HISTO: HISTOLOGY LEC LECTURE BY: DR.

ROSE JONATAS
MODULE 6: ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
2ND SEMESTER 2024-2025 TRANSCRIBED BY: GLENN MARK M. CABUANG

2. Juxtracrine secretion - a signaling molecule

TOPIC remains on the secreting cell’s surface or
SUB-TOPIC adjacent extracellular matrix and affects
target cells when the cells make contact.
SUB-SUB-TOPIC (Embryonic and Regenerative tissues)

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Endocrine Glands
• Secretes signaling molecules “hormones”
into the bloodstream for distribution in the
body.
• No secretory ducts unlike exocrine glands
• Endocrine cells are typically epithelial in
origin and aggregated as cords or clusters.

Specialized Organs or Tissues with Endocrine cells

→ Heart 3. Autocrine secretion - cells produce
→ Thymus hormones that act on themselves or on the
→ Gut cells of the same type.
→ Kidneys
→ Testis
→ Ovaries
HORMONES
• Most are hydrophilic molecules (proteins,
glycoproteins, peptides or modified amino
acids) with receptors on the surface of
target cells
• does not need transport proteins because
their nature itself allows them to travel in
blood stream
• Some hydrophobic steroids and thyroid
hormones circulate on transport proteins • Endocrine glands are often also target
(usually albumin), but can diffuse through organs for other hormones that can
the cell membranes and activate establish a FEEDBACK MECHANISM to
cytoplasmic receptors in target cells control hormone secretion and keep blood
ENDOCRINE GLANDS hormonal levels within strict limits
Mode of Secretion FEEDBACK MECHANISM
• A physiologic regulation system in the
1. Paracrine secretion - localized dispersal in human body that works to return the body
the interstitial fluid or through short loops of to its normal internal state (homeostasis)
blood vessels (Gastrin made by G cells) • Triggered when the system undergoes a
change that causes an output
• The response may be in the same direction
(Positive Feedback) or in the opposite
direction (Negative Feedback)
 MAJOR ENDOCRINE GLANDS 3. Gonadotropin- Releasing Hormone (GnRH)
HYPOTHALAMUS • Stimulate the release of Follicle-Stimulating
Hypothalamus Hormone (FSH) and Leutenizing Hormone
• Small sized organ (LH) from the anterior pituitary gland
• Located at the base of the brain and
connected to the pituitary gland by the
pituitary stalk Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone
• Act as the body’s smart control
coordinating center
→ Directly influence the autonomic nervous
system or FSH, LH
→ Manage the hormones
• Main function: Maintain homeostasis
• Most important function is to link the
nervous system to the endocrine system via
the pituitary gland. Ovary: Estrogen and Progesterone Testis:
• It synthesizes and secrete certain Testosterone
neurohormones, often called the
hypothalamic-releasing hormones, and 4. Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone (GHRH)
these in turn stimulate or inhibit the • Stimulates the release of Growth Hormone
secretions of pituitary hormones from the anterior pituitary gland
NEUROHORMONES
1. Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone (TRH)
• “Prolactin-Releasing Hormone” Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone
• Stimulate release of Thyroid Stimulating
Hormone (TSH) and Prolactin (PRL) from the
anterior pituitary gland.
Growth Hormone

Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone

All cells: growth and development

TSH Prolactin 5. Somatostatin

• Other name: “Growth Hormone Inhibiting
Hormone”
• Inhibit the release of Growth Hormone from
the anterior pituitary gland
Thyroid: Thyroid hormones, Breast: Milk production
• Also inhibit the release of Thyroid
Stimulating Hormone (TSH) form the anterior
2. Corticotrophin-Releasing Hormone (CRH)
pituitary gland
• Stimulate synthesis of pro-
opiomelanocortin (POMC)
• Stimulates the release of
Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH) Somatostatin
from the anterior pituitary gland

Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone (-) Growth Hormone, (-) TSH

POMC → ACTH

Adrenal Cortex: Aldosterone, Cortisol, and weak

androgen DHEA
6. Dopamine ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
• Other name: “Prolactin Inhibiting Anterior Pituitary Gland
Hormone” • Front lobe of the pituitary gland
• Inhibit prolactin release from the anterior • “Adenohypophysis”
pituitary gland • Regulates several physiologic processes
• responsible for sexual arousal including stress, growth, and reproduction

Functions:
Dopamine → Control chemical and water balance in the
body
→ Control growth and metabolism
→ Influence sexual behavior
→ Stimulate growth and maturation of the
(-) Prolactin
gonads

Three parts:

7. Oxytocin
• Promotes uterine contraction and lactation
(letdown reflex or milk ejection reflex)

Oxytocin

1. Pars distalis
• Accounts for 75% of adenohypophysis,
covered by thin fibrous tissue
Uterine contraction Breast: Lactation
Groups of cells:
8. Vasopressin a. Somatotrophs (Somatotropic cells) for
• Other name: Anti-Diuretic Hormone growth hormone
• Increase water permeability in the distal b. Lactotrophs (Lactotropic cells) for prolactin
convoluted tubule and collecting ducts of c. Corticotrophs for pro-opiomelanocortin ->
kidneys adrenocortical trophic hormone
• Promotes water reabsorption in the kidneys d. Gonadotrophs for follicle-stimulating
and increases blood volume hormone and luteinizing hormone
e. Thyrotrophs for thyrotropin

2. Pars intermedia
Vasopressin • A narrow zone lying in between the pars
distalis and pars nervosa
• Contains corticotrophs, chromophobes,
and small colloidfilled cysts derived from
the lumen of the hypophyseal pouch
• Overall functional significance in adults
remain uncertain
• Best-developed and active during fetal life
• Produces endorphin and two forms of
Increase water reabsorption in the kidneys Melanocytestimulating hormone (MSH)
→ Increases melanocyte activity
PITUITARY GLAND
• “Hypophysis” (hypo: under + physis, 3. Pars tuberalis
growth) • Consist of a smaller funnel-shaped region
• Lies below the brain in a small cavity on the surrounding the infundibulum of the
sphenoid bone, Sella turcica neurohypophysis
• Immediately located below the • Contains mostly gonadotrophs
hypothalamus
 ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND HORMONES Prolactin (PRL)
• Also known as lactogenic hormone
1. Growth Hormone (GH) • Stimulated by Prolactin-Releasing Hormone
Target tissue: most tissues in the body (PRH) from the hypothalamus
Products: Growth • Target cell: Mammary Glands
• Stimulates production of milk in the breast
2. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) following pregnancy
Target tissue: Thyroid Gland • Negative feedback whan blood levels
Products: Thyroid Hormones (T3 and T4) increases
• Prolactin hypersecretion in males causes
3. Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH) erectile dysfunction and may be due to a
Target tissue: Arenal Cortex neoplastic tumor in the pituitary gland.
Products: Aldosterone, Cortisol, and weak
androgen DHEA Leutenizing Hormone (LH)
• Stimulated by Gonadotropin-Releasing
4. Prolactin (PRL) Hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus
Target tissue: Breast • Males: Stimulates the testes to secrete
Products: Milk Testosterone
• Females:
5. Follislce Stimulating Hormone (FSH) • Stimulates the ovary to release an ovum or
Target tissue: Ovaries and Testes egg
Products: Estrogen • Stimulates the formation of corpus luteum
in the ovary and secrete Progesterone
6. Leutinizing Hormone (LH)
Target tissue: Ovaries and Testes Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
Products: Progesterone, Testosterone • Stimulated by Gonadotropin-Releasing
Hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus
Growth Hormone (GH) • Males: Stimulate production of sperm cells
• Stimulates the growth of bones, muscles, in the testes
and other organ by increasing protein • Females:
synthesis. → Stimulates maturation of ovarian
• Affects protein, fat, and carbohydrate follicles
metabolism → Stimulates ovary to secrete Estrogen
• Release is stimulated by GHRH POSTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
• Inhibited is by Somatostatin (GHIH) • “Neurohypophysis”
• Consist of pars nervosa and the
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) infundibular stalk
• Stimulated by Thyrotropin-Releasing • Does not contain cells that synthesize its 2
Hormone (TRH) from the hypothalamus hormones
• Inhibited by Somatostatin • “Pituicytes”
• Action: → Most abundant cell in the posterior
→ Stimulates thyroid gland to produce pituitary gland
thyroid hormones T3 and T4 → Highly branched glial cells that
→ Stimulates the growth and activity of resembles astrocytes of the brain tissue
the thyroid gland
→ too much TSH causes the organ to Neurosecretory bodies or Herring bodies
enlarge and secrete too much thyroid • Stores the accumulated vasopressin and
hormones oxytocin from the hypothalamus
• Oxytocin and vasopressin are bound to
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) proteins called neurophysin I and II
• Stimulated by Corticotropin-Releasing respectively, which are contained in
Hormone (CRH) from the hypothalamus membrane-enclosed granules in the
• Stimulate the Adrenal Cortex to secrete neurosecretory bodies.
Aldosterone, Cortisol, and weak androgen
DHEA VASOPRESSIN
• Secretion is regulated by negative • Target organs: Kidneys and Arterioles
feedback • Effects:
→ Promotes water retention
→ Raises blood pressure by contracting
arterioles
→ Induces male aggression
OXYTOCIN 3. Zona Reticularis
• Target organs: Uterus and Mammary • Cells are more heavily stained than those of
Glands the other zones due to lower lipid droplets
• Effects: and more lipofuscin pigment.
→ Uterine contraction • Primarily secrete weak androgens DHEA
→ Lactation that is converted to testosterone both in
ADRENAL GLANDS CORTEX AND MEDULLA males and females
Adrenal Glands • Secretion is also stimulated by ACTH with
• “Suprarenal Glands” are paired organs negative feedback control
lying near the superior pole of the kidneys, ADRENAL MEDULLA
embedded in the peri-renal adipose tissue. Adrenal Medulla
2 parts: • Composed of large pale-staining
→ Adrenal Medulla polyhedral cells arranged in cord or clumps
→ Adrenal Cortex supported by reticular fibers
• Cells are called “Chromaffin Cells” which
stores and secretes catecholamines:
epinephrine and norepinephrine
• Catecholamines, Ca2+ , and ATP are
stored in a protein called “Chromogranin”
PANCREATIC ISLETS “ISLETS OF
LANGERHANS”
Pancreatic Islets
• Compact or ovoid masses of endocrine
cells embedded within the acinar exocrine
ADRENAL CORTEX tissue of the pancreas.
Adrenal Cortex Four cell population:
• Cells have acidophilic cytoplasm rich in → α cells secretes primarily glucagon
lipid droplets with central nuclei → β cells produce insulin
• Cytoplasm is rich in Smooth Endoplasmic → δ or D cells secretes somatostatin
Reticulum which contains enzymes for → PP cells secretes pancreatic polypeptide
cholesterol synthesis and conversion of
steroid prohormone into specific steroid 1. α cells
hormone Quantity%: 20
Three zones Hormone produced:
→ Zona Glomerulosa Glucagon
→ Zona Fasciculata Hormone structure and Size:
→ Zona Reticularis Polypeptide; 3500 Da
Hormone function:
1. Zona Glomerulosa Acts on several tissues to make energy stored in
• Immediately below the capsule glycogen and fat available through glycogenolysis
• Produces the steroids Mineralocorticoids and lipolysis: increases blood glucose content.
(Aldosterone)
→ Regulates the salt balance by 2. β cells
stimulating Na+ reabsorption in the Quantity%: 70
kidneys Hormone produced:
→ Stimulated primarily by Angiotensin II Insulin
and by increase in plasm K+ , but only Hormone structure and Size:
weakly by ACTH Dimer of a and b chains with S-S bridges;
5700-6000 Da
2. Zona Fasciculata Hormone function:
• Cells are filled with lipid droplets Acts on several tissues to cause entry of glucose
• Secretes Glucocorticoids (Cortisol) into cells and promotes decrease of blood glucose
→ Affects carbohydrate metabolism by content
stimulating gluconeogenesis in many
cells and glycogen synthesis in the liver.
→ Suppress many immune functions and
can induce fat mobilization
→ Secretion is controlled by ACTH with
negative feedback control.
 3. D cells 7 B’s of thyroid function:
Quantity%: 5-10 → Basal metabolic rate
Hormone produced: → Blood sugar
Somatostatin → Breakdown lipids
Hormone structure and Size: → Brain maturation
Polypeptide; 1650 Da → Brain growth
Hormone function: → B-adrenergic effects in heart
Inhibits release of other islet cell hormones through → Surfactant synthesis of Babies
local paracrine action; inhibits release of GH and
TSH in anterior pituitary and HCI secretion by gastric
parietal cells

4. PP cells
Quantity%: Rare
Hormone produced:
Pancreatic polypeptide
Hormone structure and Size:
Polypeptide; 4200 Da
Hormone function:
Stimulates activity of gastric chief cells; inhibits bile
secretion, pancreatic enzyme and bicarbonate
secretion, and intestinal motility
THYROID GLAND
Thyroid Gland
• Consist of 2 lobes (right and left) united by
an isthmus
Synthesizes thyroid hormones: • Low levels of T3 and T4 in the blood signals
→ Thyroxine or tetra-iodothyronine (T4) the Hypothalamus to release TRH which will
→ Tri-iodothyronine (T3) signal the Anterior Pituitary Gland to release
→ Calcitonin TSH which will in turn signal the Thyroid
Gland to synthesize T3 and T4
• Increased levels of T3 and T4 in the blood
signals the Hypothalamus to stop the
release of TRH which will signal the Anterior
Pituitary Gland to stop the release of TSH
which will in turn signal the Thyroid Gland to
stop synthesizing T3 and T4
PARA-FOLLICULAR CELLS OR C CELLS
Para-follicular cells or C cells
• Clusters of cells in between follicles
• Secretes Calcitonin, which is triggered by
elevated Ca2+ in the blood
• Parenchyma is composed of thyroid (Hypercalcemia)
follicles of variable diameter, each lined by • Calcitonin lowers Ca2+ level in the blood
simple squamous to cuboidal epithelial by 3 ways:
cells called “thyrocytes” → Promotes calcium deposition in the
• Central lumen is filled with gelatinous bone
colloid containing the thyroid hormones → Inhibits Ca2+ absorption in the intestine
• Size of follicle is controlled by TSH → Inhibits Ca2+ reabsorption in the
THYROID HORMONES T3 AND T4 kidneys
Functions
1. Brain development
2. Skeletal maturation
3. Increases basal metabolic rate
4. Increases heart rate
5. Stimulate gut activity
6. Increase bone turnover
7. Increase serum glucose
8. Decrease cholesterol and triglycerides
9. Thermal regulation
10. Converts carotene to Vitamin A
 PARATHYROID GLANDS PINEAL GLAND
Parathyroid Glands Pineal Gland
• Four small ovoid masses located on the • “Epiphysis cerebri”
back of the thyroid gland • Regulates the daily rhythms of the bodily
• Cells: Principal or Chief Cells containing the activities
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) • A small cone-shaped organ.
• Parathyroid Hormones have 3 major • Cells are called “Pinealocytes” which have
targets: many mitochondria and long cytoplasmic
1. Osteoblasts responds to PTH by processes.
producing an osteoclaststimulating • Produces the hormone Melatonin.
factor that increases the activity of • Release of melatonin is promoted by
ostroclasts, resulting in the release of darkness and inhibited by light resulting in
Ca2+ in the blood. diurnal fluctuation in the blood.
2. Stimulates Ca2+ reabsorption in the
kidneys Astrocytes
3. Indirectly increases Ca2+ absorption in • Interstitial glial cells in the pineal gland
the small intestine by stimulating • Have elongated nuclei more heavily
Vitamin D activation. stained than those of pinealocytes
• Usually found in perivascular areas and in
between groups of pinealocytes

Corpora aranacea
• Characteristic feature of the pineal gland
• Variously sized concretions of Calcium and
Magnesium salts
• “Brain sand”
• Formed by mineralization of extracellular
protein deposits
• No apparent effect on the gland’s function
DIFFUSE NEUROENDOCRINE SYSTEM
DNES: Diffuse Neuroendocrine System
• Dispersed cells in the digestive tract and
respiratory tract
• “Enterochromaffin cells” or “Argentaffin
cells”
• Cells are derived from endodermal cells of
the gut or bronchial buds
• Considered as neuroendocrine because
they produce many of the same
polypeptides and neurotransmitter-like
molecules
• Produces serotonin, which is also produced
in the CNS.
• These hormones act in a paracrine manner,
affecting primarily the activities of
neighboring contractile cells and secretory
cells (exocrine and endocrine)
• Stains with chromium salts
(enterochromaffin) and silver nitrate
(argentaffin)
• Main role: Regulates the motility and
secretions of all types within the digestive
system.
• Increased calcium level in the blood
triggers the Thyroid Gland to produce
Calcitonin to lower the calcium level in the
blood.
• Decreased calcium level in the blood
triggers the Parathyroid Gland to produce
Parathyroid Hormone to increase the
calcium level in the blood