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(SEM -I) THEORY EXAMINATION 2024-25

ENGINEERING PHYSICS (BAS-101)
Solution of the paper
SECTION A

1
(a)
State the assumptions made by the Planck’s to explain black body radiation curve.

Max Planck explained this phenomenon by proposing that energy exists only as discrete units;
that is, the energy that is associated with the oscillations of charges within atoms and molecules
is quantized - it can only take on whole number multiples of some minimum value, Planck’s
“quantum hypothesis”: maybe when a body emits or absorbs light of frequency υ, it can’t emit
any old amount of energy it likes, because there is some “special energy”: it emits energy in
“steps of E =hυ

(b)
Describe the term wave packet in Quantum Mechanics.

A wave packet or concentrated bunch of waves corresponding to a certain wavelength λ

comprises a group of number of waves slightly differing in velocity and wavelength with phase
and amplitude such that they interfere constructively over a small region of space somewhere
within which the particle can be located and outside this space they interfere destructively so that
the amplitude reduces to zero.
(c)
Explain the term skin depth with necessary formulae.

The skin depth δ is defined as the distance in which the strength of electric field associated with
EM wave reduces due to attenuation by a factor of 1/ e times from its initial value.

(d)
Centre is dark in Newton’s rings experiment. Explain it.
The center of the Newton's rings appears dark due to destructive interference. This occurs because
the light waves reflecting from the top and bottom surfaces of the air film are out of phase at the
center, leading to cancellation of the waves.

(e) Differentiate Spontaneous Emission and Stimulated Emission.

Spontaneous emission takes place without interaction with other photons, and the direction and
phase are random

Stimulated emission takes place when the excited electron interacts with another photon. Both the
direction and phase are “copied” from the other photon when stimulated emission takes place, and
it is the most important phenomenon for creating a highly directional and highly coherent light
source

(f) State the formula to calculate the cut of parameter and Number of modes in the fiber.

(g) Discuss the term Quantum Well and Quantum Wire.

The structure is called a quantum well if only one dimension is of nanodimension.

If two dimensions are of nanodimension, the structure is referred to as a quantum wire.

 Section B

2
(a) Derive Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation for a free particle and give the
physical interpretation of wave function.
For free particle U =0
𝟐𝒎𝑬
𝛁𝟐 𝝋 + 𝝋=𝒐
ℏ𝟐
The physical interpretation of wave function is that the wave function is not a physical object you
can directly observe, but it encapsulates all the information about a quantum system. Its square
modulus, ∣ψ(x,t)∣2, gives the probability density for finding a particle at a specific position, and it
evolves according to the Schrödinger equation.

(b) Derive electromagnetic wave equation in free space. Prove that electromagnetic
wave propagates with speed of light.

In free space there are neither free charges nor current. Therefore Volume charge density ρ = 0
and Current density J =0
(c ) Explain interference in thin films due to reflected light of uniform thickness and
obtain the condition of bright and dark rings.

To understand the phenomenon of interference in thin film due to reflected light, Consider a ray
AB of monochromatic light of wavelength λ be incident on the upper surface of a thin transparent
film of uniform thickness ‘t’ and index of refraction ‘μ’, at an angle ‘i’ as shown in the diagram
below. The ray AB is partly reflected along BP and partly refracted along BC at an angle ‘r’. The
refracted part BC is reflected from point C on the lower surface of the film along CD and finally
emerges out along DQ. As the rays BP and DQ are derived from the same incident ray, they are
coherent. If the film is thin, the rays BP and DQ will be sufficiently close to each other and in a
position to interfere. To evaluate the path difference between BP and DQ, the perpendiculars DH
and CN are drawn on BP and BD respectively. As the paths of the rays BP and DQ beyond BH are
equal, the optical path difference between these two rays is given by
When condition (10) is satisfied, the film will appear dark.
From equation (9) and (10) it is clear that the maxima and minima in the interference pattern
depends upon two factors (1) the thickness of the film ‘t’ and (2) cosine of the angle ‘r’
(d) Explain the process of absorption of radiation, spontaneous emission and stimulated
𝑨 𝟖𝝅𝒉𝝑𝟑
emission with diagram. Show that 𝑩𝟐𝟏 =
𝟐𝟏 𝒄𝟑

Absorption of Radiation: When the photon of light having energy hυ is incident on an atom in the
lower energy state E1, the atom in the lower energy state by absorbing the energy jump to higher
energy state E2 or excited state. This process is called stimulated or induced absorption.

Spontaneous Emission of Radiation: When an atom in its excited state E2 makes a transition to its
ground state E1 by emitting a photon of energy E2-E1 without any external influence, then this
phenomenon is known as spontaneous emission of radiation.

Stimulated or Induced Emission of Radiation: According to Einstein, an atom in excited state may under
the influence of the electromagnetic field of a photon incident upon it, jump to a lower energy state, emitting an
additional photon of same frequency.
Einstein’s theory of absorption and emission of light by an atom is based on Planck’s theory of radiation. Also,
under thermal equilibrium, the population of energy levels obeys the Boltzmann distribution law

Under thermal equilibrium

The rate of absorption = the rate of emission

Where-
KB is the Boltzmann Constant,
T is the absolute temperature and
N0 is the number of atoms at absolute zero.
At equilibrium, we can write the ratio of population levels as follows.
The constants A and B are called as Einstein Coefficients, which accounts for spontaneous and
stimulated emission probabilities. From above equation it is clear that the ratio between
spontaneous emission coefficient and stimulated emission coefficient is proportional to υ3. It
means that at thermal equilibrium, the probability of spontaneous emission increases rapidly with
the energy difference between two states.

(e) Explain type I and II superconductors. For a specimen of superconductor, the critical
fields are 1.4 x 105 and 4.2 x 105 A/m for temperature 14K and 13K respectively. Calculate
the transition temperature and fields at 0 K and 4.2 K.

Type I superconductors are those superconductors which lose their superconductivity very easily
or abruptly when placed in the external magnetic field. From the graph of intensity of
magnetization (M) versus applied magnetic field (H), we observe that, when a Type I
superconductor is placed in the magnetic field, it suddenly or easily loses its superconductivity at
critical magnetic field (Hc) (point A).

Type II superconductors are those superconductors which lose their superconductivity

gradually but not easily or abruptly when placed in the external magnetic field. From the
graph of intensity of magnetization (M) versus applied magnetic field (H), we can observe
when the Type II superconductor is placed in the magnetic field, it gradually loses its
superconductivity.

Type II superconductors start to lose their superconductivity at lower critical magnetic field
(Hc1) and completely lose their superconductivity at upper critical magnetic field(Hc2).
 Because of applications. Type 1 are also known as soft superconductors; its conductivity
is easily modified by magnetic field and thus it can't be used for manufacturing purposes while
Type 2 is called the hard superconductors and it shows a notable conductivity even if magnetic
field is changed.
 Section C
3
(a) Describe the experiment of Davisson and Germer to demonstrate the wave character
of electrons.
The Davisson-Germer experiment is embedded within a vacuum chamber, which results in the

deflection of electrons and scattering by the medium are being ignored. The following are the

major parts of the experimental setup. An electron gun consisting of filament made up of tungsten,

which on heating emits a large number of electrons by a process called thermionic emission. So,

we conclude that an electron gun emits electrons when it gets heated to a specific temperature. As

a large number of electrons are emitted from the electron gun, so to accelerate these electrons at a

specified potential, two charges are employed that are opposite to each other (positive and negative

plate). The accelerator is adjusted within the cylinder in such a way that it restricts the path for

electrons to run along its axis. The aim of the collimator is to make a slight and straight beam of

electrons for acceleration. The motive of the target is to find a nickel crystal, and the electron beam

is thrown generally on the nickel crystal, the position of which is in such a way that it will revolve

around a fixed axis. A detector is accommodated so that it collects dispersed electrons from the

nickel crystal. The detector may be moved in a semicircular [Link] wave nature of electrons was

settled experimentally by Davisson and Germer in 1927.

A fine beam of electrons is made to fall on the nickel crystal, and the upcoming electrons are then
attacked by the atoms of the nickel crystal in different directions. By rotating the electron detector
on a circular scale, the intensity of the scattered beam is measured at different latitude angles .

Then, the polar graphs plotted between the intensity of the scattered electrons and the latitude angle
for different accelerating voltages varying from 44 to 68 volts. The graphs obtained show that there
is a sharp bump if the accelerating voltage is 54V & = 50°.

The appearance of this sharp bump in an appropriate direction is mainly due to the constructive
interference of electrons, which are scattered from the nickel crystal. This initiates the wave nature
of the electrons.

From simple geometry, and for = 50°,

2θ = 180° – 50°

2θ = 130°

θ= 65°

Also for nickel crystal, the interatomic separation, d = 0.91°A.

According to Bragg’s law, and for first order diffraction maxima, (n = 1)

2d Sin = nλ

2d Sin = 1 λ

2 0.91 Sin 65° = λ

λ = 1.65°A

According to the De Broglie Hypothesis, the wavelength of a wave corresponding with the electron
is given by:

12.27
𝜆=
√54
λ = 1.66°A

This clearly shows that there is a close agreement between the estimated value and the
experimental value, which further shows the existence of De-Broglie waves for the electrons in
motion.

(b) A particle is moving in one dimensional potential box (of infinite height) of width 20
Å. Calculate the probability of finding the particle within an interval of 10 Å at the centre of
the box when it is in its state of least energy.
4
a) Derive work-energy theorem for the flow of energy in an electromagnetic field.
4
b) Assuming that all the energy from a 1000 watt lamp is radiated uniformly, calculate
the electric field and magnetic field of radiations at a distance of 5m from the lamp.

(a) Discuss the phenomenon of Fraunhofer diffraction at a single slit. Show that the intensity
of first subsidiary maximum is about 4.5% of the principal maximum.

A narrow-slit AB of width e. A plane wave front of monochromatic light of wavelength λ is incident on the slit.
Light diffracted from the slit is focused by convex lens L on a screen SS´. According to Huygens principle,
every point of the wave front in the plane of the slit is a source of secondary wavelets. The secondary wavelets
traveling normally to the slit i.e., along OPo are focused at Po by the lens L. The secondary wavelets traveling
at an angle θ are focused at a
point P1 on the screen. The intensity at point P1 depends upon the path difference between the secondary
waves originating from the corresponding points of the wave front.
5

(b) A parallel beam of sodium light of wavelength 5880 Å is incident on a thin glass plate
of refractive index 1.5 such that the angle of refraction in plate is 60o. Calculate the smallest
thickness of the plate, which will make it appear dark by reflection.

(a) Explain the term acceptance angle, acceptance cone and numerical aperture of an
optical fiber with labelled diagram and derive expression for numerical aperture in terms of
relative refractive index difference.

So, the ray XA is launched from denser medium to rarer medium by making an angle α with
the fiber axis. This angle α is known as the acceptance angle of the fiber. This incident ray
propagates inside the fiber and gets reflected completely by the core-cladding interface.

But for this, the angle of the incident should be more as compared to the critical angle. Otherwise,
if the incident angle is less the critical angle then rather being reflected, the ray gets refracted.
According to Snell’s law, the incident and refracted ray propagate in the same plane. Hence, on
applying Snell’s law at medium 1 (usually air) and core interface. Then

From the above figure, we can write

On putting the value of θ from the above equation in equation 1, we get,

Since we know

Applying Snell’s law at core-cladding interface, we get

Substituting the above value in equation 4

Substituting the above value in equation 3, we get

As we have already discussed that medium 1 is air, thus refractive index i.e., ƞ will be 1.
 Where α is the acceptance angle and NA is the numerical aperture.

In terms of relative refractive index difference, ∆ = η1 – η2 / η1 numerical aperture may be evaluated as,

∆ = η1 – η2 / η1 = (η1 + η2) (η1 – η2) / η1 (η1 + η2)

Since the difference in η1 and η2 is very small in step index single mode fibers, therefore we can
approximate (η1 + η2) ≈ 2 η1
∆ = η12 – η2 2/ 2 η1. η1 = η 12 – η 22 / 2 η12 = (NA)2/ 2

η12 Or NA = η1 (2∆)1/2

This is required expression for numerical aperture.

6
(b) Explain the construction and working of He-Ne laser with proper- labelled diagram.

Helium-Neon laser is a type of gas laser in which a mixture of helium and neon gas in the
ratio of 10: 1 or 7: 1 is used as a gain medium. Helium-Neon laser is also known as He-Ne
laser. A gas laser is a type of laser in which a mixture of gas is used as the active medium or
laser medium. Gas lasers are the most widely used lasers. Gas lasers range from the low power
helium-neon lasers to the very high-power carbon dioxide lasers. The helium-neon lasers are
most commonly used in college laboratories whereas the carbon dioxide lasers are used in
industrial applications. The main advantage of gas lasers (eg: He-Ne lasers) over solid state
lasers is that they are less prone to damage by overheating so they can be run continuously.
Construction:
The helium-neon laser consists of three essential components:
Pump source (high voltage power supply)
Gain medium (laser glass tube or discharge glass
tube) Resonating cavity
 Working
The electrical discharge excites helium atoms to higher energy states. These excited helium atoms
then collide with neon atoms, transferring energy to the neon atoms. The neon atoms absorb
energy from the helium atoms, and the neon atoms are excited to a higher energy state. The neon
atoms then undergo spontaneous and stimulated emissions. The primary laser emission occurs
when neon atoms transition from a higher to a lower energy state (usually from the 3s to the 2p
state, with a wavelength of 632.8 nm). The emitted photons are amplified as they reflect back and
forth between the mirrors, with each pass through the gas region increasing the intensity of the
light. A small portion of the light passes through the partially reflective mirror as the output beam.

7
(a) Discuss Meissner effect. Show that perfect diamagnetism and zero resistivity are two
independent and essential properties of the superconductor.

The Meissner Effect is a fundamental property of superconductors. It describes the phenomenon

where a superconducting material, when cooled below its critical temperature (TcT_cTc), expels
all magnetic fields from its interior, effectively becoming a perfect diamagnet.
This was discovered by Walther Meissner and Robert Ochsenfeld in 1933. When a material
enters the superconducting state, it not only loses its electrical resistance (a hallmark of
superconductivity) but also prevents the magnetic field from penetrating its interior.

Magnetic Field Expulsion: In the superconducting state, the material exhibits perfect
diamagnetism, meaning the magnetic field inside the superconductor is zero.
 Perfect Diamagnetism: The superconductor generates a surface current (called the screening
current) that precisely cancels the external magnetic field inside the material.
The Meissner Effect is observed only below the critical temperature (TcT_cTc) of the
superconductor. Above Tc, the material behaves like a normal conductor and does not exhibit the
Meissner Effect. The superconductor develops a magnetic susceptibility of -1, which means the
material repels the magnetic field entirely. These two properties are critical to the phenomenon of
superconductivity, but they are independent and essential for the definition of a superconductor.

 Perfect Diamagnetism means that the superconductor expels all magnetic fields from its interior
when it is in the superconducting state. This property is a direct consequence of the
superconducting state's quantum mechanical nature. The supercurrent on the surface of the
material creates a magnetic field that cancels the external field inside the superconductor.

This is not the same as just perfect conduction (which would imply no resistivity). Even a material
with perfect conductivity (like an ideal metal) can still allow magnetic fields to penetrate it.
However, the Meissner Effect goes a step further, completely excluding the magnetic field from
the superconductor.

Zero Resistivity

A superconductor exhibits zero electrical resistance when it is in the superconducting state. This
means that an electric current can flow indefinitely without any energy loss, which is due to the
formation of Cooper pairs (pairs of electrons that move without scattering) in the superconducting
material. Zero resistivity refers to the absence of energy dissipation during the flow of current in
the superconductor. While zero resistivity is a hallmark of superconductivity, it does not imply
perfect diamagnetism, nor does perfect diamagnetism imply zero resistivity. These are two
separate, but essential properties of a superconductor.

(b) Explain the term top-down approach for the fabrication of nano- materials. Describe
CVD method for the synthesis of nano-materials with a suitable diagram.
The top-down approach for fabricating nanomaterials refers to the method of creating
nanostructures by starting with larger pieces of material (usually in bulk form) and breaking them
down into nanoscale dimensions. Essentially, this approach involves "breaking down" or
"carving" larger structures into smaller ones using various techniques.. It begins with bulk
materials, often in the form of large crystals, thin films, or even powders, which are reduced to
the nanoscale. The top-down approach works by progressively refining and reducing the size of
the material down to the nanometer scale through mechanical, physical, or chemical methods.
This approach typically uses micromachining, lithography, or other processes that can handle
relatively larger structures and break them down into smaller components. The process often
involves high precision and control to ensure that the material is shaped and fabricated at the
nanoscale.

The starting material, often in bulk, could be a metal, ceramic, polymer, or semiconductor. One
of the common techniques used is ball milling, where large particles of material are crushed or
ground down using high-energy mechanical force to create fine powders at the nanoscale.

Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is a vacuum-based deposition process for producing better-
quality, better-performance of solid materials. In this method, thin films deposits over the
substrate and involves chemical reactions between species such as organometallic and other
gases. The uniqueness of CVD is a multidirectional deposition method to coat over the
substrate, while PVD uses a line-of-site impingement method. CVD is commonly used to
deposit materials in various forms such as crystalline, amorphous, and epitaxial growth in the
microfabrication process. In CVD, a mixture of gases interacts chemically over the surface of
bulk materials that leads to chemical decomposition forming a dense coating on the base of the
material surface. For example, diamond crystals can be deposited over the silicon or
molybdenum substrates using the CVD approach. Charged diamond nanoparticles can be
produced using the hot filament chemical vapor deposition (HFCVD) process. The diamond
nanoparticles are captured using floating and grounded substrates. Some of the substrates are
SiO, graphene membranes of copper TEM grid, and carbon. Different types of allotropes
diamonds are identified as hexagonal and cubic diamond, i-carbon, and n-diamond particles.
The diamond nanoparticles can characterize using Raman spectroscopy that has a sharp peak
around 1332 cm−1. The advantages of the CVD process are producing high purity thin films and
fabricating abrupt junctions. Disadvantages of the CVD process is the product based on the
properties of precursor and poor uniformity.