Cell Function

Biology 1111
Unit 5
(Chapter 5 and chapter 6
83-135)

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You are here

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Before you continue:
• What are the four categories of lipids?
• What are phospholipids?
• What is a lipid bi-layer?
• What are the roles of proteins in cells?
• What effects the melting temperature of fatty acids?
• What cell structure allow for cell movement in eukaryotic cells?
• What is temperature measuring?

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Outline

Membrane structure Transport across Energy and the cell

membranes

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 What are the main components of the cell
membrane?

How is membrane fluidity regulated?

What are the role of membranal proteins and

saccharides?
Can you
answer How does the membrane regulate cell transport?

these What is the difference between osmosis and

diffusion
questions? What are the laws of thermodynamics?

How do enzymes work?

How does the cell extract energy from saccharides

in the presence and absence of O2?
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 Describe Describe the components of the cell membrane.

Describe the role of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids in the cell
Describe membrane.

Describe Describe the role of cholesterol in the cell membrane.

Describe Describe the types of membrane proteins.

Define Define diffusion and the process of passive transport.

Learning Describe Describe osmosis and osmoregulation.

Objectives Distinguish Distinguish among the following terms: hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic

Calculate the direction in which solutes and water will move when solutions are
Calculate separated by a semi-permeable membrane

Explain what would happen to a plant and animal cell when placed into
Explain hypertonic, isotonic and hypotonic solutions.

Explain Explain how transport proteins facilitate diffusion.

Compare and Compare and contrast between facilitated diffusion and active transport
contrast
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 Distinguish between catabolism and anabolism; between endergonic and
Distinguish exergonic reactions.

Define energy; describe the two forms that it takes and provide an example
Define of each.

Explain Explain how ATP hydrolysis provides energy to catalyze cellular reactions

Name and
Learning describe
Name and describe the first and second laws of thermodynamics.

Objectives Describe
Name and describe the cellular pathways harvesting energy from nutrients
What is the cellular location of each? Which of them requires oxygen.

Describe Describe how enzymes catalyze chemical reactions.

Explain Explain how the structure of proteins allows for enzyme specificity.

Differentiate Differentiate between competitive and noncompetitive inhibitors.

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Membrane structure
• The plasma membrane serves many
many functions:
• Separates the interior of the cell from the external environment
• Controls what enters and exits the cell
cell
• Organizes cellular chemical reactions
• Compartmentalizes enzymes by function

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Cell membranes are a fluid mosaic
Cell membrane is a fluid mosaic of lipids and proteins in a
phospholipid bilayer
• Phospholipid molecules form a flexible
flexible bilayer
• Proteins are embedded in the bilayer
bilayer
• Carbohydrates decorate the cell surface
surface and act as cell identification

Mosaic art

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Membrane fluidity is
essential for cell
function
• Cell membranes have the
consistency of salad
salad oil
oil
• Membranes must be fluid to
function
• Flexible enough for growth
growth
division, and movement
• Strong enough to be a
barrier
barrier between the inside [Link]
and outside of the cell
interior (permeability) Cell movement

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 Lipid composition determines
the fluidity of membranes
Saturated fatty acids make membranes more rigid
than unsaturated
unsaturated fatty acids
• Saturated animal fats = solid at room
temperature
temperature
• E.g. clog arteries
• In saturated FAs, all C-C bonds are single
• Straight FA chains
chains allow maximum
packing of phospholipids
• More saturated FAs = more viscous
membrane

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 Lipid composition determines the fluidity
of membranes
• Unsaturated FAs increase membrane
membrane
fluidity
• Unsaturated fats = liquid at room
temperature
• i.e. Not thought to cause arterial
clogs
• In unsaturated
unsaturated FAs there is at least
one C=C bond
• Double bonds → a “kink” in the FA
tails
• Kinks = more room for lipid
movement can pack less tight
unsaturated FAs = less viscous
• More unsaturated more movement
membrane

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 Lipid composition determines the fluidity
of membranes
• Cholesterol acts as a fluidity buffer
• Affects membrane
membraine fluidity differently at different temperatures
• At warm temperatures (i.e. 37ºC), cholesterol restrains lipid movement
• Makes membranes more/less fluid
• At cool temperatures, cholesterol prevents tight packing of lipids
• Makes membranes more/less fluid

creates space/
fluidity buffer =
cholesterol
movement… incres
t=fluidity do not
incresce…drops
t=less movent/more ampepathic
packed fluidity = THE SAME
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Membrane proteins transport of molecules

carry charge
• Peripheral membrane proteins are surface
surface proteins P

• Held to the cell surface by H- and ionic bonds to

membrane proteins
phospholipid heads and other membrane
• Integral membrane proteins have hydrophobic
domains that can interact with phospholipid FA tails
domains
I
• Transmembrane proteins span the membrane
membrane
and
contain both hydrophilic and hydrophobic domains

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Membrane proteins do a lot of cellular work
Membrane proteins determine most of the membrane’s specific
functions receptor

promote activity

[Link]
=3&v=Qqsf_UJcfBc&feature=emb_logo

Membrane proteins
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 Membrane carbohydrates
attach
• Carbohydrates decorate
decorate the cell
surface
• Help identify cells
• Provides specificity
specificity in cell-cell

interactions
• Glycolipids = sugar attached to a lipid
• E.g. Blood antigens that determine blood
type
• Glycoproteins = sugar
sugar attached to a
protein
• E.g. Receptors
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Carbohydrates determine if your blood
type is A,B or O

Different sugars
decorate blood cells

Antibody specificity
depends on “self” ID

Antigen combo (sugars)

determines ID

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Membrane transport polar and ionic can`t
pass throught= want
to stay in water/
• Membranes are selectively
selectively permeable cytoplasm
• Allows only some substances to cross the barrier
• How is this achieved?

What about large or hydrophilic

molecules?

• Hydrophobic substances can passively diffuse through the

lipid bilayer
bilayer and can pass (e.g. CO , O , steroids, etc.)
2 2

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 from high-to low
How is membrane
energy of
transport movement
regulated?
proteins contribute to
Transport proteins
the selective permeability of
pass through
membranes hydrophobic
membrane
• Span the membrane (CO2)
• Specific to the molecule
they transport
• Some are channels
channels and
carrier proteins (passive
gas(CO2,O2= no additional energy
diffusion)
nonpolar
• others are transport
proteins (active transport)
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 Passive transport across
the cell membrane
• Allows for the flow of molecules
molecules along a
diffusion gradient
• Diffusion = tendency of molecules to
concentration to low
flow from high concentration
concentration
• No investment of energy is required by
the cell
• Includes both diffusion and facilitated
diffusion
t=how fast molecules move
ions,polar,large molecule= proteins -carries
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 Facilitated diffusion is a
form of passive transport

• Transmembrane proteins that serve as pores

provide a channel
channel for facilitated diffusion
• Facilitated diffusion is just substances
substances moving
down their concentration gradient via transport
proteins
• Passive transport = requires no added
energy
• Each transporter unique to solute

Important concept to understand

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How does water
pass through the
membrane
• Water have their own channel
proteins
• Aquaporins → facilitated
facilitated
diffusion of water (aka osmosis)
diffusion of water molecule
Osmosis
• Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane
• Water diffuses from low solute concentration to high solute
concentration

This tells us that

water has it’s own,
independent
concentration
gradient!

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Practice question:
Use arrows to indicate the flow of salt in each beaker, assuming
they are filled with saline solutions.

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 Which of the following statements is TRUE about
the transport of a relatively high external
concentration of sodium (Na+) across the cell
membrane and into the cell?
A. Sodium ions easily dissolve in the lipid bilayer
and cross the membrane without the
iClicker assistance of proteins.
B. Sodium ions require a transmembrane
question: protein for passive transport across the
membrane.
C. Sodium ions require a transmembrane
protein for active transport across the
membrane.
D. Sodium ions are not necessary for life.
 Osmoregulation
• Regulated flow of water into & out of cells cells
differently depending on the
• Cells behave differently
differences in solute concentration in the
environment (osmolarity):
• Hypertonic solutions have a higher solute
concentration than inside inside of the cell
• Hypotonic solutions have a lower solute
Tonicity concentration
concentration than inside of the cell
• Isotonic solutions have equal solute
concentrations in/out of the cell
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 Important to understand that tonicity
solutes that can’t cross the
refers to all solutes
Osmoregulation membrane.

Still isotonic 5% Galactose, 5% Na, 10%

10% Na Galactose
 Why is osmoregulation important?

• In hypotonic solutions, cells will swell

Osmosis
• In hypertonic solutions, cells will shrink

E.g. In Paramecium:

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Osmoregulation in plants
• A hypotonic
hypotonic solution is best for plant cells because the cell wall
prevents the membrane from bursting
• The water pressure
pressure against the cell wall is known as turgor
pressure

Hypertoni Isotonic Hypotoni

c c

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iClicker question:
The cell membrane is permeable to water and glucose, but not to sucrose. Water is the
solvent in the beaker and in the cell.

How would you describe

the solution outside the
5% glucose
cell, with respect to the
20% sucrose cell?
20%
glucose A. Hypertonic
5%
sucrose
B. Hypotonic
C. Isotonic

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iClicker question:
The cell membrane is permeable to water and glucose, but not sucrose. Water is the
solvent in the beaker and in the cell.

In which direction will

5% glucose
sucrose move?
20% sucrose
A. Into the cell
20%
glucose B. Out of the cell
5% C. Stays where it is
sucrose
cant enter or exit the cell

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iClicker question:
The cell membrane is permeable to water and glucose, but not sucrose. Water is the
solvent in the beaker and in the cell.
hight concetration- moves to low concentration

In which direction will

5% glucose
glucose move?
20% sucrose
A. Into the cell
20%
glucose B. Out of the cell
5% C. Stays where it is
sucrose

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iClicker question:
The cell membrane is permeable to water and glucose, but not sucrose. Water is the
solvent in the beaker and in the cell.
What will happen to the cell,
eventually?
5% glucose
A. It will shrink because of
20% sucrose
osmosis.
B. It will swell because of
20%
glucose osmosis.
5%
sucrose C. It will remain the same
because the solution and the
cytoplasm is isotonic.
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 membranes
Transport membranes
can move solutes
across a membrane
against
against their
concentration gradient
gradient

• Requires energy
energy input by
the cell

Active transport
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The Na+/K+ pump actively transports ions against
their concentration gradient

• Heart muscle
• Neurons

[Link]

electrical gradient

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 Active transport:
endocytosis is a form
of bulk transport into
the cell

process
Endocytosis is the process
by which large molecules or
particles are moved into the
cell via membrane
vacuoles
• Look another reason why
membrane fluidity is
important!

[Link]

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Active transport: exocytosis is a form
of bulk transport out of the cell
• Exocytosis is the process by which large molecules or particles
large molecules
move out of the cell
• Molecules loaded inside a membrane vesicle
vesicle are released into the
extracellular space by fusing with the plasma membrane

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Passive vs. Active Transport
Passive transport Active Transport

Common Moves solutes across a cell membrane

characteristics

Unique • Down [ ] -Against consentration

• Against []
characteristics gradient gradient
gradient
• Includes -Requires
• Requiresadditional
-Down gradient
diffusion energy(ATP)
additional
-Include diffusion
• Requires no -Performedenergyby proteins
(ATP)
-Requires no energy -Can
energy • Performed
be done inbybulk
investment
investment proteins
-can be performed
• Can be by • Can be done
proteins
performed by in bulk
proteins
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A little movie about membrane transport

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Energy and the Cell

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Energy and the cell
• Cells preform many chemical
reactions in order to survive,
survive grow,
and divide
• These reactions
reactions are performed by
enzymes and are known as cellular
work
• Some require energy
• Energy is the capacity to do work
• Cells can transform
transform energy to be
more available for work via enzyme-
controlled chemical reactions
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Two forms of energy
• Kinetic energy is energy of
movement/actually doing work
• Energy an object
object has due to motion
• Includes heat = energy of moving molecules
and light = entirely kinetic
kinetic energy

• Potential energy is stored energy

• Energy an object has due to its position or
the ability for that energy to be converted
into another
another form of energy
• Includes chemical energy = potential energy
of molecules

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Organisms transform energy for survival

Chemical
Light Energy Work
Energy

Potential
Kinetic Energy Kinetic Energy
Energy

• Organisms use chemical

chemical
energy by breaking bonds
• Potential energy in chemical bonds is converted to kinetic energy
• i.e. Living things rearrange
rearrange sugar molecules via chemical reactions and
use that energy to do work

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 Thermodynamics:
the study of energy
transformations
Three physical laws govern
energy transformations:
The first law of
thermodynamics:
neither be created
Energy can neither
nor destroyed, but it can be
transformed from one form to
another
• Basically the law of
conservation of energy
conservation
• Emmy Neuter
[Link]
?v=Rqfj7n5aSwY
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 Thermodynamics:
the study of energy
transformations
Three physical laws govern
energy transformations:

The second law of

thermodynamics:
energy are
Transformations of energy
never 100% efficient
• Loss of work performing
energy due to heat
energy
transfer between molecules
• Increase in entropy t - movi ng of molecules
energy spreads around equily - more stable
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 What is entropy? sugar at the bottom do not dissolve
salt is everywhere//no order = increase entropy
no order
Entropy is a measure of or disorder within a
given system
• Every time energy is used/transformed in an
irreversible way, we consider this as an increase in
the disorder of the system
investment of more
• Irreversible = irreversible without the investment
energy
• An example for this is dissolving salts in water
• It would be impossible to separate the ions from the water
without the investment of more energy
move outside/agains concentration = entropy

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 What is
entropy?

The first and second laws of

thermodynamics explain
explain why
perpetual motion machines are
impossible to build
impossible
• And why organisms constantly
need to eat
life doesnt violate the 2nd law

A great PBS series on entropy

[Link]
=kfffy12uQ7g

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 CO2 + H2O → C6H12O6 + O2 Photosynthesis

The laws of
thermodynamics
hold true in the
ecosystem

C6H12O6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O + ATP(energy currency) Respiration

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Cellular metabolism
• All of the reactions in a cell
• Two general types of cellular
celluar reactions:
1. Catabolic reactions release energy by breaking
breaking complex molecules
into smaller compounds
• Exergonic or energy-releasing entropy increasing,spontaneous
2. Anabolic reactions consume
consume energy by building complex molecules
from smaller ones
• Endergonic or energy-consuming
entropy decreasing,non spontaneous Have you ever
heard of “anabolic
steroids”?

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Catabolic vs. anabolic reactions

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 Enzymes perform the metabolic
activities in the cell

• Enzymes act as biological catalysts

biological catalysts
• An enzyme can perform the same reaction
over and over
• Without enzymes, the chemical reactions
chemical reactions
would eventually proceed
• But with enzymes, the reactions proceed
faster

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 Cellular reactions require enzymes

• Biological molecules store a lot of

potential
potential energy
• Not released spontaneously
• Need to overcome
overcome an energy barrier

• The energy barrier is called

activation energy (EA)
• This is the amount of energy
energy required
to move a reactant to a higher energy
state to start a reaction

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 How do enzymes work?
• Enzymes speed up reactions
reactions
by lowering the EA of the
No
reaction they catalyze enzymes
• Without enzymes, the energy
to overcome the EA is often
Enzymes
supplied
supplied in the form of heat
from the surroundings
• Enzymes lower the EA of a
reaction without adding
energy
• Enzymes also cannot
reactions that
catalyze reactions
wouldn’t otherwise happen
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A specific enzyme catalyzes each cellular
reaction
Substrate
• Enzymes are selective
Enzyme
• They only use specific
specific substrates
• Determines what reactions will occur
• Enzyme shape is responsible
responsible for selectivity
• “Lock and key” mechanism

• A substrate is the specific

specific reactant that an enzyme acts on

• The enzyme active site is the part of the enzyme that acts on
catalyze the chemical reaction
the substrate to catalyze

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 A specific enzyme catalyzes each cellular
reaction
• Each cell has thousands
thousands of different enzymes

• Each enzyme performs a specific cellular

cellular reaction

• Each enzyme
enzyme has an optimal range of conditions

• Temperature, pH, salt concentration, etc.

E.g. specific cellular reaction: E.g. Cellular metabolic pathway:

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Enzyme inhibitors
• Inhibitors block the ability of enzymes
enzymes to function

• Competitive inhibitors
• Block substrate
substrate entry into the active site
• Reduce enzyme productivity
• E.g. antibiotics
• Non-competitive inhibitors
active site
• Bind enzyme outside of the active site (do not compete with substrate for
entry)
• Binding changes the shape of the active site → inability of substrate to bind
active site
• E.g. antibiotics

• [Link]

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 ATP is the energy source for the cell
metabolism
• Energy released by exergonic
exergonic reactions is used to power
endergonic reactions = energy coupling
• Most energy coupling in the cell is mediated
madiated by ATP
• When ATP is hydrolyzed, it releases energy
• ATP → ADP + Pi
• ATP drives almost all endergonic
endergonic enzymatic
reactions in the cell

The hydrolysis of ATP is

endergonic/exergonic.

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The ATP cycle

• ATP is a renewable cellular resource

• When exergonic reactions
reactions release energy, that energy is stored as ATP
• The ATP is used to power
power cellular endergonic reactions
• Therefore, ATP is the energy
energy currency of the cell

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 How do cells
generate ATP?

• Cells derive energy from

braking down glucose to
molecules
smaller molecules.
• The energy released is
stored as ATP
• There are three
three main
processes
• Glycolysis - cytoplasm
• Cellular respiration
respiration -
mitochondria
• Fermentation – no oxygen All these processes consist of multiple
consecutive redox reaction
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 Glycolysis
• Occurs in the cytosol
• Does not require oxygen
• 10 step reaction
• Breaks down glucose into two
3C molecules called pyruvate
• Requires the investment of 2
ATP
• Generates 4 ATP
• Total ATP gain = 2 per
glucose
• Occurs in all domains of life
Don’t need to remember the steps

Need to remember these points

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The citric acid cycle
(Krebs cycle)

• Occurs in the matrix of

mitochondria
• Does not require oxygen
• Multistep process
• Generates 1 ATP per pyruvate
• Totals 2 ATPS
• Occurs in the cytoplasm of
prokaryotes as well

Don’t need to remember the steps

Need to remember these points
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 The electron
transport chain and
chemiosmosis

• So far only 4 ATPs created, not a

lot
• But glycolysis and the citric acid
cycles generate other high energy
molecules
• Electron carriers
• Transfer electrons and reduce an
active transporter of H+ at the
inner membrane of the
mitochondria
Don’t need to remember the steps
Need to remember these points
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 The electron
transport chain and
chemiosmosis

• The electron carries anergy

allowing for the active transport of
H+ across the membrane into the
intermembrane space
• Electron than passed to the next
transporter until eventually
passes to oxygen
• Creating a large H+ pool

Don’t need to remember the steps

Need to remember these points
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 The electron
transport chain and
chemiosmosis

• Lipid bilayers act as dams

preventing diffusion of H+
• Can only diffuse via a special
protein called ATP synthase
• Act like a dam turbine
• When they pass through uses
energy to synthesize ATP
• ~28 ATPs per glucose molecule

Don’t need to remember the steps

Need to remember these points
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 Cellular
respiration-
Summary. ECT

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Questions:
• Why are there so many steps to the process of cellular
respiration?
• What do you think will happen if there is no oxygen?
• Where do you think the ETC occurs in prokaryotes?
plasma
membrane

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 Anaerobic energy harvesting
• How do organisms make energy in the
absence of oxygen?
absence

• Glycolysis = anaerobic
anaerobic ATP generation

• Makes 2 ATP = more/less efficient than

respiration

• Fermentation = process that regenerates

regenerates
glycolysis to allow
molecules consumed by glycolysis
glycolysis to continue

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Fermentation
• Alcohol fermentation
• Used to make bread,
bread beer, wine
• Performed by yeast and bacteria
bacteria
• Pyruvate broken down into CO2 and ethanol
• Lactic acid fermentation
• Used by bacteria to make cheese
cheese and yogurt
• Used by muscle cells when
the need for ATP > O2 delivery
• Used by red blood cells
Biologist’s ode to yeast and beer
• Pyruvate is converted into lactate [Link]
UOYTQtQ

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