BIOLOGY 101: BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES – DETAILED NOTES
Definition of Biological Molecules
Biological molecules (biomolecules) are organic molecules that are essential for life. They
are involved in various structural, functional, and regulatory processes within cells and
organisms. These molecules include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.
1. CARBOHYDRATES
Definition:
Carbohydrates are organic molecules composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen
(O) in a 1:2:1 ratio. They serve as a primary energy source and structural components in
living organisms.
Types of Carbohydrates:
Monosaccharides (Simple Sugars)
Smallest units of carbohydrates.
Examples:
Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) – main energy source.
Fructose – is found in fruits.
Galactose – a component of lactose (milk sugar).
Monosaccharides are soluble in water and can be directly used in metabolism.
Disaccharides (Two Monosaccharides Joined Together)
Formed by a condensation reaction, releasing water.
Linked by glycosidic bonds.
Examples:
Sucrose (glucose + fructose) – common table sugar.
Lactose (glucose + galactose) – milk sugar.
Maltose (glucose + glucose) – found in malted grains.
Polysaccharides (Complex Carbohydrates)
Functions: Energy storage & structural support.
Examples:
Starch – energy storage in plants.
Glycogen – energy storage in animals (found in liver & muscles).
Cellulose – a structural component of plant cell walls.
Chitin – found in fungal cell walls and arthropod exoskeletons.
Bonds in Carbohydrates:
Glycosidic bonds form between monosaccharides.
Tests for Carbohydrates:
Benedict’s Test (for reducing sugars) – positive result turns brick red.
Iodine Test (for starch) – positive result turns blue-black.
2. PROTEINS
Definition:
Proteins are large biomolecules composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. They
perform structural, enzymatic, and regulatory functions in cells.
Structure of Proteins:
Monomers: Amino acids (20 types).
Polymers: Polypeptides (fold into functional proteins).
Amino Acid Structure:
Central carbon (C).
Amino group (-NH₂).
Carboxyl group (-COOH).
R-group (variable group that determines function).
Protein Structure Levels:
Primary Structure – Linear sequence of amino acids.
Tertiary Structure – 3D shape due to interactions between R-groups (e.g., disulfide
bridges).
Quaternary Structure – Multiple polypeptide chains joined (e.g., hemoglobin).
Functions of Proteins:
Enzymes (catalysts) – e.g., amylase, DNA polymerase.
Structural support – e.g., collagen, keratin.
Transport – e.g., hemoglobin (oxygen transport).
Immune defense – e.g., antibodies.
Hormones – e.g., insulin, growth hormone.
Bonds in Proteins:
Peptide bonds link amino acids.
Tests for Proteins:
Biuret Test – Positive result turns purple/lilac.
3. LIPIDS
Definition:
Lipids are hydrophobic molecules composed mainly of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and
oxygen (O). They are important for energy storage, insulation, and membrane structure.
Types of Lipids:
Triglycerides (Fats and Oils)
Glycerol + 3 fatty acids (joined by ester bonds).
Saturated fats (no double bonds, solid at room temp – e.g., butter).
Unsaturated fats (one or more double bonds, liquid at room temp – e.g., olive oil).
Phospholipids
A major component of cell membranes (phospholipid bilayer).
Structure: Hydrophilic (water-loving) head + Hydrophobic (water-fearing) tails.
Steroids
Examples: Cholesterol, testosterone, estrogen.
Functions of Lipids:
Long-term energy storage.
Cell membrane structure (phospholipids).
Insulation & protection (fat stores in animals).
Hormone production (steroids).
Bonds in Lipids:
Ester bonds link glycerol to fatty acids.
Tests for Lipids:
Emulsion Test – Positive result forms a cloudy white layer.
4. NUCLEIC ACIDS
Definition:
Nucleic acids store and transmit genetic information. They are composed of nucleotides.
Types of Nucleic Acids:
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
Double-stranded helix.
Sugar: Deoxyribose.
Bases: A (Adenine) – T (Thymine), G (Guanine) – C (Cytosine).
Function: Stores genetic information.
RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)
Single-stranded.
Sugar: Ribose.
Bases: A (Adenine) – U (Uracil), G (Guanine) – C (Cytosine).
Function: Protein synthesis (mRNA, tRNA, rRNA).
Bonds in Nucleic Acids:
Hydrogen bonds between base pairs in DNA.
5. ENZYMES
Definition:
Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions without being
consumed.
How Enzymes Work:
Active Site – Region where the substrate binds.
Lock and Key Model – Perfect fit between enzyme and substrate.
Induced Fit Model – Enzyme changes shape to fit substrate.
Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity:
Temperature – Too high causes denaturation.
pH – Enzymes work best at optimum pH.
Substrate Concentration – Increased concentration increases activity until saturation.
Enzyme Inhibition:
Competitive Inhibition – Inhibitor binds to the active site.
Non-competitive Inhibition – Inhibitor binds elsewhere, changing enzyme shape.
6. SUMMARY OF TESTS FOR BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
Biomolecule Test Positive Result
Carbohydrates Benedict’s (reducing sugars) Brick red
Carbohydrates Iodine (starch) Blue-black
Proteins Biuret Purple
Lipids Emulsion Cloudy white
CONCLUSION
Biological molecules are fundamental to life, playing essential roles in energy storage,
structural support, information transfer, and metabolism. Understanding their structure and
function is crucial in biochemistry, medicine, and biotechnology.
