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AIR REGULATIONS

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Interna�onal Agreements & Organiza�ons

Basic rules:
• Rules of that territory apply when overflying it.
• Over high seas, ICAO rules apply.

The Chicago Conven�on (Conven�on on Interna�onal Civil Avia�on)

• Signed of December 7, 1944
• 52 countries signed and contains 96 ar�cles.
• Led to forma�on of ICAO

ICAO (Interna�onal Civil Avia�on Organiza�on)

• Formed on 4 Apr 1947
• No. of Members - 193
• Headquarters- Montreal, Quebec, Canada
• Regional Offices - 7 (Asia & Pacific -> Bangkok, Thailand)

It comprises of the Assembly (193 members), the Council (elected by the Assembly every 3 years and consists of 36 members
elected in 3 groups), the commissions plus commitees, and the secretariat.

• Council is responsible for the Assembly

• Assembly meets every 3 years
• Council and Assembly elect a President for those 3 years
• Air Naviga�on Commission finalizes SARPs for submission and adop�on
• Has 19 members appointed by ICAO Council

Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs)

Finalized by air navigation commission

Standards – necessary
Recommended Practices – desirable

Any difference from a standard need to be no�fied within 60 days to ICAO by the state & publish such differences in the na�onal
AIP if they find it imprac�cable to comply with an interna�onal standard (council has to be no�fied of the changes otherwise
considered binding).
Within the Interna�onal Civil Avia�on Organiza�on (ICAO), the development of standards and recommended prac�ces (SARPs) is
primarily handled by the Air Naviga�on Commission (ANC).

PANS (Procedure for Air Naviga�on Services)

Which haven't yet been adopted as SARPS.

Regional Supplementary Procedures (SUPPS)

Similar to PANS but for respec�ve regions

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ICAO STANDARDS

• Annex 1 - Personnel Licensing

• Annex 2 - Rules of the Air
• Annex 3 - Meteorological Services
• Annex 4 - Aeronau�cal Charts
• Annex 5 - Units of Measurement
• Annex 6 - Opera�on of Aircra�
• Annex 7 - Aircra� Na�onality and Registra�on Marks
• Annex 8 - Airworthiness of Aircra�
• Annex 9 - Facilita�on
• Annex 10 - Aeronau�cal Telecommunica�ons
• Annex 11 - Air Traffic Services
• Annex 12 - Search and Rescue
• Annex 13 - Aircra� Accident and Incident Inves�ga�on
• Annex 14 - Aerodromes
• Annex 15 - Aeronau�cal Informa�on Services
• Annex 16 - Environmental Protec�on
• Annex 17 - Security
• Annex 18 - The Safe Transporta�on of Dangerous Goods by Air
• Annex 19 - Safety Management

ICAO Recommended Prac�ces

Documents:

 DOC 9756- Manual of aircra� accident and incident inves�ga�on

 DOC 4444- PANS ATM - Procedure for Air Naviga�on Services - Air Traffic Management
 DOC 7030 - SUPPS - Regional Supplementary Procedures
 DOC 8400 - ICAO Abbrevia�on & Codes
 DOC 8168 - Aircra� Opera�ons (PANS-OPS)
 DOC 7910- Loca�on Indicators
 DOC 7333 Search & Rescue Manual
 DOC 9432 - Manual of Radio Telephony
 DOC 8643 Aircra� Type Designator

CONVENTIONS

1. Tokyo Conven�on:

• Offences commited on board (Penal Law). Gives the commander the authority to detain unruly passengers and he/she
may deliver such a person to the competent authori�es

2. Rome Conven�on:

• Deals with damage caused by foreign aircra� to the third party on the surface (Not Ra�fied by India)

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3. Warsaw Conven�on:

• Deals with Responsibility for carriage of passengers, baggage and Cargo.

4. Montreal Conven�on:

• Acts of violence on-board Ac�on that damages an aircra� or naviga�on system in service.

6. Cape Town Conven�on:

• Deals with requirements of aircra� finance and contracts of sale of aircra� equipment (Ra�fied by India)

7. Hague Conven�on:

• (Conven�on for suppression of unlawful seizure of aircra�) Act of unlawful seizure and the measures to be taken by
contrac�ng states to enforce severe punishment upon perpetrators (Ra�fied by India)

FREEDOM

As per the Chicago conven�on five freedoms of air were declared

TRANSIT AGREEMENT (Technical freedoms): TRANSPORT AGREEMENT (Commercial

freedoms):

1. FREEDOM 1 - Right to over fly without 3. FREEDOM 3 - Right to put down passenger

landing from home state

2. FREEDOM 2 - Right to land for technical 4. FREEDOM 4 - Right to carry passenger for
purpose (Non-Traffic Purpose) home state

5. FREEDOM 5 - Right to carry passengers to

third state

Cabotage Traffic Means Domes�c Air Services.

Open Skies Policy:

• Free movement of airplanes, crew and passengers not des�ned for the state in which airplane has landed.

Wet Lease:

• Airplane operated under the AOC of the lessor (owner) - crew and aircra� leased out.

Dry Lease:

• Airplane operated under the AOC of the lessee (the company leasing the aircra�) - only the aircra� given.

Damp lease:

• Par�al crew (liability lies on the party to which the crew belongs).

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Indian Organisa�ons

Ministry of Civil Avia�on

• Responsible for development and regula�on of Civil Avia�on sector.

• Responsible for administra�on of the Aircra� Act, 1934; Aircra� Rules, 1937 and
• other legisla�ons related to avia�on sector.

Directorate General of Civil Avia�on (DGCA)

• Responsible for regula�on of air transport services to/from/within India

• Enforcement of civil air regula�ons, air safety, and worthiness standards

Func�ons of DGCA:

• Registra�on of civil aircra�, Set standards and grant cer�ficate of Airworthiness.

• Licensing of pilots, flight engineers, air traffic controllers.
• Gran�ng of Air Operator’s cer�ficates.
• Inves�ga�on into accidents/incidents, Amendment to Aircra� acts, Aircra� rules.
• Coordina�on between civil and military air traffic for use of airspace.
• Aircra� Noise, engine emissions, Training programmes.

Airports Authority of India (AAI) – founded on 1st April 1995

Func�ons of AAI:

• Design, develop, Opera�on & Maintenance of interna�onal/domes�c airports

• Control and Management of Indian airspace.
• Expansion and strengthening of Runways, Taxiways, Aprons etc.
• Provision of Visual aids, Communica�on and Naviga�on aids, Air Traffic Services
• Provision of aeronau�cal informa�on services publica�on of AIP, NOTAMS etc.

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AIRCRAFT NATIONALITY AND REGISTRATION MARK
Annex-7

• Only standards in this Annex so any difference must be filed.

• Hyphens are used to separate the na�onality mark and the registra�on mark if a letter comes after it (e.g. G-BSFK).
• Na�onality marks are chosen by the Interna�onal Telecommunica�ons Union (ITU).
• A common mark is used if a na�onality mark is not used which is allocated by ICAO (GIVEN BY ITU).
• Registra�on Marks can be alphabets, numeric or alpha-numeric.
• Registra�on is assigned by the State of Registry or Common Mark Registry Authority.
• State of registry (DGCA) is also known as Common Mark Registra�on Authority.
• Registra�on Markings shall be writen with no Ornamenta�on.
• Registra�on is valid un�l it is cancelled by the authori�es or �ll the aircra�
is destroyed in an accident.
• XXX, PAN, SOS, TTT and any Q codes or any 5 leter codes from the interna�onal code of signals may not be used.

 India has been alloted na�onality symbols AT TO AW by ITU.

 Used in India:
o VT-Civil aircra�s
o VU-military aircra�s
o U-unmanned aircra�s followed by 6 Alpha-Numeric characters, i.e., between 0 and 9 or A and Z, e.g., UB67DFC.

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LOCATION

HORIZONTAL SURFACE at-least 50 cm.

VERTICAL SURFACE at-least 30 cm.
LIGHTER THAN AIR 50 cm.

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RULES OF AIR
ANNEX 2
 The PIC has final authority over the opera�on of the aircra�.
 They must be familiar with all available and appropriate informa�on (including weather).
 Laws can only be broken for safety.

The rules have to be followed by all a/c flying over Indian territory and a/c bearing the Na�onality and registra�on
marks, wherever they may be, to the extent that they don't conflict with rules published by the state having jurisdic�on
over the territory over flown. A PIC may depart from these rules if necessary for the safety of the a/c.

Flights operate in either

 VFR - Visual Flight Rules

 IFR - Instrument Flight Rules

Forma�on flights:

 No civil aircra� shall be flown in forma�on.

 Military a/c forma�on: must be within .5nm laterally, 100� ver�cally and forma�on must operate as a single
unit.

Acroba�c flight:

 It shall be flown by a licensed pilot.

 In the vicinity of an aerodrome at a distance of less than 2nm from the nearest point of the perimeter of the
aerodrome unless flown at height greater than 1800 meters (6000 �).

 The aeroba�cs shall be commenced at such a height that will permit comple�on of the maneuver at a height
of not less than 600 meters (2000 feet).

 In populated areas permission needed from DGCA.

Parachute descents:

Not permited except in case of an emergency unless permited by central govt. in wri�ng.

DROPPING OR SPRAYING:

 Permission required from ATS.

 If dropping sheets of paper or petals of flowers writen permission from DM or CP.

TOWING:

 No aircra� shall be towed by an aircra�. Other than that clearance from ATS.

ATC clock should be accurate to +/- 30 seconds UTC.

DATA link comm. Accurate to 1 sec.

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Right of way
• An aircra� with right of way will maintain heading and speed (though they must best avoid collision).
• An aircra� obliged to give way should not pass over, under or ahead (unless well clear).
• The one on the right has right of way.

Order of priority: (BGAAR)

• Balloons
• Gliders
• Airship
• Airplanes/Rotor-cra�

An aircra� in distress has the right-of-way over all other traffic.

Approaching head-on –

• In flight turn right

• on ground, they should stop or if prac�cable alter its course to the right

Converging –

• In flight aircra� on the le� must give way (give way to aircra� on the right)
• On ground one which has the other on its right shall give way.

Overtaking (<70°) –

• The aircra� that is being overtaken has the right of way

• Each pilot of an overtaking aircra� shall alter course to the right to pass well clear.
• On ground same as in flight.

Landing –

 Aircra�, while on final to land or while landing have the right of way.

 When two or more aircra� are on final approach, the lowest aircra� has the right of way.

VFR RULES:
VFR flights shall not take off or land at an aerodrome within a control zone, or enter the aerodrome traffic zone or traffic patern if-

• Could ceiling <1500�

• Visibility <5km

VFR flights shall not be operated:

• Above FL150 (DGCA)/FL290 (ICAO).

• At a height less than 500� above ground or water.
• At transonic and supersonic speeds.

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• More than 100nm seawards.
• Military aircra� can operate VFR �ll FL285.
• VFR flights shall be operated during the period from 20 minutes before sunrise to 20 minutes a�er sunset.
• Not allowed in RVSM airspace

Minimum equipment required (VFR a/c):

• Magne�c compass
• Clock with hr, min, sec needles
• 1 Sensi�ve pressure al�meter
• 1 ASI

Minimum height for VFR:

• Over congested area, ci�es Not lower than 1,000� above highest obstacle within 600m radius.
• Reduced to 500� above uncongested ground/water.

VMC MINIMA

Special VFR
• Visibility >1500m.
• Must be Clear of Cloud and In Sight of Ground.
• Can only be conducted inside a CTR.
• Instrument ra�ng required.

IFR RULES
Minimum height for IFR:

• over high terrain or in mountainous areas, at least 600 m (2000 �) above the highest obstacle located within 8 km.
• elsewhere at a level which is at least 300m (1000 �) above the highest obstacle located within 8 km.

Minimum equipment required (ifr a/c):

• Magne�c compass
• Clock with hr, min, sec needles

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• 2 Sensi�ve pressure al�meters
• ASI, TSI, RMI, AH, ASI, OAT
• 2 VOR, 2 VHF, 1 ADF & 1 ILS

RVSM CVSM AND SEMI-CIRCULAR RULE

• BASED ON magne�c tracks

• 000-179° - Odd Flight Level
• 180-359° - Even Flight Level
• For VFR, add 500�
• In RVSM airspace (FL290-FL410), 1,000� separa�on con�nues
• Elsewhere separa�on must be 2,000�
• Unless men�oned, Ques�ons are to be solved as per CVSM.

RVSM Requirements for an Aircra�:

• 2 Independent al�meter (with cross-coupled sta�c & icing protec�on)

• Al�tude alert system (aural/visual warning if a/c deviates alt by ±150’)
• Al�tude control system (which can hold al�tude ±50’)
• Al�tude repor�ng system (SSR Mode C with an encoding al�meter)
• ACAS II equipment

RVSM In-Flight Procedures-

• During preflight, set QNH. Max error must be < ±60' from actual elev.
• When changing FL, a/c must not over/undershoot new FL by > ±150’.
• Every hour a crosscheck between 2 al�meters must be within ±200’.
• Maximum a/c assigned al�tude devia�on from assigned FL is ±300'.

DISTRESS SIGNALS:

• SOS
• MAYDAY
• Rockets or shells showing red lights

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• Parachute flare showing a red light.

URGENCY SIGNALS:

• XXX
• PAN PAN
• On/Off of Landing Light or Naviga�on Light

AIRCRAFT LIGHTING
• 30 mins a�er sunset to 30 mins before sunrise considered night in India.
• An�-collision lights intended to atract the aten�on of other aircra�.
• Naviga�on lights intended to indicate the rela�ve path of the aircra� to an observer.
• No other lights shall be displaced if they are likely to be mistaken for the naviga�on lights.
• Unless sta�onary, and otherwise adequately illuminated, all aircra� on the movement area of an aerodrome shall display
lights intended to indicate the extremi�es of their structure and to atract aten�on to the aircra�.

NAVIGATION LIGHTS (POSITION LIGHTS)

 These are red, green, and white lights that are located on the wing�ps and the tail of the aircra�.

ANTI COLLISION LIGHTS:

1. BEACON LIGHTS
• These are red or white flashing lights that are located on the top and botom of the fuselage or on the tail.
• They indicate that the aircra� is in opera�on, such as when an engine is running or when it is about to move.

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2. Strobe (white an�-collision) lights:

• These are bright HIGH INTENSITY white flashing lights that are located on the wing�ps or on the tail.
• Switched-on on entering the runway and switched off a�er exi�ng.

Failure of Lights

• When a pilot is aware that naviga�on light has failed, ATC is to be informed and the
aircra� is to land and have the light repaired before con�nuing the flight.
• When An� Collision light fails Aircra� can con�nue flight and repair it before next flight.
Since it is not by law for small aircra�- Less than 5700 Kg.

Opera�on around an airport:

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Default traffic patern = Le�-hand traffic

• Long finals -8nm

• Short finals -4nm

An aircra� shall:

• Observe other traffic

• Conform with or avoid the traffic patern
• Land/take-off into wind

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A flight plan is required when:

• Provided with an ATC service

• IFR within advisory airspace
• Along designated routes when FIS, aler�ng and search and rescue is required
• Into designated areas or across borders
• It is a writen plan of the envisaged flight, in a specified format.
• It has to be filed at an ATS unit, up to 120 hrs (5 days) before aircra� EOBT and at least 60 mins before departure (not EOBT).
• It is valid for flight delays up to 30 mins from filed EOBT.
• If filed in air, must be at least 10 mins before entering a Control Area.
• REPETETIVE FLIGHT PLANS -Used for IFR flights operated regularly on the same day of consecu�ve weeks or at least 10
occasions

In India, all aircra� going more than 5NM outside or above 3000 � AGL - must file ICAO flight plan.

DELAYS AFTER FILING

• In the event of a delay of 30 minutes in excess of the es�mated off-block �me for a controlled flight or a delay of one hour
for an uncontrolled flight for which a flight plan has been submited, the flight plan should be amended or a new flight
plan submited the old flight plan cancelled.

Inadvertent Changes:

1. Devia�on from Track:

• Adjust the heading to regain the desired track as soon as prac�cable.

2. Varia�on in TAS:
• If Mach No. at cruising level changes (or is expected to change) by MACH0.02 or if TAS
changes by 19km/h(10kts) inform the ATC

3. Change in ETA:
• If the ETA changes by more than 2 mins or more. (Select 3 mins if 2 mins op�on is not
there, earlier it was 3 mins).

Type of Flight:
• I = IFR
• V = VFR
• Y = IFR to VFR
• Z = VFR to IFR

Air Defence Clearance (ADC)

• India has promulgated 6 ADIZS.
• To be taken before T/O.
• If above 1000� AGL or 5NM radius centred at ARP.
• All flights to obtain this 10 min prior to entering Indian airspace.
• Validity of ADC is (-)15 Min to (+) 45 Min of EOBT.

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• Non-Schedule domes�c operator Validity of ADC is (-)15 Min to (+) 3 Hrs of EOBT.

Change from IFR to VFR:

PILOT -"CANCELLING MY IFR FLIGHT"
ATC - "IFR FLIGHT CANCELLED AT"

ESTIMATED TIME OF ARRIVAL(ETA):

• For IFR flights, the �me at which it is es�mated that the aircra� will arrive over that designated point, defined by
reference to naviga�on aids, from which it is intended that an instrument approach procedure will be commenced, or, if
no naviga�on aid is associated with the aerodrome, the �me at which the aircra� will arrive over the aerodrome.
• For VFR flights, the �me at which it is es�mated that the aircra� will arrive over the aerodrome.

EXPECTED APPROACH TIME (EAT).

The �me at which ATC expects that an arriving aircra�, following a delay, will leave the holding fix to complete its approach for a
landing.
• A revised EAT is transmited when it differs from previously assigned by 5 mins or more.
• An expected approach �me shall be determined for an arriving aircra� that will be subjected to a delay of 10 minutes or
more.
• An expected approach �me shall be transmited to the aircra� by the most Expedi�ous means whenever it is an�cipated
that the aircra� will be required to hold for 30 minutes or more.

SQUAWK CODES IMP

I- INTERFERANCE 7500
C- COMMUNICATION FAILURE 7600
E- EMERGENCY 7700

COMMUNICATION FAILURE:

VFR IN VMC -Land at the nearest airport and report ASAP to ATCU (SQUAWK 7600).
IFR IN VMC - Land at the nearest airport and report ASAP to ATCU (SQUAWK 7600).
IFR IN IMC – (SQUAWK 7600)
• Maintain last assigned speed and level for:
• ATC has no radar - 20 minutes following failure to report at CRP.
• ATC has radar -7 minutes following either the last assigned level being reached, squawking 7600 or not repor�ng at a CRP,
whichever occurs latest.
They should then:
• Adjust to speed & level in the flight plan.
• Proceed to nav aid/fix at des�na�on and hold un�l descent.
• Descend at last acknowledged and received EAT (or ETA).
• Use a normal instrument approach.
• Land within ±30 minutes of EAT/ETA.

INTERCEPTION:

• Atempt to establish two-way communica�on on 121.5 MHz or 243 MHz

• Mode A-7700.

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• Instruc�on by intercep�ng a/c takes priority in any conflict.

INTERCEPTOR PHRASES

INTERCEPTOR PHRASES INTERCEPTED AIRCRAFT PHRASES

• CALL SIGN • CALL SIGN
• FOLLOW • REPEAT
• DESCEND • AM LOST
• PROCEED • HIJACK
• YOU LAND • DESCEND
• LAND
• CAN NOT
• WILCO

Light gun signals

Acknowledging Light Gun Signals

 During the day, acknowledge a light gun signal by moving the ailerons or the rudder.
 At night the PIC can switch the naviga�on lights or the landing light off and on again.

Signal square

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IN CASE OF UNLAWFULL INTERFERANCE (HIJACK)

• Fly a level which differs by (for IFR), 150m (500�) where ver�cal separa�on minimum of 300m (1000�) is applied.
• Otherwise, 300m (1000�) where separa�on is of 600m (2000�)

Flight by night:

• A flight performed between 30 mins a�er sunset to 30 mins before sunrise.

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Air traffic services

Annex11
Objec�ves of Air Traffic Services (ATS)

1) Prevent collision between aircra�.

2) Prevent collision between aircra� on the maneuvering area, and from obstacle.

3) Expedite & maintain an orderly flow of traffic.

4) No�fy appropriate organiza�ons if Search and Rescue is required.

AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL SERVICE:

• Area control center (controlled flights)

• Approach control office (for arriving and depar�ng controlled flights)
• Aerodrome control tower (aerodrome traffic)

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Units providing ATS-

Area Control centre, FIC, Approach Control Office, AD control tower & ATS repor�ng office.

Area Control Service:

• ACC (Area Control Centre) provides Area Control Service. It controls the traffic within a CTA/TMA & en-route traffic in
FIR/UIR.
• ACC issues ATC 'departure clearances' before departure of an a/c from an a/d, to ensure separa�on between all controlled
flights.
• This clearance will be coordinated between various ATS units un�l the aircra� lands in an aerodrome, or for a por�on of
ini�al flight.
• Clearance expiry indicates the �me at which it will become void if the aircra� has not commenced its flight.

Approach Control Service:

• It is the Control Service associated with arrivals & departures and is usually established in a CTR (Control Zone).
• Approach Control is usually radar controlled, e.g., en-route radar, radar vector, SRA, PAR, etc.
o En-route Radar ensures minimum a 5 nm separa�on b/w 2 a/c. It may be reduced in certain circumstances.
o SRA Surveillance Radar Approach:
1. SRA is a Non-Precision Approach, using Terminal Approach Radar (TAR).
2. In an RTR2 radar, approach guidance will be terminated at 2 nm.
3. During SRA, the height aircra� should be at, will be passed every 1 nm for RTR2 radar & at every 1/2 nm
for an RTR1 radar.
4. During SRA, the pilot maintains with radar controller throughout, so he obtains landing clearance from
tower & informs the pilot by 4 nm (latest by 2 nm). If radar controller cannot obtain landing clearance by 2
nm, ini�ate missed approach procedure.
o PAR Precision Approach Radar:
1. PAR approach is a precision approach done with a dedicated Precision Approach Radar.
2. During a PAR approach, a controller gives con�nuous talk down to a pilot in vectors of heading & ROD.
3. Controller asks for an aircra� landing configura�on check at 3 nm.
4. In PAR approach, pilot maintains with radar controller through-out, so he obtains the landing clearance
from tower & informs pilot by 4 nm (latest by 2 nm). If radar controller cannot obtain landing clearance by
2 nm, ini�ate missed approach procedure.

Aerodrome Control Service:

• It controls the traffic at an aerodrome from a control tower.

• Usually, only 1 aircra� is permited to be on a runway at a �me.
• Take-off: Succeeding aircra� will not be given take-off clearance unless the preceding aircra� has crossed the upwind
threshold (DER departure end of runway) & has commenced a turn away from runway direc�on.
• Immediate Take-off' clearance: Line up & take-off immediately.
• Arrival: Landing clearance issued at 4 nm, may be reduced to 2 nm.
• 'Land a�er' clearance is some�mes issued when another aircra� is on the runway, on landing roll.

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• It is issued only during the day & when:
o Succeeding pilot has the aircra� on runway in sight.
o Runway surface is dry.
o Controller can see the en�re length of the runway.

Aler�ng Service

Provided to:

• For all a/c with ATC service.

• As far as prac�cable to all other a/c with filed Flight plan or known to ATS.
• To any a/c known or believed to be subject to unlawful interference.

Air Traffic Advisory Service (ATAS)

• Air Traffic Advisory Service (ATAS) is a service that ensures separa�on between aircra� opera�ng on IFR flight plans. It is
used in uncontrolled airspace (only F) to prevent collisions by advising pilots of other aircra� or hazards.

Flight Informa�on Service (FIS)

A Flight Informa�on Service (FIS) is a type of air traffic service that provides advice and informa�on to aircra� within a Flight
Informa�on Region (FIR).

• Weather briefings
• Route informa�on
• SIGMET and AIRMET informa�on
• Informa�on about volcanic ac�vity, erup�ons, and ash clouds

ALERTING SERVICE

• A system that no�fies the appropriate organiza�ons when an aircra� is missing or distressed and requires search and
rescue (SAR) assistance.

The ICAO Chicago Conven�on defines three emergency phases for the aler�ng service:

• Uncertainty Phase
• Alert Phase
• Distress Phase.

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Flight informa�on regions

Those por�ons of the airspace where it is determined that flight informa�on service and aler�ng service will be provided shall be
designated as flight informa�on regions.

DELHI FIR - I MUMBAI FIR- A

KOLKATTA- E CHENNAI FIR - O
SUB-FIR GUWAHATI

LOCATION INDICATORS:

1ST LETTER – AFSRA CODE (22CODES) 2ND LETTER – FIR

3RD LETTER – STATION 4TH LETTER STATION
EX: VIDP (DELHI AIRPORT), VABB (MUMBAI AIRPORT), VECC (KOLKATTA AIRPORT), VOMM (CHENNAI AIRPORT)

Control zone:

• CTR is established in aerodrome vicinity for arriving/depar�ng traffic.

• It is a controlled airspace, from the ground, up to a defined upper limit, or un�l CTA, if it exists.
• Where an upper limit of CTR is defined, it will be a VFR level.
• Approach Control provides Air Traffic Control Service in a CTR.
• CTR may encompass more than 1 aerodrome if they are close together.
• CTR should be a minimum of 5 nm around an aerodrome ARP.

Control area:

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• CTA is usually established in the vicinity of major aerodromes and at the confluence of ATS routes.
• It is intended only for en-route traffic.
• It is a controlled airspace, upwards from a par�cular defined FL.
• Lowest possible level of a CTA is 200 m (700’).
• Where a lower limit of CTA is defined, it will be a VFR level.
• ACC provides Area Control Service in a CTA.

AIRSPACE

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Airspace in India

Procedure In Class C Airspace:

• Certain airports capable of handling more than 20 a/c per hr are equipped with primary and secondary radars have been
designated as class C airspaces. Class C airspaces extend from 4000 � to FL 285.
• Airspaces upto 30 NMs around these airports are designated as class D airspaces.

CLASS D

• Airspace in control areas (CTA), terminal areas (TMA), control zones (CTR) and aerodrome traffic zone (ATZ)

CLASS E

• Airspace in ATS routes outside CTAs/TMAs/CTRs/ATZs; Except ATS routes segment listed under class F.

CLASS F

• Airspace outside CTAs/TMAs/CTRs/ATZs.

Special Use Airspace:

Prohibited areas

• flights are not permited at any �me under any circumstances.

• Iden�fied by the leter (P) e.g. VA(P)-2

Restricted areas

• It may be possible to transit restricted areas that are not in use, but confirma�on of inac�vity with the controlling
authority is required.

• Iden�fied by the leter (R)

Danger Area

• ac�vi�es dangerous to the flight of aircra� exist at the specified �mes.

• indicated by the leter (D) e.g. VE(D)-72

TEMPORARY SEGREGATED AREA (TSA):

• when ac�vated will not be permited to fly.

TEMPORARY RESERVED AREA (TRA):

Transit Is Not Allowed Without ATC Clearance.

• Areas in Mumbai FIR: A number between 501 and 600

• Areas in Kolkata FIR: A number between 601 and 700

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• Areas in Delhi FIR: A number between 701 and 800
• Areas in Chennai FIR: A number between 801 and 900
• Reserved for Future Use: Numbers between 901 and 999

PROHIBITED AREAS IN INDIA

 BARODA AERODROME  UNLIMITED

 MUMBAI (TOWER OF SILENCE)  1 MILE \UNLIMITED
 MATHURA REFINERY  10 MILES \ UNLIMITED
 RASHTRAPATI BHAWAN  UNLIMITED
 BHUBANESHWAR TOWER  50000’
 KALPAKKAM TAMILNADU (nuclear  RADIUS 10 KMS TO 10000’
sta�on)

VISUAL SIGNALS USED TO WARN AN OR ABOUT TO ENTER A RESTRICTED, PROHIBITED OR DANGER AREA:

By day and by night, a series of projec�les discharged from the ground at intervals of 10 seconds, each showing, on burs�ng,
red and green lights or stars.

NECESSARY ACTIONS

• Will not fly further into the prohibited area.

• Will not descend while s�ll above prohibited area.
• Will as soon as he is aware of the act, give the signal of distress MAYDAY, MAYDAY, MAYDAY by R/T.
• Immediately squawk distress code 7700 and land at the nearest aerodrome outside.

ATS ROUTE

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COMPOSITION OF DESIGNATOR:

Not more than 6 characters, ideally max 5 starting with a letter then numbers.

Prefix Basic designator Suffix

Prefix:

Basic designator:

Alphabet (1-999)

Suffix:

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• Width of published air routes in India is 20 nm (RNAV 10)

• Q routes are RNP5 routes in India, with a width of 10 nm.
• W routes are routes specific for Indian domes�c operators only.
• H is used for one-way routes.
• Oceanic Routes: Width of an Oceanic Routes is 20 nm (RNAV10) &adjacent tracks are separated by 50 nm.
• SIDS & STARS are also classified as ATS routes.
• Lower ATS routes are routes below FL245.
• Upper ATS routes are routes between FL245 - FL460.
• No aircra� is to operate within 15 nm from an interna�onal border unless it is following an ATS route or taking-off from an
aerodrome located within 15 nm of an interna�onal border.
• Any aircra� crossing an ATS route will Take ATC clearance at least 10 min before on VHF or 20 min on HF.
• Do so at 90° to the route.
• least 1000 � (300m) ver�cal clearance above the highest obstacle within 10 KM on each side of the center line of the route.
• On routes not defined by designated significant points, posi�on reports shall be made a�er the first half hour of flight and
at hourly interval therea�er.
UIR Upper Informa�on Region
• Airspace established only for en-route traffic (no landing or take-off).
• Lower boundary of a UIR will be a VFR flight level.
• ACC provides Area Control Service in a UIR.
UPR User Preferred Routes-

• UPR offers each aircra� a unique & most efficient flight path as per their requirement, instead of flying established ATS
routes.
• They are constructed via published waypoints & la�tudes/longitudes. The operator can choose his preferred waypoints for
a route.
• Fight-�me interval between 2 waypoints shall not exceed 30 mins.
• UPR may include tradi�onal ATS routes also.
• Where established, UPR zone ver�cal limits are from FL280 to FL460.
• A/c flying UPR routes should be RNAV10 & ADS-C/CPDLC equipped.

AIRREP
An AIREP (Air Report) is an automated report of the current in-flight weather condi�ons, generated by the onboard computer
systems.
Sec�on 1:
Posi�on report:
1. Aircra� registra�on or iden�fica�on call sign
2. Posi�on of ac (Lat, long, or fix)
3. Time of posi�on
4. FL/ al�tude
5. Es�mated �me of next repor�ng point

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Sec�on 2:
Opera�onal:
1. Endurance
2. ETA
SECTION 3:
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.
Mandatory Posi�on Reports to be given by aircra� on RT: -

• On entering/leaving FIRS & control zones.

• At each designated repor�ng point in controlled airspace, under IFR.
• When crossing a coast line, outbound or inbound.
• Flying in foreign territory, in compliance with their repor�ng procedure
• When changing from one area of responsibility to another
• When outside controlled airspace, a posi�on report is needed every hour.
• When opera�ng in a confined airspace, ops-normal call every hour.
• When not following an ATS route, 1st posi�on report is to be given at 30 mins, a�er that every hour.

PIREP
PIREP is a report given by a pilot visually, both are transmited in real-�me via the radio to ground sta�ons.
UA – ROUTINE REPORT
UUA – URGENT REPORT
AIRMET:
Issued For Low Flying Aircra�s. Validity 6 hrs.
SIGMET
Issued for all aircra�s – validity 4 hrs.
CONVECTIVE SIGMETS:
Hazardous to all aircra�s – validity 2 hrs.
AIRPROX:
A - Risk of collision.
B - Safety not assured.
C - No risk of collision.
D - Risk not determined.
AIRPROX(P), AIRPROX(C).

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Automa�c terminal informa�on service (voice and/or data link)

• ATIS is a voice broadcast of current weather of the aerodrome within 5 NM radius and
5000 � (1500 m) height.
• ATIS broadcast can be on a discreet VHF frequency or on a voice channel of VOR, but
can never be on the voice channel of ILS.
• ATIS broadcast is updated upon receipt of any official weather regardless of content
change from MET (Meteorological) department or immediately a�er a significant
weather change. 30mins /1 hr depending on the airport.
• Prepara�on and dissimila�on of ATIS is a responsibility of Air Traffic Services.
• It is a voice broadcast of essen�al informa�on in a high ac�vity terminal area.
• ATIS broadcast message, when prac�cable, should not exceed 30 secs.
• CAVOK (CEILING AND VISIBLITY OK) NO CLOUDS BELOW 5000FT AND VIS >10KM.

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SEPARATION METHODS AND MINIMA
(ICAO Annex 11, Doc 4444 – PANS)

• Essen�al Traffic: Traffic that should be separated but isn't. This informa�on is passed to another controlled flight when
necessary.
• Essen�al local traffic shall be considered to consist of any aircra�, vehicle or personnel on or near the manoeuvring area or
traffic opera�ng in the vicinity of the aerodrome, which may cons�tute a hazard to the aircra� concerned.
• If requested by an aircra�, agreed by another aircra� & sanc�oned by ATC, a flight opera�ng in Class D & E airspace, if in
VMC (even while flying an IFR flight plan), can climb or descend & maintain its own separa�on, for a por�on of the flight
below 10000’.
• Aircra� can be cleared for visual approach if pilot confirms he is in VMC & in visual contact with aircra� ahead & can
maintain own separa�on.

RNAV (Area Naviga�on)

• What it is: RNAV allows aircra� to fly on any desired flight path within the coverage of ground or satellite naviga�on aids.

• Key number: The "10" indicates that the aircra� must be able to maintain a naviga�on accuracy of ±10 nau�cal miles (NM)
95% of the �me.

• Performance Requirements: RNAV systems do not have specific performance requirements; they simply provide the ability
to navigate using waypoints.

RNP (Required Naviga�on Performance)

• What it is: RNP is a type of RNAV that includes performance requirements for the naviga�on system. It ensures that an
aircra� can maintain a specific level of accuracy.

• Key number: RNP is o�en expressed in nau�cal miles (NM). For example, RNP 1 means the aircra� must be able to fly within
1 NM of its intended path 95% of the �me.

• Safety: RNP includes monitoring and aler�ng capabili�es, ensuring the aircra� maintains the required performance.

• Opera�onal Use: O�en used for more complex approaches and in challenging environments (e.g., mountainous areas).

RCP (Required Communica�on performance)

➢ The number atached to RCP (eg. RCP 10) is the number of seconds it takes for an instruc�on to travel from ground to aircra� and
acknowledgment back to the ground.

RSP (Required Surveillance performance)

➢ The number atached to RSP (eg. RSP 240) is the number of seconds it takes for surveillance data from the CSP (Communica�on
Service Provider) interface to arrive at the ATSU flight data processing system.

➢ RSP 240 means 99.9% of surveillance data must be delivered in less than 240 seconds.

Types of Separa�on

1. Radar Separa�on (2 aircra� separated on a radar)-

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• Beyond 60 nm from a radar, separa�on between 2 aircra� is 10 nm.
• 5 nm separa�on between 2 aircra� on a radar/ADS-B within 60 nm of radar.
• Separa�on may be reduced to 3 nm within 40 nm of a good radar.
• Separa�on is 2.5 nm when 2 aircra� are established on the same ILS & within 10 nm of the threshold.
• Separa�on is 2 nm when 'Mode 2' parallel runway opera�ons are inforce, between 2 aircra� on adjacent localizers.
2. Ver�cal Separa�on (2 aircra� separated in height)
• RVSM Separa�on: 1000' separa�on b/w flight levels un�l FL410.
• Non RVSM Separa�on: 1000' below FL290 & 2000' b/w FL290-FL410.
• ICAO flight level occupancy standard for an aircra� is ±300' of the cleared FL.
• An aircra� cruising at a FL has priority over another aircra� reques�ng that FL. When 2 aircra� are at same level, the one
ahead has priority.
• Assigned levels must be maintained by:
o NonRVSM a/c = +- 300�
o RVSM =+-200FT
3. Lateral Separa�on (2 aircra� separated side by side)

Geographical Separa�on: By keeping aircra� in different geographical areas by posi�on reports determined visually or by a nav-
aid.

Track Separa�on: -
• For aircra� using same nav-aid, 15 nm from the common aid with track divergence of 15° for VOR, 30° for NDB &
45° for a DR fix. –

4. a. Longitudinal Separa�on (2 aircra� separated one behind the other) DME Based

Same Level, Same Track-

• 20 nm separa�on, provided both aircra� are on the same DME. -

• 10 nm separa�on if preceding aircra� is faster by 20 kts TAS.

Same Level, on Crossing Track-

• 20 nm separa�on, provided both aircra� are on the same DME.

• 10 nm separa�on if preceding aircra� is faster by 20 kts TAS, provided each aircra� reports DME from a sta�on located at
the crossing point & rela�ve angle of track < 90°.

Same Level, on Reciprocal Track-

• At least 10 nm separa�on when both aircra� pass each other provided both aircra� are on the same DME.

Climb/Descend-

• At least 10 nm separa�on when ver�cal separa�on doesn't exist, provided both aircra� are on the same DME & 1 aircra�
maintains level flight.

4b. Longitudinal Separa�on - Time Based

Same Level, Same Track: -

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• 15 mins separa�on between 2 aircra�.
• 10 mins, if frequent determina�on of posn/spd is avlb from a nav-aid.
• 5 mins if preceding a/c is faster by 20 kts TAS.
• 3 mins if preceding a/c is faster by 40 kts TAS.

Same Level/Climb/Descend, on Crossing Track: -

• 15 mins separa�on between both aircra�. -

• 10 mins, if frequent determina�on of posn/spd is avlb from a nav-aid.

Same Level/Climb/Descend, on Reciprocal Track: -

• Aircra� has to maintain ver�cal separa�on for at least 10 mins prior to & a�er the �me another aircra� is es�mated to
have passed.

Climb/Descend through Level, on Same Track: -

• 15 mins separa�on between both aircra�.

• 10 mins, if frequent determina�on of posn/spd avlb from a nav-aid.
• 5 mins, provided level change is commenced within 10 mins 2nd aircra� has reported over same point.

4c. Longitudinal Separa�on –

Mach. No. Based

Separa�on is deemed to exist when the required �me interval exists between aircra�, irrespec�ve of whether they are climbing,
descending or on same track.

4d. Longitudinal Separa�on – RNAV

• Same Level: 80 nm separa�on, provided both aircra� report posi�on from same point.
• Reciprocal: 80 nm separa�on when they cross track.
• Climb/Descend, Same Track: 80 nm when ver�cal separa�on doesn't exist.

 Separa�on is reduced to: -

• 50 nm between 2 RNAV10 aircra�, if both aircra� are in CPDLC/VHF range.

• 30 nm between 2 RNP4 aircra� on RNP10 routes, if both aircra� are in CPDLC/VHF range & both aircra� are on ADS-C.

RNAV separa�on requires that: -

• Direct pilot-controller communica�ons are maintained.

• Waypoints are common to both aircra�.

5. Visual Separa�on (Only in the vicinity of aerodromes)

• Normal separa�on standards between 2 aircra� may be reduced if: -

 Both aircra� are con�nuously visual to the controller.

 Succeeding aircra� reports visual contact with preceding aircra� & can maintain their own separa�on.

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6. Arrival Separa�on (Separa�on between 2 aircra� on approach)

• Landing clearance by ATC is usually given by 4 nm, latest by 2 nm.

• 'Land a�er' clearance may be given (only during the day) if succeeding aircra� is visual with the preceding aircra� on the
runway, provided runway surface is dry & controller can see the en�re length of runway.
• If an aircra� is execu�ng an IAP but has not commenced base/procedure turn, a depar�ng aircra� may take-off in any
direc�on.
• If arriving aircra� has commenced procedure turn but will take another 3 min to reach instrument threshold, depar�ng
aircra� may take-off in any direc�on other than ±45° of the reciprocal track of arriving aircra�.
• If arriving aircra� is in for a straight-in approach but will take another 5 mins to reach the instrument threshold, depar�ng
aircra� may take-off in any direc�on.

7. Departure Separa�on (Separa�on between 2 depar�ng aircra�)

• 1 min – tracks diverge >45° a�er take-off

• 2 mins – first aircra� >40kts faster, same track
• 5 mins – if later aircra� will outclimb and outperform the first aircra�
• Controller will clear an a/c to take-off when preceding a/c has passed upwind end of runway (DER) & has turned away from
runway direc�on.

Composite separa�on:

• Combines ver�cal and horizontal sep.

• Allows minima to be reduced.

Separa�on in the hold:

• 5 mins or prescribed distance.

• Must be lateral or ver�cal separa�on.

At the commencement of final approach, the following informa�on shall be transmited to aircra�:

• Mean head-wind component: 10 kt

• Mean tail-wind component: 2 kt
• Mean cross-wind component: 5 kt

Suspension of visual flight rules opera�ons can be done by:

• the approach control unit or the appropriate ACC;

• the aerodrome control tower;
• the appropriate ATS authority.

Separa�on of depar�ng aircra�:

A depar�ng aircra� will not normally be permited to commence take-off un�l the preceding depar�ng aircra� has crossed the
end of the runway-in-use or has started a turn or un�l all preceding landing aircra� are clear of the runway-in-use.

Landing aircra�:

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A landing aircra� will not normally be permited to cross the runway threshold on its final approach un�l the preceding depar�ng
aircra� has crossed the end of the runway-in-use, or has started a turn, or un�l all preceding landing aircra� are clear of the
runway-in-use.

Light signal Meaning

Flashing runway lights: Vacate the runway or taxiway and observe the tower for light signal.

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USE OF AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES SURVEILLANCE

SYSTEM
(DOC 4444 AND AIP, INDIA)
ATS surveillance system. A generic term meaning variously, Automa�c Dependence Surveillance-B (ADS-B), Primary Surveillance
Radar (PSR), Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) or any comparable ground-based system that enables the iden�fica�on of aircra�.

 Radar contact means the aircra� has been iden�fied on the radar display and radar flight instruc�ons will be provided
un�l termina�on.
 "Resume own Naviga�on" means use your Naviga�on facility for Naviga�on.
 Fly heading 30 degrees means - 030 COMPASS Heading.
 ICAO Doc 4444 states that a �me check has to be done before commencement of taxiing for take-off and ATZ should
pass the correct �me to aircra�.
 If SSR is found inopera�ve during pre-flight check and immediate repair is not possible then fly to the closest airport and
repair SSR.
 In the event of an aircra� transponder failure or ATC determining that transponder does not meet serviceability
requirements, the aircra� (for whom carriage of transponder is mandatory) will normally be permited to con�nue to
operate to the next point of landing.
 Radar vectors given to an aircra� will be related to magne�c headings only.

ADS-B Iden�fica�on Procedures.

Where ADS-B is used for iden�fica�on, aircra� may be iden�fied by one or more of the following procedures:

a) direct recogni�on of the aircra� iden�fica�on in an ADS-B label;

b) transfer of ADS-B iden�fica�on;
c) observa�on of compliance with an instruc�on to TRANSMIT ADS-B IDENT.

SSR and/or MLAT Iden�fica�on Procedures.

Where SSR and/or MLAT is used for iden�fica�on, aircra� may be iden�fied by one or more of the following procedures:

a) recogni�on of the aircra� iden�fica�on in a SSR and/or MLAT label;

b) recogni�on of an assigned discrete code, the se�ng of which has been verified, in a SSR and/or MLAT label;
c) direct recogni�on of the aircra� iden�fica�on of a Mode S-equipped aircra� in a SSR and or MLAT label;
d) by transfer of iden�fica�on;
e) observa�on of compliance with an instruc�on to set a specific code;
f) observa�on of compliance with an instruc�on to squawk IDENT;

PSR IDENTIFICATION PROCEDURES:

• IDENT shows for 20 seconds

• Other means of iden�fica�on:

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o Change of heading >30°
o Radar posi�on within 1nm of DER

Use of SSR without primary radar:

Aircra� iden�fica�on is established and maintained by use of discrete SSR codes.

 ATS surveillance service is automa�cally terminated when an arriving aircra� receiving ATS surveillance service has been
instructed to contact tower frequency. Posi�on of aircra� from touchdown should be given to the aircra� before changing
over the aircra� to tower.

Tolerance value in RVSM = +-200FT

Tolerance value in CVSM = +-300FT(NOT LESS THAN 200FT)

Speed Control
No speed control is enforced anywhere in Class A/B airspace & above 10000' in Class C airspace.

Speed Control Under Radar Surveillance-

• Speed control is achieved in steps of 10 kts below FL250 & 0.1 mach above FL250.
• 210 kts is considered minimum speed for a turbojet when aircra� is below 10000' & in clean configura�on.

Speed Control Under Non-Radar Environment-

• Max speed permited is 250 kts IAS below 10000' in Class C to G.

• Max speed permited is 220 kts within 15 nm of a VOR.
• When traffic permits, ATC may issue a 'No Speed Restric�on’.
• Not changed by >20kts (in mul�ples of 10) for aircra� on intermediate/final approach

Flights exempted from Speed Control-

• Aircra� establishing a holding patern

• Aircra� encountering turbulent weather
• Aircra� on CAT II/III ILS approach within 20 nm from touchdown;
• Any aircra� within 4 nm from touchdown;
• Aircra� carrying a VIP

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• Aircra� in an emergency
• For all aircra� above FL390, without the pilot's consent.

An aircra� in climb or descent is considered to have crossed a level when the SSR mode C derived level informa�on
indicates that it has passed this level in the required direc�on by more than 300�.

An aircra� is considered to be maintaining its assigned level as long as the SSR mode C derived level informa�on
indicated that it is within +-300� of the assigned level.

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SEARCH AND RESCUE
ICAO Annex 12, ICAO Doc 7333 Search & Rescue
Ditching:

• The forced landing of an aircra� on water. Emergency phase. A generic term meaning, as the case may be, uncertainty
phase, alert phase or distress phase.

Search and rescue unit:

• A mobile resource composed of trained personnel and provided with equipment suitable for the expedi�ous conduct of
search and rescue opera�ons.

Rescue coordina�on Centre (RCC):

• A unit responsible for promo�ng efficient organiza�on of search and rescue services and for coordina�ng the conduct of
search and rescue opera�ons within a search and rescue region.

As per ICAO Conven�on: -

• SAR in any airspace within a country is the responsibility of that country.

• SAR services in a State should be available 24x7.
• SAR region should as far as possible coincide with the FIR boundary.
• No overlap of SAR regions is permited.
• Each contrac�ng State should have similar procedures as its neighbors & shall permit entry of SAR units from
other na�ons into its own territory.
 In India, AAI is responsible for ini�a�ng SAR. RCC and its subcenters are responsible for efficient SAR services.
 India has no SAR agreement with other countries but can seek assistance from adjoining RCC.
 If a pilot observes a plane or ship in distress, he shall maintain visual contact with it & pass its posi�on to ATC
unless he considers it unnecessary or receives counter instruc�ons from RCC.
 The first aircra� at the scene, even if it is not a dedicated SAR aircra�, will take charge of on-scene ac�vi�es. If
he cannot contact RCC but another aircra� that came in later can, the command of SAR is transferred to the
second aircra� un�l a dedicated SAR plane arrives.
 SAR a/c should have equipment for receiving & homing distress frequency.

Search & Rescue Process:

• ELT (Emergency Locator Transmiter) transmits on 121.5 MHz(20KM),243 MHz(20KM) & 406.025(5KM) MHz
(Satellite fq).
• Satellites: 3 polar orbi�ng COSPAS & SARSAT sat. pick these signal & relay the �me & posi�on (accuracy up to 5
nm) to 2 LUTS in India.
• LUT (Local User Terminal) at Bangalore & Lucknow re-transmit them to MCC.
• MCC (Mission Control Centre) at Bangalore re-transmit them to RCC.

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• RCC (Regional Co-ordina�on Centre): FICS (5) of Delhi, Chennai, Mumbai, Kolkata & Guwaha� undertake du�es of
RCC. Addi�onally, RCC sub-centers are also located at Kochi & Udhampur.
• Rescue aircra� belonging to permanent SAR units use the call-sign ZIGZAG.
Uncertainty phase. (INCERFA)
A situa�on wherein uncertainty exists as to the safety of an aircra� and its occupants.

• No communica�on has been received from an aircra� within a period of 30 MIN a�er the �me a communica�on
should have been received.

• An aircra� fails to arrive within 30 MIN of the es�mated �me of arrival last no�fied to or es�mated by air traffic
services units.
Alert phase: (ALERFA)
A situa�on wherein apprehension exists as to the safety of an aircra� and its occupants.

• Cleared to land and fails to land within 5 MIN of the es�mated �me of landing.
• But not to the extent that a forced landing is likely.
• Subject of unlawful interference.
DISTRESS PHASE(DETRESFA)
A situa�on wherein there is a reasonable certainty that an aircra� and its occupants are threatened by grave and imminent danger
and require immediate assistance.

• The fuel on board is considered to be exhausted

• forced landing is likely OR about to make or has made a forced landing.

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AKNOWLEDGE SIGNALS:
• By Day – Rock Wings
• At Night – Flash Landing/Nav Lights Twice

STREAMER COLORS
• Red – Medical
• Blue – Food & Water
• Yellow – Clothes & Blankets
• Black – Miscellaneous

Distress/Emergency Frequencies
• 500/2182/8364 KHz: Mari�me distress frequency (HF)
• 121.5/243.0 MHz: Aeronau�cal emergency frequency (VHF/UHF)
• 123.1 MHz: Auxiliary aeronau�cal frequency (SAR)
• 156.8 MHz: Interna�onal mari�me safety & calling fq (Ch.16)
• 406.025 MHz: PLB satellite frequency (UHF)
• 4125 KHz: AIR SHIP HF (SAR)

Signals with surface cra�

The following maneuvers performed in sequence by an aircra� mean that the aircra� wishes to direct a surface cra�
towards an aircra� or a surface cra� in distress:
a) circling the surface cra� at least once;
b) crossing the projected course of the surface cra� close ahead at low al�tude and:
1) rocking the wings; or
2) opening and closing the throtle; or
3) changing the propeller pitch.
c) heading in the direc�on in which the surface cra� is to be directed.

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IF assistance no longer required crossing the wake of the surface cra� close astern at a low al�tude and:
1) rocking the wings; or
2) opening and closing the throtle; or
3) changing the propeller pitch.

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Security
ICAO Annex 17

Introduc�on-

• It deals with rules concerning security of crew, pax & cargo, along with airport design & access control. It is mainly
intended to safeguard interna�onal avia�on, & if possible, apply it to domes�c avia�on.
• Na�onal security agency of the State has to provide a writen version of its 'security program for civil avia�on', to other
contrac�ng States.
• Operators must not carry luggage of passengers who are not onboard a/c.
• Airside: Part of an airport in which security is controlled.

Poten�al Disrup�ve Pax: Deportee, inadmissible, person in custody, etc.-

• These pax must board the aircra� before all other passengers.
• There must be no contact between them & other passengers. If there was any contact, baggage screening must be re-
done.

Armed Officers of the Law with weapons may be permited to travel in a civil aircra� by special sanc�on by State, provided: -

• En-route State & des�na�on aerodrome State has given permission;

• Des�na�on airport is informed;
• The PIC is aware of his seat number;
• The weapon is stowed in an inaccessible area.

Carriage of Arms/Dangerous/Restricted Items:

• Weapons must not be carried without permission of Central Govt.

• 'Opera�ons Manual' must include procedures for such transport.
• Restricted items/arms must be stowed at a place not accessible to pax.
• Dangerous cargo can be carried in passenger cabin, if specified in the technical manual. They should be clearly marked &
properly packed.
• Consignor must provide a writen note specifying nature & wt of cargo.

Unlawful Interference:

• All a/c with >60 seats or AUW>45500 should have a cockpit door that is lockable from inside & designed to withstand
firearms/grenades.
• States must ensure that: -
o Operators have a con�ngency procedure against hijackers;
o Aircra� experiencing unlawful interference are not denied ATC services, permission to land, or use of nav-aids;
o If prac�cal, hijacked aircra� should not be permited to take-off unless there is a risk of loss of life;
o Safety & provisions for the comfort of the crew and passengers are ensured un�l the aircra� journey is con�nued.

AIRCRAFT ACCIDENT AND INVESTIGATION

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Annex 13
Introduc�on-

• The purpose of accident inves�ga�on is to understand what went wrong and to prevent further such accidents.
Nothing else.
• ICAO must be no�fied of any accident/serious incident involving an aircra� with AUW > 2250 kg.
• For aircra� with AUW > 5700 kg, a final report is to be sent to ICAO in any ICAO working language, on comple�on
of accident inves�ga�on.
• DG AAIB is responsible for aircra� accident and inves�ga�on.
Accident-

• It is an occurrence where-in an aircra� sustains structural failure on ground/air, requiring repair, except engine
failure; or-
• A person was fatally injured in flight; or has died within 30 days of an accident due to an injury caused by the
accident; or An aircra� is missing or inaccessible.
• All accidents must be reported to DGCA within 24 hrs of occurrence.
Serious Incident-

• It is an incident that nearly caused an accident.

• They must be reported to DGCA within 24 hrs of occurrence.
Incident

• An occurrence other than an accident, associated with a/c opera�ons & its safety. It must be reported to DGCA
within 48 hrs of occurrence.
• A�er an incident, only a�er DGCA clears the pilot can he commence flying.
Accident Inves�ga�on:

• The State in which accident took place must start the inves�ga�on.
• If State refuses, then the State of Registry or operator will inves�gate.
• If accident occurs in a non-contrac�ng State or in interna�onal territory, or if aircra� posi�on is unknown, then
State of Registry will inves�gate.
• A final report by the State conduc�ng the inves�ga�on is to be sent to:
o State that started the inves�ga�on; --
o State of aircra� registry/operator, aircra� design/manufacturer; -
o State of which there were ci�zen casual�es;
o Other States that provided help.
Notification:

• Send no�ce thereof to Aircra� Accident Inves�ga�on Bureau (AAIB) and DGCA.

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• In the case of an accident of incident occurring in India, give informa�on to the DM and the Officer-in-charge of the nearest
Police Sta�on of the accident or incident and of the place where it occurred.

 The aircra� or any parts or contents thereof may be removed for the purpose of extrica�ng persons or animals dead or
alive, or preven�ng the destruc�on of the aircra� and its contents by fire or other cause, or preven�ng any damage or
obstruc�on to the public or to air naviga�on or to other transport.
 Goods may be removed from the aircra� under the supervision of an officer of the AAIB or a person authorised by the DG,
AAIB.
 Personal luggage of passengers and crew a�er photography, weighing, etc. may be removed from the aircra� under the
supervision of a Police Officer, a Magistrate, an Officer of the Aircra� Accident Inves�ga�on Bureau or a person authorised
by DG, AAIB.
 Mails photography, weighing etc. may be removed under the supervision of a Police Officer, a Magistrate, an Officer of the
Department of Posts and Telegraphs or an Officer of the Aircra� Accident Inves�ga�on Bureau or a person authorized by
DG, AAIB.

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FACILITATION
Annex 9
Facilita�on of Aircra�-

• It is a document that provides entry of aircra� into a country. It can be electronic, type writen or writen in
ink/indelible pencil.
• General Declara�on: An interna�onally accepted form, containing aircra� registra�on details, flight number, date
& place of departure, des�na�on and number of crew/passengers. It is signed by the PIC. Contrac�ng States may
not require more than 2 copies of General Declara�on, manifest & stores list.
• An oral declara�on concerning passengers, baggage & crew is considered sufficient. A random check will be
acceptable.
• For a '2nd degree of freedom' flight, submission of flight plan 2 hours before arrival is considered sufficient to
land in another country provided, they land at an interna�onal airport.
• No customs charges will be levied to any a/c registered in another state.
Facilita�on of Crew-

• The crew of transit/connec�ng flights may stay temporarily without being subject to inspec�on except during
security eventuali�es. -
• The State has to ensure that when crew baggage is checked, it is done so expedi�ously & without delay.
• States shall make provisions for expedi�ous & temporary entry of technical personnel into a foreign country to
repair an aircra� on the ground.
• If not stopping for passengers, the crew will be allowed to stay 'duty-free' �ll such �me as set by the State.
CMC Crew Member Card: -

• CMC holders are exempt from customs, health & immigra�on.

• CMC can be used as an ID when presented along with a valid flight crew license.
• Any crew having a CMC will not require a VISA or passport to stay in a city provided they will return back for his
next scheduled duty return flight.

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PERSONNEL LICENSING
 Type Ra�ng - Ra�ng on each aircra� whenever considered necessary by the authority.
 Class Ra�ng- Single Engine Land, Single Engine Sea, Mul� Engine Land and Mul� Engine Sea.
 Instrument ra�ng: issued to a pilot a�er demonstra�on of necessary IF skills. Its validity is 1 year. A valid IR is a must for
night flying.
 Proficiency checks are valid for six months from the date of the check and can be renewed for another six months at a
�me.
 If the check is renewed within two months of the previous validity period expiring, the new validity period begins on the
day the previous one expired.
 Dura�on of currency of medical assessment starts from the date of examina�on.
 Cross-country flight: beyond a radius of 100 nau�cal miles

 Examina�on: VALID FOR 5 YRS

SPL:

PPL:
• Minimum age for PPL is 17 years
• He can fly a private aircra�, but not for remunera�on.

CPL:
• Minimum age for CPL is 18 yrs.
• AT the �me of applica�on:
• Can act as PIC only up to 5700kgs AUW and entered in his license.

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1. The period of validity of the ini�al medical fitness assessment shall commence from the date of the medical examina�on.
2. In case of renewal, the period of validity of medical fitness assessment shall commence from the date following the date
of expiry of the previous medical fitness assessment, subject to the condi�on that the medical examina�on for renewal
has been conducted one month preceding the date of expiry of the previous validity.

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VISUAL AID FOR NAVIGATION
• Airfield: Large grass fields where runways may be marked.
• Airport: Point of entry/exit of an aircra� from a country.
• Aerodrome: A place where aircra� can land & take off.
• Interna�onal Aerodrome: Aerodrome where customs, immigra�on & excise control is established on persons & cargo.
• Controlled Aerodrome must have a control tower & a visual control room.
• Aerodrome Eleva�on: Eleva�on of the highest point in the landing area.
• ARP Aerodrome Reference Point: Geographical loca�on of aerodrome. Where an ATZ is established, it is the Centre of the
traffic zone.
• Apron: A designated area for parking of aircra�, embarka�on & disembarka�on of passengers, loading & unloading of
cargo, etc.
• Maneuvering Area: Area including runway + taxiway.
• Movement Area: Area including runway + taxiway + apron.
• Signal Square is needed if aerodrome accepts non-radio aircra� traffic. Minimum size is 9 m² & must be visual 10° above
horizontal at 3000‘.
• Isolated Parking Bay must be at least 100 m away from other bays.
• Long Finals: When a/c is 8 nm from threshold, on a straight-in approach.
• Finals: When aircra� is at 4 nm from the threshold.
• Baulked Landing: A landing maneuver unexpectedly discon�nued.
• Flight in Vicinity of Aerodrome: All turns are to be made to le� while take-off/landing, except in a right-hand circuit.

Runway Defini�on

• Runway: An area prepared on land, where an aircra� can takeoff/land.

• Runway Strip: An area of defined dimension; enclosing a runway &taxiway, intended to provide safe take-off & landing for
an aircra�.
• Instrument Runway needs to be of minimum 1800 m (6000') length.
• Near Parallel Runway: 2 non-intersec�ng r/w with convergence of <15°.
• Threshold: Beginning of usable por�on of runway, for takeoff/landing.
• HST High-Speed Taxiway: A taxiway provided to expedite runway vaca�on by aircra� at 50 kts (for a code 3,4 runway) & 25
kts (for a code 1,2 runway). HST has to be at an angle of 30° (min 25°, max45°) to the runway.
• Runway Slope: Difference in threshold heights in %. Max permited slope for a runway is 2%.
• Dry Runway: A runway that is neither wet nor contaminated. (less than 25% of its surface covered with water or equivalent)
• Damp Runway: A r/w whose surface color has changed due to moisture. A damp runway doesn't affect a/c performance
for take-off or landing.
• Wet Runway: A runway whose surface appears reflec�ve due to the presence of water but no significant standing water.
(more than 25% of its surface covered with water or equivalent depth of less than 1\8th inch (3 mm.))
• Contaminated Runway: A runway with more than 25% of its surface covered with water or equivalent depth of more than
1\8th inch (3 mm).
• Flooded Runway: A runway with more than 50% of its surface covered with water or equivalent depth of 3 mm.
• Large Aircra�: Any aircra� with AUW> 5,700 kg.

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• MEHT Minimum Eye Height over Threshold: Height between pilot's eye& ground when the aircra� is over the threshold
(height from threshold to aircra� wheel + wheel to pilot eye).
• MABH Minimum Approach Break-off Height: Lowest height above ground, at which, if a missed approach is ini�ated,
aircra� won't touch the ground.

Aerodrome reference code

• Element 1 – Runway Length (1-4)

• Element 2 – Wingspan and Main Gear Wheel Span (A-F)

PCN: Pavement Classifica�on Number:

• First leter: it indicates the rigidity of the pavement

o R for rigid (most typically concrete)
o F for flexible (most typically asphalt)
• Second leter:
o A for high strength
o B for medium strength
o C for low strength
o D for ultralow strength
• Third leter: it expresses the maximum �re pressure that the pavement can support
o W: Unlimited: no pressure limit
o X: High: pressure limited to 1.75 MPa
o Y: Medium: pressure limited to 1.25 MPa
o Z: Low: pressure limited to 0.50 Mpa
• Fourth leter: it describes how the PCN numerical value was Determined
o T indicates technical evalua�on
o U indicates usage -- a physical tes�ng regime

If ACN>PCN AIRCRAFT CAN’T LAND ON THAT RUNWAY.

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1. RUNWAY MARKINGS:

• All runway markings are in white.

• 2-digit number corresponding to magne�c heading.
• runway direc�on rounded to the nearest 10 deg. e.g runway 27 will have a magne�c bearing between 265 deg to 274 deg.
• If there are 2 || r/w, they are marked as 27L (le�) & 27R (right).

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• If there are 3 r/w, they are marked as 27L, 27C (Centre) & 27R.
• If there are 4 || r/w, they are marked as 27L, 27R, 28L & 28R.

Runway Centre Line Marking-

• Length of each stripe is 30m. Stripe + gap must be min 50m, max 75m.

Runway Threshold Marking (Piano keys)–

• Stripes that iden�fy beginning of runway that is available for landing.

• Each stripe is 30m long, 1.8m wide & has 1.8m gap between stripes. -

Displaced Threshold

• It can be temporary or permanent.

• Por�on of runway behind it can be used only for taxi/take-off.

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Abandoned Runway:

White 'X's marked along length of r/w, 1000' apart.

TDZ Touchdown Zone Marking-

• Stripes 150 m (500') apart, iden�fy TDZ where a/c should be landed

Runway Aiming Point Marking:

• They are 30-60m long & 4-10m wide

Runway Side-stripe Marking:

• A con�nuous white stripe painted on r/w sides to provide visual contrast between runway pavement & ground.

Runway Shoulder Marking:

• A con�nuous yellow line to supplement runway side stripes, to iden�fy pavement areas adjacent to the runway sides that
are not intended for use by aircra�.

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Runway Holding Point:

• This line must never be crossed without explicit instruc�on from ATC.
• They are marked at min 75 m from runway c/l or 50m from runway edge.

ILS Cri�cal Holding Point:

• Runway holding point for Cat II/III ILS protec�on areas. It consists of 2 solid yellow lines connected by pairs of ver�cal lines,
extending across the width of the taxiway.

Taxiway Intersec�on Holding Point:

• Single yellow dashed line extending across the width of the taxiway.

Non-movement Area Boundary Markings:

• It consists of 2 yellow lines,1 solid & 1 dashed. The solid line is located on the non-movement area side (not under ATC
control). Dashed yellow line is located on the movement area side (ATC controlled).

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APRON SAFETY LINES

• Red
• Define areas that can be used for ground vehicles

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2. AERODROME SIGNS:

All signs in an aerodrome must be frangible on impact.

• Mandatory Signs: Red board, white letering. E.g. runway number.

• Informa�on Signs: Yellow board, black letering. E.g. taxi links.
• Loca�on Signs: Black board, yellow letering. E.g. taxiway designator.
• Dist. to-go Marker: Black board, white numbers, every 1000' along r/w.
• Signs showing numbers are always associated only with runways.

3. AERODROME LIGHTING SYSTEM

• Must be frangible on impact. Its max height must be below propellor height.
• Lights must be ON from night to day; or when visibility is <3000 m.
• Aerodrome lights can be switched OFF provided they can be put ON 1 hour before ETA of the aircra�.
Aerodrome Beacon:
These are flashing lights (24-30 flashes/min) installed usually above ATC tower, that iden�fy aerodrome loca�on. -
• Land Aerodrome: Flashing white & green beacon.
• Water Aerodrome: Flashing white & yellow beacon.
Aerodrome iden�fica�on beacon:

• Land: green flashes in morse code (icao name)

• Water: yellow flashes in morse code

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Taxiway Lights-

• Taxiway Edge Lights are of blue color, placed 60 m apart.

• Taxiway Centerline Lights are of green color.
• Taxiway Leadoff Lights: Alternate yellow/green lights that lead away from a runway centerline to a taxiway.
• ILS sensi�ve area: Taxiway lights of alterna�ng yellow/green.
Threshold Lights:

• 6 unidirec�onal green Its placed at r/w beginning.

TDZL Touchdown Zone Lights:

• Installed on a Cat II/III ILS runway with length > 1800 m. It consists of strips of white lights, on either side of the centerline,
from threshold �ll 900 m.
RCLS Runway Centreline Lights:

• White lights, placed every 50’ along runway centerline.

• Last 900 m of r/w Its are red & white. Last 300 m Its are all red.
• RCLS is mandatory for a Cat II/III ILS runway.
• RCLS is required for low visibility take-off when RVR < 400m.
REIL Runway End Iden�fier Lights:

• 2 synchronized flashing unidirec�onal lights aimed 10° -15° up.

REDL Runway Edge Lights:

• White lights along runway edge, 60 m apart for an instrument r/w & 100 m apart for a non-instrument r/w.
• Last ½ of runway or 600m whichever is less, is in amber colour.
• If the threshold is displaced, then REDLS are of red color from the beginning of the runway �ll the displaced threshold.
Runway Guard Lights:

• 2 flashing yellow lights on both sides of taxi holding point.

HST High-Speed Taxiway (RAPID EXIT TAXIWAY):

• A taxiway provided to expedite runway vaca�on by aircra� at 50 kts (for a code 3,4 runway) & 25 kts (for a code 1,2
runway). HST has to be at an angle of 30° (min 25°, max45°) to the runway.

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Obstruc�on Lights: -

• Low Intensity: A steady red light is used for obstruc�ons < 45 m height.
o A flashing red or yellow light is used for a mobile obstruc�on.
o Emergency or security shall be flashing-blue and those displayed on other vehicles shall be flashing-yellow.
• Medium Intensity: A flashing white light is used for obstruc�ons > 45 m.
• High Intensity: For obstruc�ons > 150 m, sequen�al flashing white lights (3 nos) are placed along the length of the
obstruc�on.
• En-route Obstacles are objects > 150 m high, within 15 km radius from an aerodrome.

Obstruc�ons Markings within an aerodrome:

• Buildings: Marked with red and white squares.

• Vehicles: Aerodrome u�lity vehicles are painted yellow.

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• Emergency Vehicles: Painted red or yellowish-green, e.g. fire trucks.

Aerodrome Emergency Service Category-

• Category of fire protec�on required is based on the overall length of the biggest opera�ng aircra� & its maximum
fuselage width.
• Emergency service response �me to either end of r/w must be <3 min.
PAPI AND VASI

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BARRETTE:
Three or more ground lights closely spaced together to appear as bas APPROACH LIGHTING SYSTEMS (ALS)

APPROACH LIGHTING SYSTEM

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• Simple Approach Ligh�ng System: for Non-Instrument runway
• Simple Approach Ligh�ng System: for Non-precision approach runway
• Precision approach runway Cat-I Ligh�ng System
• Precision approach runway Cat-II/III Ligh�ng System
Simple approach ligh�ng system:

Precision approach runway Cat-I Ligh�ng System:

Precision approach runway Cat-II/III Ligh�ng System:

Length =900 meters

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PROCEDURES FOR AIR NAVIGATION SERVICES
Important defini�ons:
Base turn. A turn executed by the aircra� during the ini�al approach between the end of the outbound track and the beginning of
the intermediate or final approach track. The tracks are not reciprocal.

Circling approach. An extension of an instrument approach procedure which provides for visual circling of the aerodrome prior to
landing.

Dead reckoning (DR) naviga�on. The es�ma�ng or determining of posi�on by advancing an earlier known posi�on by the
applica�on of direc�on, �me and speed data.

Decision al�tude (DA) or decision height (DH). A specified al�tude or height in a 3D instrument approach opera�on at which a
missed approach must be ini�ated if the required visual reference to con�nue the approach has not been established.

Note — Decision al�tude (DA) is referenced to mean sea level and decision height (DH) is referenced to the threshold eleva�on.

Minimum descent al�tude (MDA) or minimum descent height (MDH). A specified al�tude or height in a 2D instrument approach
opera�on or circling approach opera�on below which descent must not be made without the required visual reference.

Note — Minimum descent al�tude (MDA) is referenced to mean sea level and minimum descent height (MDH) is referenced to the
aerodrome eleva�on or to the threshold eleva�on if that is more than 2 m (7 �) below the aerodrome eleva�on. A minimum
descent height for a circling approach is referenced to the aerodrome eleva�on.

DME distance. The line-of-sight distance (slant range) from the source of a DME signal to the receiving antenna.

Hot spot. A loca�on on an aerodrome movement area with a history or poten�al risk of collision or runway incursion, and where
heightened aten�on by pilots/drivers is necessary.

Minimum sector al�tude (MSA). The lowest al�tude which may be used which will provide a minimum clearance of 300 m (1 000
�) above all objects located in an area contained within a sector of a circle of 46 km (25 NM) radius centred on a significant point,
the aerodrome reference point (ARP) or the heliport reference point (HRP).

Minimum obstacle clearance al�tude (MOCA). The minimum al�tude for a defined segment that provides the required obstacle
clearance.

Minimum en-route al�tude (MEA). The al�tude for an en-route segment that provides adequate recep�on of relevant naviga�on
facili�es and ATS communica�ons, complies with the airspace structure and provides the required obstacle clearance.

Obstacle clearance al�tude (OCA) or obstacle clearance height (OCH). The lowest al�tude or the lowest height above the eleva�on
of the relevant runway threshold or the aerodrome eleva�on as applicable, used in establishing compliance with appropriate
obstacle clearance criteria.

Note — Obstacle clearance al�tude is referenced to mean sea level and obstacle clearance height is referenced to the threshold
eleva�on or in the case of non-precision approach procedures to the aerodrome eleva�on or the threshold eleva�on if that is
more than 2 m (7 �) below the aerodrome eleva�on. An obstacle clearance height for a circling approach procedure is referenced
to the aerodrome eleva�on.

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Procedure turn. A manoeuvre in which a turn is made away from a designated track followed by a turn in the opposite direc�on to
permit the aircra� to intercept and proceed along the reciprocal of the designated track.

Racetrack procedure. A procedure designed to enable the aircra� to reduce al�tude during the ini�al approach segment and/or
establish the aircra� inbound when the entry into a reversal procedure is not prac�cal.

Standard instrument arrival (STAR). A designated instrument flight rule (IFR) arrival route linking a significant point, normally on an
ATS route, with a point from which a published instrument approach procedure can be commenced.

Standard instrument departure (SID). A designated instrument flight rule (IFR) departure route linking the aerodrome or a specified
runway of the aerodrome with a specified significant point, normally on a designated ATS route, at which the en-route phase of a
flight commences.

Waypoint. A specified geographical loca�on used to define an area naviga�on route or the flight path of an aircra� employing area
naviga�on. Waypoints are iden�fied as either:

Fly-by waypoint. A waypoint which requires turn an�cipa�on to allow tangen�al intercep�on of the next segment of a route or
procedure, or

Flyover waypoint. A waypoint at which a turn is ini�ated in order to join the next segment of a route or procedure.

OBSTACLE CLEARANCE:

Obstacle clearance is a primary safety considera�on in the development of instrument approach procedures.

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 Primary Area – ½ Total Width with Full Minimum Obstacle Clearance (MOC)
 Secondary Area – ¼ Total Width and down to 0� MOC.
 Where no track guidance is provided during a turn specified by the procedure, the total width of the area is considered
primary area.
 The minimum obstacle clearance (MOC) equals zero at the departure end of the runway (DER). From that point, it increases
by 0.8 per cent of the horizontal distance in the direc�on of flight assuming a maximum turn of 15°.
 During the turn, a MOC of 90 m (295 �) is provided.
 The minimum obstacle clearance (MOC) value to be applied in the primary area for the en-route phase of an instrument
flight rules (IFR) flight is 300 m (1 000 �). In mountainous areas, this shall be increased depending on the varia�on in
terrain eleva�on as follows:

PROCEDURE DESIGN GRADIENT (PDG) :

 Unless otherwise published, a PDG of 3.3 per cent is assumed.
The PDG is based on:
a) an obstacle iden�fica�on surface (OIS) having a 2.5 per cent gradient
b) an addi�onal margin of 0.8 per cent.

Straight departures:
A straight departure is one in which the ini�al departure track is within 15° of the alignment of the runway centre line.
SIDs are based on track guidance acquired: for conven�onal straight departures, within 20.0 km (10.8 NM) from the
DER.

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Turning departures:
 When a departure route requires a turn of more than 15°, it is called a turning departure.
 Straight flight is assumed un�l reaching an al�tude/height of at least 120 m (394 �).
 Procedures normally cater for turns at a point 600 m from the beginning of the runway.
 SIDs are based on track guidance acquired: for conven�onal turning departures within 10.0 km (5.4 NM) a�er
comple�on of turns;

Wind effect:
• When flying departure routes expressed as tracks or bearings, the pilot shall compensate for known or
es�mated winds.
• When being vectored, the pilot should not compensate for wind effects.

OMNIDIRECTIONAL DEPARTURES
• In cases where no suitable naviga�on aid is available, or no track guidance is provided, omnidirec�onal
procedures are used.
• Where obstacles do not permit development of omnidirec�onal procedures, the pilot shall ensure that ceiling
and visibility will permit obstacles to be avoided visually.
• Omnidirec�onal departures may specify sectors to be avoided.

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 The departure procedure begins at the departure end of the runway (DER), which is the end of the area declared
suitable for take-off (i.e. the end of the runway or clearway as appropriate).

TYPES OF APPROACH

Straight-in Approach:
• Wherever possible, a straight-in approach will be specified which is aligned with the runway centre line. In the
case of non-precision approaches, a straight-in approach is considered acceptable if the angle between the final
approach track and the runway centre line is 30° or less.

• Circling Approach:
A circling approach will be specified in those cases where terrain or other constraints cause the final approach
track alignment or descent gradient to fall outside the criteria for a straight-in approach. The final approach
track of a circling approach procedure is in most cases aligned to pass over some por�on of the usable landing
surface of the aerodrome.

DESCENT GRADIENT
FAF is 5.2 per cent/3.0° (52 m/km (318 �/NM)). Where a steeper descent gradient is necessary, the maximum
permissible is 6.5 per cent/3.7° (65 m/km (395 �/NM) for Category A and B aircra�, 6.1 per cent/3.5° (61 m/km (370
�/NM)) for Category C, D and E aircra�, and 10 per cent (5.7°) for Category H.

Fixes and Fix Accuracy:

• VOR ± 4.5°
• ILS Localizer ± 1.4°
• NDB ± 10.3°

Track Guidance Accuracy.

The width of the MOC area is also dependent upon the accuracy of the track guidance provided by the naviga�on aids
used. The track accuracy for the various aids is defined as follows:

Fix Tolerances for other naviga�on aids

• Terminal Area Surveillance Radar (TAR) : Within 20 NM = ±1.5 km (0.8 NM)

• En route Surveillance Radar (RSR) : Within 40 NM = ±3.1 kms (1.7 NM)
• DME : ±0.46 km (0.25 NM) + 1.25 per cent of the distance to the antenna

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instrument
INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURES:
An instrument approach procedure may have five separate segments. They are:
arrival, ini�al, intermediate, final and missed approach segments.

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 Normal PDG in missed approach in 2.5% Max PDG is 5%.

 Max turns allowed 15 degrees

Maximum angle of intercep�on of ini�al approach segment:

a) 90° for a precision approach; and
b) 120° for a non-precision approach.
Final Segment-
 It starts from FAF & ends at threshold/MAPt.
 Op�mum distance for FAF is 5 nm.

For NPA: FAF is indicated by a 'Maltese Cross' on Approach charts. -

 Aircra� is not to commence descend un�l it is within ±5° of VOR outbound radial or within ±5° of NDB outbound
track.
 Op�mum descend gradient for an NPA final approach is 5.2% (3°).
 Max permited descend gradient for Cat A, B aircra� is 6.5% (3.8°), for Cat C, D, E is 6.1% (3.5°) & for Cat H is
10% (5.7°).
 High ROD approaches (> 6.5%) have to be authorized by State.
 For NPA with FAF, op�mum distance is 5 nm, maximum is 10 nm.
 For NPA without FAF, only 1 available aid is used for IAP & MAPt.
 It is unlikely that NPA final approach track is aligned with r/w c/l.
 Pilots have to maintain within ±5° of final approach track for MOC.
 If there is no FAF, ROD on final approach for Cat A/B is min 394fpm, max 655 fpm & for Cat C/D/E is min 590
fpm, max 1000 fpm.

For PA: FAF is where intermediate al�tude intercepts localizer. -

 PA starts when the glide slope is intercepted.
 Aircra� is not to commence descend un�l it is within 1/2 full-scale deflec�on on ILS localizer.
 Pilots are to maintain within ½ full-scale deflec�on on ILS for MOC.
 If glide path fails during approach, that approach becomes an NPA.

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 If localizer fails during approach, that approach becomes unsafe. Execute a missed approach procedure.
 ILS final approach guidance distance is usually 3 nm - 10 nm.
 In ILS Cat I approaches, descend gradient is between 2.5° -3.5°. Final approach is flown on a pressure al�meter.
 In ILS Cat II/III approaches, descend gradient is fixed at 3°. Final approach is flown on a radio al�meter and a
flight director.

Stabilised approach
Following are the criteria for establishing 'Stabilized Approach' when an aircra� is on various types of final approach: -
 During NPA: Aircra� is stable in speed & ROD by 1000' AGL on finals.
 During PA: CDI indica�on is within 1 dot of localizer & glide slope.
 During VMC Visual Approach: Wings level by 500' AGL.
 During VMC Circling Approach: Wings level by 300' AGL.
 Speed: Within +20/-0 kts of reference speed (VREF).
 Max ROD on finals permited is 1000'/min.
 Appropriate power se�ngs are applied. -
 Aircra� is in proper landing configura�on.
 Crew briefings & checklists are completed.

Final Approach Length:

The intermediate approach al�tude/height generally intercepts the glide path/ MLS eleva�on angle at heights from
300m (1 000 �) to 900 m (3 000 �) above runway eleva�on. In this case, for a 3° glide path, intercep�on occurs
between 6 km (3 NM) and 19 km (10 NM) from the threshold.

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VISUAL MANOEUVRING (CIRCLING) IN THE VICINITY OF THE AERODROME:

Visual maneuvering (circling) is the term used to describe the phase of flight a�er an instrument approach has been
completed. It brings the aircra� into posi�on for landing on a runway which is not suitably located for straight-in approach,
i.e. one where the criteria for alignment or descent gradient cannot be met.
The radius of the arcs is related to:
a) aircra� category;
b) speed: speed for each category;
c) wind speed: 46 km/h (25 kt) throughout the turn; and
d) bank angle: 20° average or 3° per second, whichever requires less bank.

MISSED APPROACH PROCEDURE WHILE CIRCLING

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If visual reference is lost while circling to land from an instrument approach, the missed approach specified for that par�cular
procedure must be followed. The pilot will make an ini�al climbing turn toward the landing runway and overhead the aerodrome.
At this point, the pilot will establish the aircra� climbing on the missed approach track.

HOLDING

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 STANDARD HOLDING PATTERN RIGHT HAND TURNS.

 MOC in holding 1000 �. (2000� in mountainous areas).
 You should be at the holding level within 5 nm from the holding fix.
 Separa�on in the hold 5nm or prescribed distance.
 Shutle – Climb/descent in the hold

Reversal procedures:

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Transponder:

Key points:
 No calls allocated by ATC – 2000 by default
 ATC may ask you to switch off the transponder when error exceeds by +-300�.
 SSR transponder to be switched on (operated at all �mes) unless advised by ATC.
 Pilot always have to read back the code and mode to be set.
 Mode A transmits call sign only.
 Mode C transmits call sign and pressure al�tude.
 Press the ident only if asked by ATC.
 If ident if failed, put it on standby and then again press ON do it several �mes.
 No 8 and 9 keys are used in transponder.

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ALTIMETER SETTINGS
• QNH: Your al�tude above mean sea level.
• QNE: Your al�tude standardized to 1013.25 hPa.
• QFE: Your al�tude rela�ve to the local airfield pressure.

Transi�on al�tude/ transi�on level:

• Below Transi�on Al�tude - Ver�cal posi�on will be expressed as Al�tude from QNH.
• Above Transi�on Level - Ver�cal posi�on will be expressed as flight level from QNE.
• Transi�on Layer is either 1000' or 1499'.
• Transi�on Al�tude in India is 4000 �.
• While climbing through Transi�on Layer - Ver�cal Posi�on is expressed as Flight Level
• (FL).
• While descending through Transi�on Layer - Ver�cal Posi�on is expressed as Al�tude.
• QNH will be communicated to Pilot in the taxi Clearance and while approaching
(before Transi�on Level) for landing before Aircra� enters the circuit patern.
• Transi�on Al�tude is published in AIP and appropriate charts.

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• As transi�on layer varies in summers and winters, transi�on layer is not published in AIP, it is confirmed with ATIS
or ATC before flight.
• A pre-flight al�meter check should be carried out at a known eleva�on on aerodrome.
• Al�meter tolerance:
o Known height ±20m (60�) up to 30,000�
o Known height ±25m (80�) up to 50,000�

Traffic collision and avoidance system (TCAS)

TCAS 1 ( designed only to display traffic):
• Gives only (TA traffic advisories) 40 sec before impact.
• Pilot hen has to look out and take preven�ve measures.
• Gives bearing and distance of other aircra�.
• Sound that comes before 40 sec. of impact is “traffic traffic”
TCAS 2
• More accurate
• Gives TA and RA, resolu�on advisories are the avoidance maneuver only in ver�cal direc�on.
• Issues RA before 20 sec of impact. It is to be taken as a command.
• Can give RA to 3 a/c at a �me.
• Will not give RA’s below 1000� and will not ask to descend below 1000�.

Visual display:
 Hollow lazange (diamond) = a/c is moer than 6nm away and +-1200 � away.
 Solid lazange = a/c within 6nm and +-1200 � away.
 Solid yellow circle = issues TA, 40 sec le� for impact.
 Solid red square = issues RA do avoidance maneuveur as commanded.

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Order of priority:
 Stall speed
 GPWS
 Wind shear
 TCAS

 Tcas has priority over ATC instruc�ons.

 Pilots should not maneuver the aircra� in response to TA only.
 Follow RA in case of conflic�ng informa�on from ATC.
 No�fy ATC in case of RA and any devia�on from ATC clearance.

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NATIONAL LAW
1920 Indian Aircra� Rules:

• It mainly provides rules regarding customs.

1934 Aircra� Act:

• It governs manufacture, opera�ons, sale & import of aircra�. However, Central Government can, by a 'Gazete', exempt
anyone from this.
• These rules apply to Ci�zens of India, wherever they are;
o Aircra� & passengers on an aircra� registered in India;
o Aircra� & passengers on an aircra� not registered in India, but is currently flying over India;
o Aircra� operated by a non-Indian, but his place of business and residence is in India.
• Govt has the power to detain any a/c & has wreck & salvage rights.
• Penalty of contraven�on to this Act: 2 years prison + Rs.10 lakh fine.
• Penalty for slaughtering animals/deposi�ng rubbish within 10 km of an aerodrome ARP: 3 years prison + Rs.10 lakh fine.

1937 Aircra� Rules: It lays down regula�ons for civil avia�on in India.

Amendment to these rules is published by DGCA in AIC.

Some of the important Aircra� Rules are: -

• Crew must communicate with a boom-mic when on ground &receiving departure clearance or when engines are running
or when in air, aircra� is below TA/10000', whichever higher.
• Type Ra�ng - Ra�ng on each aircra� whenever considered necessary by the
authority.
• Class Ra�ng- Single Engine Land, Single Engine Sea, Mul� Engine Land and Mul�
Engine Sea.
• Supersonic flight is not permited in Indian airspace.
• No aircra� will fly over published 'Prohibited Areas'.
• Forma�on flying is not permited for any civil aircra� in India.
• Military a/c forma�on must be within .5 nm laterally, 100' ver�cally & forma�on must operate as a single unit for
nav/posi�on repor�ng. Separa�on between a/c in forma�on is responsibility of flight leader.
• No Aeroba�cs is permited within 6 nm of aerodrome & below 6000�
• Night Flying: Any flying 1/2 hr a�er sunset to 1/2 hr before sunrise.
• Petroleum in Bulk: Term used when petroleum qty > 900 liters.
• Succession of Command of crew is to be published by operator.
• Radio: No person without RTR licence will operate aircra� radio.
• Mail: No mail is to be carried in a/c without permission of DG Post.
• Hangar: Aircra� with fuel in their wings is to be parked in a well-ven�lated hangar, cer�fied with non-inflammable
materials

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1954 Aircra� Public Health Rules-

• The PIC shall inform ATC at least 2 hrs before arrival if any person onboard the aircra� is suffering from
infec�ous/quaran�nable disease.
• Dead bodies (OR human remains) with yellow fever, plague, anthrax, Glanders (PAYG) are not allowed in a/c, properly
cremated ashes allowed.
• Other dead bodies are allowed if they are properly enclosed in a coffin. 48 hrs. prior informa�on.

Period Of Incuba�on” In Respect of a Quaran�nable Disease:

Remember CoPYReST.

CO-Cholera  5 days

P-Plague  6 days

Y-Yellow fever  6 days

RE-Relapsing fever  8 days

S-Smallpox  14 days

T-Typhus  14 days

1994 Rules on obstruc�ons/demoli�on w.r.t. buildings around aerodromes.

2003 Rules on the carriage of dangerous goods

2011 Rules on aircra� security

2012 Rules regarding aircra� accident inves�ga�on.

 CARRIAGE OF ARMS, AMMUNITION, EXPLOSIVES, MILITARY STORES, ETC: - writen permission of the Central Government.

 MAILS: -wri�ng of the Director-General of Posts and Telegraphs.

 PHOTOGRAPH AT AERODROMES: -Permission in wri�ng granted by the Director-General, a Joint Director General, a Deputy
Director-General or the Director of Regula�ons and Informa�on of the Civil Avia�on Department.

 PROHIBITION ON CONSUMPTION OF INTOXICATING AND PSYCHOACTIVE SUBSTANCES –

o No alcohol is to be consumed by the flight crew 12hrs before a flight.
o No alcohol must be served in domes�c flights.

 FLIGHT NAVIGATOR:
o A navigator is required if an aircra� is without a nav-equipment that can give instant and con�nuous posi�on data if
flight is more than 600 nms.

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 CARRIAGE OF PERSONS SUFFERING FROM MENTAL DISORDERS OR EPILEPSY IN AIRCRAFT:
o Cer�fied by a registered medical prac��oner to be fit to travel by air.
o Is kept under proper seda�ve, if in a state of excitement.
o Is accompanied by an atendant.

 CARRIAGE OF PRISONERS IN AIRCRAFT:

o with a permit in wri�ng issued by the Director-General, a Deputy Director-General, the Director of Regula�ons and
Informa�on or any other officer of the Civil Avia�on Department authorized by the Central Government.

 SMOKING IN AIRCRAFT:

o If it is permited by the cer�ficate of airworthiness of the aircra� or by the direc�on of the Central Government.

 PROHIBITION ON THE USE OF PORTABLE ELECTRONIC DEVICES:

o Pilot-in-Command may permit the use of cellular telephone by the passengers of a flight a�er the aircra� has landed
and cleared ac�ve runway, except when the landing takes place in low visibility condi�ons.
o shall not apply to portable voice recorders, hearing aids, heart pacemaker, electric shavers or other portable electronic
devices.

 FUELLING OF AIRCRAFT:

The following distances are to be maintained during the refuelling process:

o Building - 15 M
o Person - 15 M
o Smoking - 30 M (Naked Flame)
o Jet Blast - 43 M
o For safety reasons, a person shall remain at least 200� away from jet engine.
o No passenger must be seated inside a/c while refueling, unless no. of seats inside a/c > 20.

 LOG BOOKS:

o All entries in log books shall be made in ink.

o Log Books shall be preserved for not less than 5 years a�er the date of the last entry therein.
o Every member of the Flight Crew shall cer�fy the accuracy of the entries in his log book with respect to flight �me at
least at the end of each calendar month.
o At the end of every quarter in a year, that is, at the end of March, June, September and December, log books shall be
cer�fied for correctness of entries.

 Prohibi�on of slaughtering and slaying of animals, deposi�ng of rubbish and other polluted or obnoxious mater in the
vicinity of aerodrome:

o Not allowed within a radius of ten kilometers from the aerodrome reference point.
o Permited if permission in wri�ng from Director-General, a Joint Director General of Civil Avia�on or a Deputy Director
General of Civil Avia�on.

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 REMOVAL OF DAMAGED AIRCRAFT:

o On aircra� wrecked on water or land may be removed under the supervision of officer of police or magistrate or cad
(civil avia�on department)
o Landing, parking and housing charges are based on the total all up weight of an aircra� contained in the COA.
o No building or structure shall be constructed or erected, or no tree shall be planted on any land within such radius, not
exceeding 20 km from the ARP.

CABIN CREW REQUIREMENTS:

For an aeroplane having a sea�ng capacity of One cabin crew.

not less than 10 and not more than 50
passengers.
For a helicopter having a sea�ng capacity of not One cabin crew.
less than 20 and not more than 50 passengers.
For an aeroplane or a helicopter having a Two cabin crew plus one cabin crew for each
sea�ng capacity of more than 50 Passengers. unit (or part of a unit) of 50 passenger’s seats
above a sea�ng capacity of 99 passengers.

Air Defence Clearance

• ADC is to issued expect when flying within a radius of 5 NM from the ARP and ver�cal limit of 1000 � (Within 5 NM and
below 1000� - no ADC is required)
• ADC is valid for the en�re route irrespec�ve of number of halts in between.
• If there is more than 30 min delay in departure, then new ADC is to be requested.
• All aircra�s need ADC 10 min before entering ADIZ (Air Defence Iden�fica�on Zone).
• Valid for 1hr for scheduled and 3 hrs for non- scheduled flight.

Fuel requirements
Piston Prop Aircra� Turbojet Aircra� (Turbine Engine)
When ALTN Aerodrome is required (IFR When ALTN Aerodrome is required (IFR
Flight) Flight)
• Fuel to DSTN + FUEL to ALTN + 45 min of • Fuel to DSTN + FUEL to ALTN + 30 min of
holding fuel holding fuel over alternate Aerodrome
@ 1500 � AGL
When ALTN is not required (VFR Flight) When ALTN is not required (VFR Flight)
• Fuel To DSTN + 45 min of holding fuel • Fuel to DSTN + 30 min of holding fuel @
1500 � AGL
When ALTN is not available (Isolated When ALTN is not available (Isolated
Aerodrome) Aerodrome)
• Fuel to DSTN + 45 min of fuel and 15% • Fuel to DSTN + 2 hours of fuel at normal
of trip fuel or 2 hours of fuel at normal Consump�on
consump�on (whichever is less)

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REGISTRATION AND AIRWORTHINESS

• No one shall fly an aircra� unless it is registered and na�onality/registra�on marks are painted on the aircra�. Aircra�
without registra�on marks may be flown with writen permission from DGCA. -
• No aircra� registered in India will fly outside India unless it has a valid permit from DGCA.
• Cat A Operator: A/c owned by Govt, or an Indian ci�zen/company.
• Cat B Operator: Aircra� owned by non-ci�zen but has his business/residence in India.

Cer�ficate of Registra�on: -

• It is an official document cer�fying that State of registry has registered the aircra�. It is valid un�l the destruc�on of the
aircra�.

It includes:

• Na�onality & registra�on marks

• Type of aircra�
• Year of manufacture
• Serial number
• Name & address of owner
• If leased, name of lessee and lessor.

The registra�on of an aircra� registered in India may be cancelled at any �me DGCA, if it is sa�sfied that:

• Such registra�on is not in conformity with the provisions.

• The registra�on has been obtained by furnishing false informa�on.
• The aircra� could more suitably be registered in some other country.
• The cer�ficate of airworthiness in respect of the aircra� has expired for a period of five years or more.
• The aircra� has been destroyed or permanently withdrawn from use.
• The lease in respect of the aircra�, has expired or has been terminated.

Cer�ficate of Airworthiness-

 CofA is issued/renewed/cancelled by the State of registra�on (DGCA)

 ICAO standard form of CofA includes na�onality, registra�on marks, designa�on of aircra� (e.g. Boeing 747-400) & serial
number.
 CofA ensures a/c is developed & manufactured properly & is fit to fly.
 The State of the manufacturer has to ensure that aircra� standards are equal to or above ICAO regula�ons.
 CofA is re-validated at periodic inspec�ons of a/c, as per rules of State.
 If a/c is damaged, CofA has to be re-issued a�er repair & inspec�on.
 The State may temporarily exempt CofA for a prototype aircra�.
 Defect record needs to be maintained for all a/c with AUW > 5700 kg.

The Cer�ficate of Airworthiness of an aircra� shall be deemed to be suspended when:

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 An aircra� ceases or fails to conform with the requirements / rules in respect of opera�on, maintenance, modifica�on,
repair, replacement, overhaul, process or inspec�on applicable to that aircra�.
 Airworthiness review cer�ficate is not valid.
 "Lifed" components when due are not replaced / CMR items not complied.
 Mandatory modifica�ons/ inspec�ons are not carried out, as and when due.
 Unapproved repairs/ Modifica�ons are carried out;
 Aircra� has suffered major damage or defect or develops a major defect, which would affect the safety of the aircra� or its
occupants in subsequent flights;
 Valid and current mandatory documents are not carried on board

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OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES
Cockpit Access Guidelines

1. Authorized Personnel: Only the following may enter the cockpit:

• Assigned flight crew.

• DGCA representa�ves on official duty.
• Individuals permited by the Opera�ons Manual.

2. Safety Protocols:

• The commander must ensure no distrac�ons during flight opera�ons.

• All non-crew members must be briefed on safety procedures.

3. Commander’s Authority: The final decision on cockpit access lies with the commander.

Air Operator Permit/Cer�ficate (AOC)

1. Defini�on:

• An AOC authorizes an operator to conduct specified commercial air transport opera�ons.

• An AOC, some�mes alterna�vely described as an Air Operator Permit, is the approval granted from a na�onal avia�on
authority (DGCA IN INDIA) to an aircra� operator to allow it to use aircra� for commercial purposes.
• Operators must demonstrate:

 Adequate organiza�on and training policies.

 Proper flight opera�ons, ground handling, and maintenance.
The State evaluates and ensures the operator can conduct safe opera�ons before issuing an AOC.

2. Validity:

• An AOC remains valid as long as the operator maintains original cer�fica�on standards.

Electronic Flight Bags (EFBs)

What is an EFB?
• An Electronic Flight Bag (EFB) is a device, like a tablet or laptop, that pilots use to access important informa�on during
flights.
Purpose:

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• EFBs replace tradi�onal paper manuals, charts, and checklists, making it easier for pilots to manage flight data.
Features:
• Flight Manuals: Digital versions of opera�ng manuals.
• Naviga�on Charts: Up-to-date maps for flying.
• Weather Data: Current weather informa�on.
• Performance Calcula�ons: Tools to calculate fuel needs and other performance metrics.

Carriage of Person with Reduced Mobility

• such persons or their representa�ves, at the �me of booking and /or check-in for travel, inform the airlines of their
requirement.
Carriage of inadmissible passengers, deportees, or persons in custody

• The commander must be no�fied when the above-men�oned persons are to be carried on board.
Applica�on of take-off minima’s:

• Before commencing take-off, a commander must sa�sfy himself that the RVR or visibility in the takeoff direc�on of the
airplane is equal to or beter than the applicable minimum.

ALL-WEATHER OPERATIONS (AWO)

LOW VISIBILITY PROCEDURES
An operator shall not conduct take-off with RVR/visibility less than standard Category I condi�ons of 550m RVR/800 m visibility
unless low visibility procedures are enforced.
Low Visibility Procedures (LVP). Procedures applied at an aerodrome for the purpose of ensuring safe opera�ons during Category II
and III approaches and Low Visibility Take-offs.
Low visibility take-off (LVTO). A term used in rela�on to flight opera�ons referring to a takeoff on a runway where the RVR is less
than 400 m.
Scheduled operators may be authorized LVTO minima of up to 125 m. This requires that a 90 m visual segment shall be available
from the cockpit at the start of the take-off run. Non-scheduled and general avia�on operators shall not conduct take-offs below
500 m RVR.
Low visibility Opera�ons - Minimum Equipment

• Windshield wipers (where fited) for both PIC and Co-pilot,

• Window heat system for all heated cockpit windows,
• An�-skid system and
• Thrust reversers for all engines.
Aerodrome Opera�ng Minima's – Landing:

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• Normal AOM is to be applied by scheduled and general avia�on operators.
• Restricted AOM consists of addi�ves of height and visibility to the normal AOM.

Commencement and Con�nua�on of Approach (Approach Ban Policy).

If, a�er commencing an instrument approach, the reported RVR/Visibility falls below the applicable minimum, the approach shall
not be con�nued:

• below 1 000 � above the aerodrome; or

• into the final approach segment.
If, a�er entering the final approach segment or descending below 1000 � above the aerodrome eleva�on, the reported
RVR/visibility falls below the applicable minimum, the approach may be con�nued to DA/H or MDA/H.

• The touch-down zone RVR is always controlling.

• If reported and relevant, the mid-point and stop-end RVR are also controlling.
• The minimum RVR value for the mid-point is 125 m or the RVR required for the touch-down zone if less, and 50 m for the
stop-end.

 Cockpit Door: All aircra� cer�fied for pax > 19 need a lockable cockpit door.
 Windshield Wiper: All aircra� with AUW > 5700 kg.
 Weather Radar: All jet aircra� with AUW > 5700 kg or pax > 9.
 An�/De-icing: All aircra� expected to operate in icing condi�ons.
 Radia�on Monitor: All aircra� flying above 15000 m (49000’).
 Intercom: All aircra� with AUW > 1500kg or pax > 19.
 Alt Alert: All jet aircra�; & all turboprop with AUW > 5700 kg or pax > 9.
 GPWS: All aircra� with AUW > 5700 kg or pax > 9.

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 ACAS II: All jet aircra� with AUW > 5700kg or pax > 19.
 SSR: All aircra� with AUW > 5700 kg or pax > 30.
 EGPWS: All aircra� with AUW > 15000 kg or pax > 30.
 Radio Equipment: areas in which search and rescues would be especially difficult, shall be equipped with at least one
survival radio equipment.

 Emergency Ligh�ngs: PAX>9 independent power supply

 Marking of break-in points: shall be red or yellow

 Crash Axes and Crowbars: All aircra� with AUW > 5700 kg or pax > 9.
 PBE: All aircra� with AUW > 5700 kg or pax > 19. (02 not less than 15 mins supply)
 Circuit Protec�on Devices: at least 10% of the number of fuses of each ra�ng or three of each ra�ng whichever is the
greater.

 Flight crew compartment door: All aircra� with AUW > 45,500 kg or pax > 60.
 First Aid Kits:

 Megaphones:

 Emergency Locator Transmiter: pax >19 (2 ELT)

 No. of Fire Ex�nguishers required:

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Flight Duty Time Limita�ons (FDTL)
Augmented Flight Crew:
Which comprises more than the minimum number required to operate the aircra�.
Duty Period:
Starts when a flight crew member is required by an operator to report for, or to commence a duty and ends when that person is
free from all du�es.
Flight Duty Period (FDP)
It commences when a flight crew member is required to report for duty and finishes at engine(s) off at the end of the last flight on
which he/she is a flight crew member.
 Flight Time (FT) (“chocks-to-chocks”)

 Local Night:
A period of 8 hours falling between 2200 hours and 0800 hours local �me.
 Night Duty:
o Time period between 0000 hrs and 0500 hrs.
o Crew must not be rostered for 2 consecu�ve night flights in 7 days.

 Window Of Circadian Low (WOCL):

• Period between 0200h and 0600h.

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UNFORSEEN OPERATIONAL CIRUMSTANCES:

• Max 1.5 hrs. flight period/ 3 hrs. flight duty period, +1 landing, in a day.
• Max 4.5 hrs flight period/ 9 hrs flight duty period, +2 landing, in 28 days.
• If duty was extended, crew rest period should be double of duty �me.
MAINTENANCE OF RECORDS AND MONITORING SYSTEM:

• Records shall be kept for 18 months.

Controlled Rest

• Controlled rest is permited for the crew on flight dura�ons < 3 hrs.
• More than 1 rest is permited if flight dura�on is > 3 hrs.
• Rest must commence only a�er reaching top-of-climb & ends 30mins before TOD. Rest allowed only in reduced-workload
phases of flight.
• Maximum dura�on of controlled rest is 40 mins + another 20 mins for orienta�on. These 20 minutes can be part of the 30
mins before TOD.
• Cabin crew will call PF every 20 mins (night) & 30 mins (day) to check. If there is no answer, he/she will go up to the
cockpit to check.

• Sterile cockpit: No un-needed conversa�on among crew below 10000’.

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SPECIAL OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES AND HAZARDS

MMEL MEL
GIVEN BY THE AIRCRAFT MANUFACTURER GIVEN BY THE AIRLINE OPERATOR
MMEL IS LESS RESTRICTIVE MEL IS MORE RESTRICTIVE
MMEL IS GERANAL ONE FOR ALL AIRLINES MEL IS SPECIFIC FOR AN AIRLINE
ATTACHED IN FLIGHT MANUAL IN OPERATIONAL MANUAL

Aeroplane Flight Manual (AFM) :

• An aircra� flight manual (AFM) is a paper book or electronic informa�on set containing informa�on required to operate an
aircra� of certain type or par�cular aircra� of that type.
• The aircra� manufacturer creates the flight manual.

Opera�ons Manual:

• Created By Airline Operator approved by DGCA.

De-icing, an�-icing, types of de-icing fluids:

• Heated Aircra� Deicing Fluid (ADF),

• An�- Icing Fluid (AAF)
• De/an�-icing fluids are only required un�l the aircra� becomes airborne, a�er which the on-board de/an�-icing system
then operate.
• A very small amount of roughness, in thickness as low as 0.40 mm (1/64 in.), caused by ice, snow or frost, disrupts the air
flow over the li� and control surfaces of an aircra�.
Effects:
o Reduced li�
o Increased drag
o Higher stalling speed

Cold soaking:

• An aircra� equipped with wing fuel tanks may have fuel that is at a sufficiently low temperature such that it lowers the
wing skin temperature to below the freezing point. This phenomenon is known as cold-soaking.

Bird strike:

• The most effec�ve way of scaring birds is shell crackers.

• 90% of the bird strikes occur under 500 m.
• Birds fly away about 2 seconds beforehand ahead of the aircra� taking off, when aircra� is at an average speed of 135 kts.

Noise Abatement Procedures:

• The State has to ensure that aerodromes iden�fy noise-sensi�ve areas around it & operators develop their noise
abatement procedures.

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• No procedures are allowed if r/w condi�ons are snow, slush, oil or ice.
• Priority for noise abatement is secondary to obstacle clearance.
• During ini�al climb, power reduc�on is to be done only above 800’, and a�er aircra� speed is > V2 + 20 kts. Above 3000',
aircra� is permited to increase speed to cruise speeds.
• Procedures must be only within 5nm of aerodrome or a�er crossing FAF.
• Noise preferen�al runway should not be used for landing unless they have adequate visual & instrument guidance for
landing.
• No procedure is allowed if cloud ceiling <500' or visibility < 1900 m.
• No procedures are allowed during reverse thrust engagement.
• No procedures are allowed during wind shear, downburst ac�vity.
• No procedures are allowed if crosswinds > 15 kts, tailwind > 5 kts.
• No procedures allowed if runway condi�ons are snow, slush, oil or ice.

FIRE AND SMOKE

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• Most Common Fire in aircra� Cabin Class A And Class C

• For overheated brakes use dry powder or water spray atomizer.
• Approach the landing gear tyres from front or from back.
• In flight deck use halon or CO2 no water.

Decompression

Aircra� cabins are pressurized for the comfort and safety of passengers and crewmembers.

Slow decompression:

• No visible indica�ons.
• May hear whistling or noise near a window or door.
• Crew and passengers may become listless and sleepy, hypoxic.
• Oxygen masks may drop.
• May be advised of the situa�on by the flight crew before any visible signs are apparent.

Rapid decompression/Explosive decompression:

• which takes less than 0.5 secs is explosive decompression.

• Some structural damage to aircra� may occur.
• Loud noise, and a rush of cabin air toward the damaged area.
• Fogging/mis�ng in the cabin. The air temperature will drop substan�ally.
• Loose ar�cles will fly within the cabin.
• Oxygen masks will drop.
• Aircra� will ini�ate a rapid descent a�tude (severe nose-down a�tude).
• Ears will pop and air will be forced from your body.
• Crewmembers and passengers may exhibit signs of hypoxia.

Ac�ons:

• Put on an oxygen mask

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• Descend: Ini�ate an emergency descent to a lower al�tude with more oxygen.
• Level off: Level the aircra� at a safe al�tude, around 10,000 feet or below.
• Depressuriza�on warning is required when cabin al�tude exceeds 10,000 feet. Passenger oxygen masks will drop when
cabin al�tude rises to between 13,200 and. 14,000 feet, but no higher than 15,000 feet.

WINDSHEAR and Microburst:

Wind shear is a change in wind speed and/or direc�on over a short distance. It can occur either horizontally or ver�cally.

Par�cularly dangerous at low levels (from the ground up to approximately 2,000 feet in height), in the approach, landing and ini�al
climb phases, due to the al�tude limita�on and �me to manoeuvre of aircra�.

The following guidelines are used to establish whether significant non-convec�ve wind shear hazardous to aircra� exists:

• vector magnitude exceeding 25 kts within 500 � AGL;

• vector magnitude exceeding 40 kts within 1 000 � AGLi;
• vector magnitude exceeding 50 kts within 1 500 � AGLi;
• a pilot report of loss or gain of IAS of 20 kts or more within 1500 � AGL.

A microburst is the most hazardous form of windshear.

• On take-off, the aircra� may encounter a headwind (performance increasing) (1) followed by a downdra� (2), and tailwind
(3) (both performance decreasing).

Characteris�cs of Microbursts Include:

• Size - Approximately 1 NM in diameter at 2000 � AGL with a horizontal extent at the surface of approximately 2 to 2-1/2
NM.
• Intensity - Ver�cal winds as high as 6000 � per minute. Horizontal winds giving as much as 45 KT at the surface (i.e., 90 KT
shear).
• Dura�on-the life cycle of a microburst from the ini�al downburst to dissipa�on will seldom be longer than 15 minutes with
maximum intensity winds las�ng approximately 2-4 minutes.
• Recovery-could require full power and a pitch a�tude consistent with the maximum angle of atack for your aircra�.

WAKE TURBULANCE

WAKE TURBULANCE
Light (L) 7000kg or less CATEGORIES:
Medium (M) 7000kg <MCTOM<136000kg
Heavy (H) 136000kg or greater
Super heavy MTOW 5,60,000 • An airplane creates
wake turbulence when genera�ng li�.
• It starts at rota�on and stops as soon as the aircra�s wheel touches the ground.

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• It is greatest when genera�ng airplane is heavy, clean and slow.
• Vor�ces circulate as outward, upward and inward clockwise on the le� wing and An�clockwise on the right wing when
viewed from behind.

Handling Wake Turbulence:

• The most dangerous wind while landing or taking off behind large aircra� is light quartering tailwind.
• When taking off behind a larger aircra�, li� off before the larger aircra�'s li�off point and climb above its climb path.
• When landing behind a larger aircra�, touch down past its touchdown point.
• Vor�ces will stay on the runway longer in light or calm winds.
• Vor�ces from a large aircra� landing on a parallel runway can be blown onto your runway by a strong crosswind.
• When flying or crossing behind a larger aircra�, maintain your flight path above the large aircra�'s path rather than below.
• When approaching behind a larger aircra� on an ILS, stay at or above the glide slope to avoid wake encounters.
• In light crosswinds, the upwind vortex will tend to dri� onto and remain on the runway.
• Vor�ces from a large aircra� landing on a parallel runway can be blown onto your runway by a strong crosswind.
• When flying or crossing behind a larger aircra�, maintain your flight path above the large aircra�'s path rather than below.
• When approaching behind a larger aircra� on an IS, stay at or above the glide slope to avoid wake encounters.

Arriving aircra�:

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DEPARTING AIRCRAFT:

A minimum separa�on shall be applied when the aircra�s are using:

• The same runway

• Parallel runways separated by less than 760m (2500�)
• Crossing Runways if the projected flight path of the second Aircra� will cross the projected flight path of the first Aircra� at
the same Al�tude or less than 1000 � below.
• parallel runways separated by 760 m (2 500 �) or more, if the projected flight path of the second aircra� will cross the
projected flight path of the first aircra� at the same al�tude or less than 300 m (1 000 �) below.

Minimum �me separa�on for depar�ng aircra� which are using:

• an intermediate part of the same runway; or

• an intermediate part of a parallel runway separated by less than 760 m (2 500 �).

Addi�onal minimum �me separa�ons apply if the runway involved has a displaced landing threshold:

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COMMUNICATION

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FL 100 Flight level One Zero Zero

FL 90 Flight Level Niner Zero

Heading 060 Heading Zero Six Zero

Wind 360/06 Three Six Zero Degrees Zero Six Knots

Runway 19 Runway One Niner

QNH 1010 QUE ENN ECH One Zero One zero

Fq 123.575 Frequency One Two Three Decimal Five Seven Five

Al�tude 800, 1600 Eight hundred feet, One thousand six hundred feet

Al�tude 12000 One two thousand feet

Visibility 3000m/6km Three thousand meters/six kilometres

RVR 800/1500 RVR Eight hundred/one thousand five hundred

Time 9:20 Two zero or two niner two zero

• CONTROL (area control center)

• APPROACH (approach control)
• ARRIVAL (approach control radar arrivals)
• DEPARTURE (approach control radar departures)
• RADAR (a general designa�on of a sta�on providing radar service)
• TOWER (aerodrome control)

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• GROUND (surface movement control)
• DELIVERY (clearance delivery)
• PRECISION (precision approach radar)
• HOMER (direc�on-finding sta�on)
• INFORMATION (flight informa�on service)
• RADIO (a general term for an aeronau�cal sta�on)
Posi�on Report:

• It contains your current posi�on, �me & flight level, next posi�on & �me and further ensuing posi�on.

 An instruc�on to 'con�nue approach' is NOT a clearance to land.

 Test call should not be more than 10 sec.

“Clear air turbulence” is turbulence not associated with cumuliform clouds, including thunderstorms, occurring at or above 15,000
feet. Clear air turbulence is not restricted to cloud-free air (75% of all CAT encounters are in clear air).

“Light chop” is a type of turbulence that causes rapid and somewhat rhythmic bumpiness.

“radar contact” The situa�on which exists when the radar posi�on of a par�cular aircra� is seen and iden�fied on a radar display
(ICAO). The term is used by air traffic control (ATC) to inform an aircra� that it has been iden�fied on the radar display
"Resume own naviga�on" is a term used by air traffic control (ATC) to tell a pilot to take responsibility for their own naviga�on
again. It's usually issued when a radar vector is complete or when radar contact is lost while the aircra� is being radar vectored.

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“Radar service terminated”
A term used by air traffic control (ATC) to inform a pilot that he or she will no longer be provided any of the services that could be r
eceived while in radar contact.

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Aeronau�cal Telecommunica�ons
ICAO Annex 10 Vol II (Communica�on Procedures)
Aeronau�cal Fixed Sta�ons are aeronau�cal sta�ons on the ground.
Aeronau�cal Mobile Sta�ons are aircra� in the air.
AFTN Aeronau�cal Fixed Telecom Network: It is a worldwide system of fixed circuits, to exchange messages & digital data between
ATC or other aeronau�cal sta�ons like FIC.
Priority Designators of Messages in AFTN
• Distress messages (priority indicator SS). This message category comprises messages sent by aircra� repor�ng that they
are threatened by imminent danger and all other messages rela�ve to the immediate assistance.
• Urgency messages (priority indicator DD). This category comprises messages concerning the safety of a ship, aircra� or
other vehicles, or of some person on board or within sight.
• Flight safety messages (priority indicator FF) comprise movement and control messages (e.g. FPL, DLA, CNL, DEP,
ARR, OLDI messages, etc.), messages by the operator that are of immediate concern to aircra� and some meteorological
messages (SIGMET, special air-reports, AIRMET, volcanic ash and tropical cyclone advisories).
• Meteorological messages (priority indicator GG) comprise messages concerning forecasts (TAFs) and observa�ons and
reports (METAR, SPECI).
• Flight regularity messages (priority indicator GG) comprise e.g. messages concerning aircra� servicing, non-rou�ne
landings, aircra� arrival or departure, parts and materials urgently required for the opera�on of aircra�, etc.
• Aeronau�cal informa�on services (AIS) messages (priority indicator GG) comprise messages
concerning NOTAMs and SNOWTAMs.
• Aeronau�cal administra�ve messages (priority indicator KK) comprise messages regarding the opera�on or maintenance of
facili�es, the func�oning of aeronau�cal telecommunica�on services and those exchanged between civil avia�on
authori�es rela�ng to aeronau�cal services.
• Service messages (priority indicator as appropriate). This category comprises messages originated by aeronau�cal fixed
sta�ons to obtain informa�on or verifica�on concerning other messages which appear to have been transmited
incorrectly by the aeronau�cal fixed service.

The order of priority for the message transmission is:

1. SS
2. DD FF
3. GG KK

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AERODROME REFERENCE CODE:

 Number: A number based on the length of the aeroplane reference field.
 Leter: A leter based on the aeroplane's wingspan and outer main gear wheel span.

If ACN < PCN the aircra� can maneuver without restric�ons.

If ACN > PCN the aircra� can be accepted under specific limita�ons, concerning for example its maximum weight or the opera�on
frequency.

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Human Performance Limita�ons

Central Nervous System

 Human brain is only 2% of the bodyweight but consumes 20% of its total energy needs.

 The brain can only deal with one conscious decision at a �me.

 70% of the informa�on processed by the brain is from visual channel.

 Visual Constancy: It is the process of recognizing familiar objects in unfamiliar condi�ons.

 Expectancy or Perceptual Set: To some extent, we perceive what we expect to perceive. Percep�on is a highly subjec�ve
process.

 Top-down processing use previous knowledge to modify mental model.

 Botom-up processing use sensory info to start building a mental model

 Westbound long flights are easier to cope with than eastbound.

Circulatory System-

 A�er dona�ng blood, a 24-hour rest is mandatory.

 Average adult res�ng heart rate is 72 bpm.

 Human heart pumps approximately 5 liters of blood every minute.

 Normal adult blood pressure is 120(systolic)/80(diastolic).

 A pilot should not fly for at least 12 hours a�er a local anesthe�c and 48 hours following a general anesthe�c.

 With hypothermia, the core temperature drops below 95 degrees.

 Severe hypothermia, core body temperature can drop to 82 degrees or lower.

 At 8000 � there is 76% of the oxygen available at sea level.

 At 12000 � there is 65% of the oxygen available at sea level.

 At 18000 � there is 52% or half of the oxygen available at sea level.

 At 24000 � there is 41% of the oxygen available at sea level.

 At 36000 � there is 25% of the oxygen available at sea level.

 cri�cal threshold at approximately 22 000 feet.

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Respiratory System
 Henry's Law: The amount of gas dissolved in a liquid is propor�onal to the air pressure over the liquid.

 Dalton's Law: Total pressure of a gas sum of its par�al pressures.

 Tidal Volume: Normal respira�on volume of lungs, 500 ml.

 Inspiratory Reserve Volume: Addi�onal volume that can be inhaled forcefully, 3000ml.

 Expiratory Reserve Volume: Excess volume of air that can be expelled by force breathing out, a�er �dal volume, 1100 ml.

 Residual Volume: Minimum air that remains in lungs, come what may, 1200 ml

 Average adult breathing rate is 16 �mes a minute.

 Women have 25% less lung volume than men.

 Level of CO2 in blood controls the respira�on rate.

Carbon Monoxide:

 It is an odorless poison. Hemoglobin in the blood has 250x more affinity for carbon monoxide than oxygen. Symptom of
CO poisoning is �ghtness across the forehead or a headache.

Effects of Vibra�on

 1-4 Hz Breathing Interference.

 4-10 Hz Chest & Abdominal pain.

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 8-12 Hz Backache.

 10-20 Hz: Headache, Eye strain, muscular tension.

Miscellaneous-

 73% of all avia�on accidents are atributed to 'human factors'.

 Body Temperature is maximum at 1700 hrs & minimum at 0500 hrs.

 Not ea�ng breakfast can cause hypoglycemia (low blood sugar).

 Abdominal Distension: Gas forma�on in abdomen.

 BMI Body Mass Index: Weight (kg)\Height (m²)

 BMI <25%

 Healthy 25%-30%

 Overweight BMI >30% Obese

Arousal: It is the reac�on level of a pilot.

 Op�mal arousal has a posi�ve influence on one's performance.

 Low/extremely aroused (anxious) pilots will perform significantly less.

Human Memory
Sensory Store

I. Iconic Memory: Short term memory that has a span of 1 sec.

II. Echoic Memory: Recall events that occurred 2-8 secs earlier.

Short Term Memory

I. It is the memory of events in the last 10 - 20 secs.

II. This memory can recall only about 7 ± 2 unrelated items at a �me.

III. It is highly sensi�ve to interrup�on.

IV. It can be improved by memory improving methods like chunking, associa�on, mnemonics, etc.

Long Term Memory

I. Seman�c: Memory of worldly knowledge.

II. Episodic: Memory of events that occurred in one's life.

III. Motor Memory: Muscle memory, e.g., playing the piano.

Stress

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Introduc�on

 Stress in a person is cumula�ve.

 Stressors: Any event or situa�on that induces stress.

 If there is no stress, pilot will be slack in cockpit. High stress can cause a pilot to break down. Op�mum stress results in
best performance.

 Psychosoma�c Illness: Physical illness due to psychological causes.

Types of Stress

 Physiological Stress: Stress caused due to environment, heat, noise, aircra� emergency, lack of training/experience,
hunger, thirst, lack of sleep, pain, etc.

 Cogni�ve Stress: It occurs when a person is placed in an unknown problem. Its effect depends on his training & experience.

 Personal Stress: Stress caused due to domes�c issues, children, family problems, etc.

 Imaginary Stress: Anxiety.

 Organiza�onal Stress: Management pressure, pressure from seniors.

Methods to Cope with Stress

 Ac�on Coping: The person does something about the stressor.

 Cogni�ve Coping: Thinking posi�ve, Have a posi�ve a�tude,

Symptom Directed Coping: Use of drugs, chocolate, smoking, etc.

Managing Stress

 Experience level of a pilot reduces his stress in the cockpit.

 Learning/system knowledge reduce stress for inexperienced pilots.

 CRM cockpit resources management (share the workload in cockpit).

Sleep
Introduc�on-

 Circadian Rhythm: A free-running body clock has a natural sleep-wake rhythm cycle of 25 hours.

 Sleep Cycle: 1 sleep cycle (4 stages of sleep) lasts for 90 minutes.

Sleep Credit

 Sleep credit & debit is cumula�ve, carrying forward to the next day.

 +2 points for every sleeping hour, -1 point for every waking hour.

 Max sleep credit that can be accumulated is 16 points (8 hours sleep).

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Stages of Sleep

 REM Sleep: Brain is ac�ve while sleeping. Eye movement &dreams occur during REM sleep. It occurs 4-5 �mes a night.

 Stage 1: Light sleep in the ini�al 10 mins of falling asleep.

 Stage 2: Early sleep las�ng 20 mins, before entering stages 3 & 4.

 Stage 3 & 4: Slow-wave or orthodox sleep. Eyes are sta�onary.

Eye
Parts of the Eye

 Sclera: The white of the eye.

 Cornea: It is a clear protec�ve outer layer, covering iris, pupil & lens.

 Iris: It is the pigmented muscular curtain, between cornea and the lens. It controls the amount of light entering the eye.

 Pupil: Hole in the center of Iris. Lens is behind the pupil.

 Re�na: Light sensi�ve area on the back wall of the eyeball.

 Fovea: Central part of the re�na. It gives central vision.

 Choroid: Vascular layer of the eye, containing connec�ve �ssues, lying between the re�na and the sclera.

 Cones: Light sensi�ve cells on the re�na used for day/color vision. It can sense up to 1000 different colors. Each cone is
connected toa single neuron.

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 Rods: Used for night/peripheral vision. Its maximum density is at 10° from the fovea. Several rods are connected to a single
neuron.

 Visual Acuity: Sharpness of vision.

Defects that occur in the eye-

 Myopia: Nearsightedness caused by a longer eyeball. This can be corrected by a concave lens.

 Hypermetropia: Farsightedness. It is corrected by a convex lens.

 Presbyopia: It is a type of hypermetropia. It is the inability of the lens to adjust and change shape. It is caused due to old
age.

 Color blindness occurs in 7% of men, but only 0.1% of women.

Types of Vision-

Central Vision:

 It is used for object, size, shape, texture & color recogni�on.

Peripheral Vision:

 It helps us with orienta�on while flying in good visibility.

 It helps us in placing an object.

 During night flying or when in clouds, peripheral vision is cutout, and chances of disorienta�on increase.

 If disoriented, use central vision & get onto instrument flying.

Photopic Vision (Color Vision): Day vision using 'Cone' cells.

Mesopic Vision: In low light condi�ons, both cones & rods are ac�ve.

Scotopic Vision (Night Vision): Black/white vision, using 'Rod' cells.

 Night Vision adapta�on �me is 30 minutes for Rod cells.

 Adequate carbohydrate intake before a night flight reduces the effect of hypoxia on the rods and enhances night vision.

 Factors affec�ng night vision: -

 Hypoxia

 Alcohol and smoking

 Vitamin 'A' deficiency

 Hypoglycemia.

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Ear

Introduc�on

 Human hearing range is from 20 Hz to 20000 Hz.

 The ear is also the organ that supplies accelera�on, orienta�on &body-balance informa�on to the brain.

 O��c Barotrauma: Ear pain due to pressure changes in atmosphere.

 Sinus Barotrauma: Pain in nasal sinuses due to pressure differen�al in the sinus cavity and the atmosphere.

Parts of the Ear-

Outer-ear/Pinna:

 It collects external sound and sends it through the Auditory Canal to the eardrum.

 Eardrum (Tympanum): It transmits sound waves to middle ear.

Middle-ear (Tympanic Cavity): it is filled with air. It contains: -

 Otolith Organs or Ossicles (3 bones - malleus, incus & stapes) These bones senses linear accelera�on of more than 0.1
m/s², and transmit sound from the eardrum to the inner ear.

 Eustachian Tube: It is used for equalizing pressure in the middle-ear, across the eardrum.

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Inner-ear: It is filled with fluid. It contains: -

 Cochlea: A hollow, spiral-shaped bone that plays a key role in the sense of hearing & in the process of auditory
transduc�on. -

 Semicircular Canals: It senses angular accelera�on.

 The 3 semicircular canals are placed at 90° to each other. I�s filled with fluid & has ciliary hair in it.

 Depending on the orienta�on of angular accelera�on, the fluid in the corresponding canal moves, causing the
ciliary hair inside it to move, which is sensed as angular accelera�on in their respec�ve 3 axes.

 Any movement below its sensing threshold of 2°/sec is nonregistered. This is the primary cause of disorienta�on.

Defects that occur in the ear-

 Presbycusis: Hearing loss due to old age. -

 Noise Induced Hearing Loss: Caused due to extensive exposure to loud noises > 90 dB, reducing the sensi�vity of auditory
cells.

 Temporary Noise Induced Hearing Loss:

 <90 dB Unlikely

 140 dB Pain

 120 dB Discomfort

 > 160 dB Drum Rupture

 Conduc�ve Deafness:

 Caused due to any problem in transferring sound from outer ear, tympanic membrane (eardrum), or middle ear.

 Sensorineural Deafness:

 Hearing loss due to damage in inner ear.

Accelera�on
Factors that affect accelera�on on the human body-

 Magnitude, dura�on & direc�on of accelera�on.

 Rate of applica�on.

 Area & site of applica�on.

Human Tolerances

 Gx (Front/Back): 3.5 g in relaxed flight, 45 g during impact

 Gy (Sideways): 6 g 9 g in flight, 25 g during impact

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 +Gz (Up): 4.5 g -6 g for 5 secs, 8 g with G-suit.

Predisposing factors for effects of +Gz-

 Heat

 Hypoglycemia

 Empty stomach

 Hypoxia

 Hyperven�la�on

 Poor physical state

 Illness

 Lack of current flying prac�ce at high 'g' maneuvers

 Worry and fear

 Experiencing nega�ve 'g' before posi�ve 'g’

Protec�ve measures to counter effects of +Gz-

 Crouching

 Tensing of abdominal muscles

 Shou�ng

 Raising of legs

 Use of 'g' suit

Blackout: (posi�ve G force effect)

 +Gz > 6 g for more than 5 secs causes pooling of blood in lower parts of the body, leading to temporary hypoxia. It further
leads to grey-out (dimming of vision), followed by tunnelling of vision and subsequently leads to blackout
(unconsciousness).

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 Increase in body weight

 Internal organ displaced.

Red-out: (nega�ve G force effect)

 Long dura�on -Gz causes pooling of blood in the head, causing a red-out (red colour vision).

 There are no protec�ve measures available for countering any -Gz accelera�ons.

 Increase in blood flow to the head.

 Face becomes flushed and eye buldge.

Decompression Sickness
Introduc�on-

 Decompression sickness occurs when the body is suddenly decompressed from a higher pressure to lower pressure.

 It is most likely to occur above 30,000', if the dura�on of stay above this al�tude was more than 10 minutes.

 If cabin al�tude is < 25000', decompression sickness is not likely.

 In case of cabin decompression, wear an oxygen mask & descend below 10000' immediately.

 Do not fly for 12 hrs a�er scuba diving, using compressed air.

 Do not fly for 24 hrs if the dive depth was more than 30 � (10 m).

Symptoms of Decompression Sickness

 Bends: Release of nitrogen from blood, causing pain in joints.

 Creeps: Tingling, itching on the skin.

 Chokes: Forma�on of bubbles in the lungs.

 Hallucina�ons/central nervous system symptoms.

 Effects on vision.

 Neuro-circulatory collapse due to shock of above symptoms.

Predisposing Factors of Decompression Sickness

 Rate of ascent

 Final al�tude & dura�on at that al�tude

 Outside temperature

 Obesity

 Age-

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 Individual suscep�bility

 Lack of physical exercise/body fitness

Preven�on of Decompression Sickness

 Pre-pressuriza�on of the body

 Reducing �me spent at high al�tudes

 Breathing of 100% oxygen

 Pre-oxygena�on (de-nitrifica�on) of the individual, to remove maximum nitrogen from the body.

Types of Cabin Pressuriza�on

 Hyperbaric: Cabin pressure maintained at ground level pressure.

 Isobaric: Cabin pressure is maintained at 8000' (passenger aircra�).

 Hypobaric: Cabin pressure is maintained at 25000' (combat aircra�).

Rapid De-compression

 It is the sudden loss of cabin pressure in flight, occurring within seconds.

 Effects of rapid decompression are: -

 Mis�ng of cabin air

 Sudden drop in temperature

 Sucking out of objects from the aircra�

 Injuries due to flying objects

Hypoxia
Introduc�on

 Hypoxia is caused due to inadequate supply of oxygen by the blood to body �ssues.

 Smoking causes carbon monoxide to atach on to hemoglobin, thereby reducing its efficiency. A smoker may start to
experience hypoxia at a height 4000'-5000' below the threshold of a non-smoker.

 In case of doubt between hypoxia vs hyperven�la�on (symptoms for both are similar), then assume it is hypoxia. However,
if the aircra� is below 10000', it is hyperven�la�on.

 Hypoxia-induced unconsciousness can lead to death. A person will always recover from hyperven�la�on induced
unconsciousness.

Oxygen Requirement for Aircrew-

 Addi�onal oxygen is required from 4 km (12000') upwards.

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 100% oxygen is required from 11 km (34000') upwards.

 Pressure breathing is essen�al from 14 km (41000') upwards.

 Ebullism (boiling of body fluids) occurs at 20 km (63000’).

 A sealed cabin is essen�al above 25 km (75000’).

Types of Hypoxia

 Hypoxic Hypoxia: It is caused due to the lack of oxygen in higher atmosphere (>10000'), when flying in an unpressurised
aircra�. This is the most common type of hypoxia experienced by pilots.

 Anemic Hypoxia: It is caused due to lack of oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood. It can be caused by anaemia,
haemorrhage, haemoglobin abnormali�es, sulfa drugs, nitrites, or carbon monoxide poisoning (due to aircra� heater
malfunc�ons, engine manifold leaks, or cockpit contamina�on with exhaust).

 Stagnate Hypoxia: It occurs due to inadequate circula�on of blood, when the body is exposed to cold temperatures
because of decreased blood flow to the extremi�es or during rapid decompression.

 Histotoxic Hypoxia: It occurs when toxic substances present in the cell (alcohol, narco�cs, cyanide, etc.) reduce its oxygen
absorp�on ability from the blood.

Stages of Hypoxia

 Indifferent Stage: Occurs up to 10000' al�tude, no effect on the body.

 Compensatory Stage: Mild symptoms occur from 10000' - 15000'.The body compensates by increasing breathing and heart
rate.

 Disturbance Stage: Occurs from 15000'-20000'. The body cannot compensate any further.

 Cri�cal Stage: Occurs above 20000'. It severely affects the body &finally will lead to unconsciousness.

Preven�on of Hypoxia

 Care of aircra� and personal oxygen equipment, and their use whenever required.

 Ensure availability of sufficient oxygen before the sor�e.

 Check serviceability of oxygen mask.

 Keep one-self fit.

Symptoms of Hypoxia

 A person is never provided with any warning of Hypoxia. The severity, effect and sequence of symptoms may vary from
person to person.

 Awareness of breathing;

 Sense of suffoca�on;

 Fa�gue, depression or euphoria;

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 Spots before eyes and dimming of vision, especially night vision;

 Impairment of hearing, touch and pain;

 Emo�onal outbursts - crying, laughter;

 Impairment of memory, intellect and concentra�on;

 Lack of sound judgment and self-cri�cism;

 Development of fixed & erroneous ideas & tendency to commit errors;

 Slow thinking & reac�on.

Hyperven�la�on
Introduc�on-

 It is a purely physical phenomenon to start with, but may reach a harmful state due to the reduc�on of CO2 from the body.

 Increased rate & depth of breathing release excess CO2 from the blood. Thus, blood pH increases & becomes less acidic
than normal.

 This leads to blood alkalosis & affect both cardiovascular system &central nervous system. It causes arteries to contract,
resul�ng in less oxygen circula�on.

 The immediate effects are ↑ heart rate, ↓ blood pressure, blood flow to the brain.

 Hyperven�la�on may lead to unconsciousness, but a person will always recover from it.

Causes of Hyperven�la�on-

 Fear;

 Apprehension;

 Hypoxia;

 Pressure breathing; -

 Over exercise;

 Temperature varia�on.

Symptoms of Hyperven�la�on

 Nausea, dizziness, faintness, lethargy;

 Numbness, �ngling, tremors;·

 Tightening, s�ffness of muscles, convulsions;

 Facial spasm;-

 Poor judgement, discre�on or orienta�on; -

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 Cold, clammy skin, pale cyanosis, weak pulse.

Preven�on of Hyperven�la�on

 Control of breathing;

 Use of oxygen above 10000'.

The Black Hole Effect - The absence of visual cues (such as nigh�me approaches over desert or unlit water) leads to an illusion that
the aircra� is too high, as a result the approach path may be flown at too shallow an angle, the aircra� may touch down short of
the runway.

SHELL MODEL: Interrela�onship Between Human Factors and Avia�on Environment.

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Crew Resource Management (CRM)

Crew Resource Management (CRM) is the effec�ve use of all available resources for flight crew personnel to assure a safe and
efficient opera�on, reducing error, avoiding stress and increasing efficiency.

In avia�on safety, threat and error management (TEM) is an overarching safety management approach that assumes that pilots will
naturally make mistakes and encounter risky situa�ons during flight opera�ons. Rather than try to avoid these threats and errors,
its primary focus is on teaching pilots to manage these issues so they do not impair safety. Its goal is to maintain safety margins by
training pilots and flight crews to detect and respond to events that are likely to cause damage (threats) as well as mistakes that
are most likely to be made (errors) during flight opera�ons.

Miscellaneous points:

• The recommended maximum caffeine intake per day is approximately 250 – 300 mg corresponding to 2 - 3 cups of coffee.
• Avoid flying for 48-72 hours following a major dental work.
• Although exposure to total darkness for at least 30 minutes is required for complete dark adapta�on, a pilot can achieve a
moderate degree of dark adapta�on within 20 minutes under dim red cockpit ligh�ng.
• Dark adapta�on is impaired by exposure to cabin pressure al�tudes above 5,000 feet, carbon monoxide inhaled in
smoking and from exhaust fumes, deficiency of Vitamin A in the diet, and by prolonged exposure to bright sunlight.
• Since any degree of dark adapta�on is lost within a few seconds of viewing a bright light, a pilot should close one eye
when using a light to preserve some degree of night vision. Look to the side (15 - 20 deg) of the object.
• The �me required for complete adapta�on for high levels of illumina�on is 10 sec and for full dark adapta�on 30 min.

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• Syncope is a temporary but sudden loss of consciousness when blood flow to the brain is compromised.
• Blood pressure is the pressure exerted by blood on the walls of the main arteries.
• A pilot who is also a smoker may experience the symptoms of oxygen depriva�on, or hypoxia, at a lower al�tude (7,000)
than a non-smoker (10,000).
• A person who smokes one packet of cigaretes per day will reduce his capacity to carry oxygen by 5-8%.
• Alcohol do not consume 12hrs before a flight.
• At 6,000 feet (1800 m) the effect of one drink is that of two drinks at sea level.
• The normal rate of respira�on in adults 14 to 18 breaths per minute.
• Breathing 100% oxygen will li� the pilot’s physiological safe al�tude to approximately 38 000 �.

Partial Space Equivalent Zone

This zone extends from 50,000' to 120 nm:

• 100% Oxygen does not protect from Hypoxia.

• Sealed cabins and pressure suits are a must.
• Blood and body fuels boil over 63,000 feet.
• Gravita�onal changes affect the body.

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Selec�on of Aerodromes
Take-off Alternate

I. Take-off alternate is used for landing in case of an emergency shortly a�er take-off & it is not possible to land at the
departure aerodrome.

II. If weather condi�ons at take-off aerodrome are below landing minima, there should be an alternate airport within landing
minima within 1 hour flying �me for a 2-engine aircra� and within 2 hours flying �me for a 3 or 4 engine aircra�, in s�ll air
at normal cruise speed, with one engine inopera�ve.

En-route Alternate

I. En-route alternate in needed for an aircra� experiencing abnormal or emergency condi�ons en-route.

II. The planned route should be such that there must be an adequate aerodrome within 1 hour flying �me at normal cruise
speed and with one engine inopera�ve, at every point on the route.

III. If diversion �me is more than one hour, it comes under ETOPS.

Des�na�on Alternate-

I. Des�na�on alternate is needed if it is impossible or inadvisable for the aircra� to land at the planned des�na�on. -

II. 2 Des�na�on Alternate aerodromes are required for flight planning, if: -

 No meteorological forecast is available for des�na�on; or

 Forecast at planned des�na�on indicates that weather is below minima from 1hour before ETA to 1 hour a�er ETA.

1 Des�na�on Alternate is required within minima for all IFR flights even if the des�na�on aerodrome is within planned minima at
ETA.

No Des�na�on Alternate is required if:

• Des�na�on is remote that no useable is diversion available; or

• 2 separate runways are available at des�na�on, & meteorological forecast indicates 5 km visibility & cloud ceiling above
2000' or circling height + 500' whichever higher, for 1 hour before ETA to 1 hour a�er ETA.

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