoaked
in epoxy, was enclosed with caul plates and polymer bags and placed in the autoclave for
curing. Under heat and pressure a chemical reaction transformed the composite into a toughen-
ed structure.

49
 Chapter – VIII

Composite Materials Resources

Composite Materials Resource Centers

Resource Center Web Site

Connecticut Center for Advanced

www.ccat.us
Technology

University of Delaware Center for

www.ccm.udel.edu
Composite Materials

University of Dayton Research Institute www.udri.udayton.edu

Air Force Research Lab, Materials

www.wpafb.af.mil/afrl/rx
Directorate
NASA, Langley & Glenn Research www.nasa.gov/centers/langley/home/index
Centers www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/home/index

National Composite Center www.compositecenter.org

Composites Manufacturing Technology

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Center
National Institute for Aviation www.niar.wichita.edu/researchlabs/comp_o
Research verview.asp
National Center for Manufacturing
www.ncms.org
Sciences

50
 References
(1) ASM Handbook Volume 21: Composites , Editor(s): D.B. Miracle and S.L. Donaldson,
ASM International, 2001.

(2) Composites forming technologies, Edited by A. C. Long, Woodhead England, 2007.

(3) Composites manufacturin : materials, product, and process engineering, Sandjay K.
Mazumdar, CRC Press, 2002.

(4) Manufacturing Processes For Advanced Composites, F. C. Campbell,

Elsevier Ltd. 2004
(5) Handbook of Composites, Edited by S.T. Peters, Chapman & Hall, 1998.
(6) Boeing 787 Dreamliner, Guy Norris and Mark Wagner, Zenith Press, 2009.

51