IGCSE Biology (0610) - Chapter 16: Reproduction (2026-2028 Syllabus)
SECTION 16.1: OVERVIEW OF REPRODUCTION
- Reproduction: The process by which organisms produce offspring.
- Types of Reproduction:
* Asexual Reproduction: Involves a single parent, produces genetically identical offspring (clones).
- Example: Binary fission in bacteria, vegetative propagation in plants.
- Advantages: Faster, less energy required.
- Disadvantages: No genetic variation.
* Sexual Reproduction: Involves fusion of male and female gametes, producing genetically
different offspring.
- Advantages: Genetic variation enhances survival.
- Disadvantages: Slower, more energy required.
SECTION 16.2: SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
- Definition: Fusion of haploid gametes (sperm and egg) to form a diploid zygote.
- Gametes are haploid (n); zygote is diploid (2n).
- Variation results due to genetic recombination.
SECTION 16.3: PLANT REPRODUCTION
Structure of a Flower:
- Sepals, petals, stamens (anther + filament), carpels (stigma, style, ovary).
Pollination:
- Transfer of pollen from anther to stigma.
* Self-pollination: Same flower/plant.
* Cross-pollination: Between different plants.
- Agents: Insects (bright petals, nectar, sticky pollen), Wind (small petals, feathery stigma, light
pollen).
Fertilisation:
- Pollen tube grows from stigma to ovule.
- Male nucleus fuses with ovule nucleus forming zygote.
Seed and Fruit Formation:
- Ovule -> seed, Ovary -> fruit.
Germination:
- Conditions: Water, oxygen, suitable temperature.
- Process: Absorption of water -> enzyme activation -> growth of embryo.
SECTION 16.4: HUMAN REPRODUCTION
Male Reproductive System:
- Testes: Produce sperm and testosterone.
- Scrotum: Regulates testis temperature.
- Sperm duct, Prostate gland, Urethra, Penis.
Female Reproductive System:
- Ovaries: Produce ova and hormones.
- Oviducts/Fallopian tubes: Site of fertilisation.
- Uterus: Site of implantation and development.
- Cervix and Vagina.
Fertilisation:
- Sperm meets egg in oviduct.
- Fusion of nuclei forms diploid zygote.
Adaptations of Gametes:
- Sperm: Tail for movement, acrosome with enzymes, mitochondria for energy.
- Egg: Large cytoplasm, protective membranes.
Placenta and Umbilical Cord:
- Site for exchange of nutrients, gases, and wastes.
- Protects fetus, allows antibody and hormone transfer.
SECTION 16.5: HORMONES AND PREGNANCY
Hormones:
- Testosterone: Male sex hormone.
- Oestrogen: Develops female secondary sexual traits.
- Progesterone: Maintains uterine lining during pregnancy.
Menstrual Cycle:
- Involves cyclic changes in uterus and ovaries.
- Regulated by FSH, LH, oestrogen, progesterone.
Pregnancy:
- Implantation occurs in uterus.
- Placenta develops for nourishment.
- Umbilical cord connects fetus to placenta.
IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS:
- Gamete: A haploid sex cell (sperm or egg).
- Zygote: A diploid cell formed after fertilisation.
- Pollination: Transfer of pollen to stigma.
- Fertilisation: Fusion of male and female gamete nuclei.
- Germination: Process by which a seed grows into a seedling.
- Clone: An organism genetically identical to the parent.
- Hormone: Chemical substance regulating physiological activities.
