SELF LEARNING

MODULE IN
CHEMISTRY I
Third Quarter-WEEK 2

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 Module 2A Week 2
Properties of Liquids

What I Need to Know

At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:

1. describe the properties of liquids: surface tension, viscosity, vapor pressure,
boiling point, and molar heat of vaporization;
2. explain the effect of intermolecular forces on these properties; and
3. relate the properties of water to intermolecular forces that operate among its
molecules.

What’s In
Activity 1. Review!

Directions: As part of our review of our previous lessons on

intermolecular forces, list the type/s of intermolecular forces that exist between
molecules (or basic units) in each of the following species:

(a) benzene (C6H6)

(b) CH3Cl
(c) PF3
(d) NaCl
(e) CS2

What’s New
Activity 2: Infer the Topic

Directions: The objective is for you to deduce the subject of the lesson from the
ideas you get from the photos. Look at the pictures in a minute or less and record an
inference about the upcoming subject of study. Based on the images seen, you
should be able to make arguments to support your conclusion. Express your answer
in three to five sentences only.
__ _
_
___

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© 2004 Thomson/Brooks Cole © 2004 Thomson/Brooks Cole © 2004 Thomson/Brooks Cole

© 2004 Thomson/Brooks Cole © 2004 Thomson/Brooks Cole Karp, 2010

What is It

In activity 2, you should be able to tell the properties of liquids being depicted in
each photo like surface tension, viscosity, vapor pressure, and boiling point.

You should be familiar with the following relevant vocabulary that will be used
in the lesson:

Fluid
A liquid or gas; a substance that flows.

Surface tension
It is the elastic force in the surface of a liquid. It is the amount of energy required to
increase or stretch the surface of a liquid by a unit area.

Capillary action
It is the tendency of a liquid to rise in narrow tubes or to be drawn into small
openings.

Viscosity
A measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow.

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Vapor
A gaseous substance that exists naturally as a solid or liquid at normal temperature.

Vaporization
The change of phase from liquid to gas/vapor.

Vapor pressure of a liquid

The pressure exerted by the vapor above the surface of the liquid in a closed
container. It is the equilibrium pressure of a vapor above its liquid.

Boiling point
The temperature at which a liquid boils. Normal boiling point is boiling point of a
liquid when the external pressure is 1 atm.

Molar heat of vaporization (ΔHvap)

The amount of energy (usually in kilojoules) required to vaporize 1 mole of a liquid at
a specific temperature.

1) Now that you are familiar with those words, we will continue our discussion
on the Properties of Liquid

Intermolecular forces give rise to several structural features and properties of liquids.
In this section we will look at five such phenomena associated with liquids
in general: surface tension, viscosity, vapor pressure, boiling point, ang molar heat of
vaporization. The properties of liquids that were observed are consequences of the
interactions of particles that make up the liquid.

1. Surface Tension
Molecules within a liquid are pulled in all directions by intermolecular forces.
There is no tendency for them to be pulled in any one way. However, molecules at
the surface are pulled sideways and downward by other molecules, but not upward
away

Figure 1. Intermolecular
forces acting on a molecule in
the surface layer of a liquid and
in the interior region of the liquid

from the surface (Figure 1).

Karp, 2010

These intermolecular attractions appear to draw the molecules into the liquid
and like an elastic film, cause the surface to tighten. A drop of water assumes the
form of a small round bead. There is little to no attraction between polar water

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molecules and the nonpolar molecules since a sphere minimizes the surface area of
a liquid. This effect is also created by a wet apple's waxy surface (Figure 2).

K
Figure 2.Water beadsaon an
r
apple, which has a waxy
p
surface ,

2010

Surface tension is a measure of the elastic force on a liquid's surface. It is the

amount of energy needed by a unit area to stretch or increase the surface of a fluid
(for example, by 1 cm2). There are also high surface tensions in liquids that have
solid intermolecular forces. Thus, water has a much greater surface tension than
most other liquids because of hydrogen bonding.

Figure 3. Surface tension

enables the water strider to
“walk” on water.

Karp, 2010

Capillary action is another example of surface tension. Figure 4(a) reveals a capillary
tube, water rises spontaneously. A thin water film adheres to the wall of a tube of glass. This
film is caused to contract by the surface tension of water as it pulls the water up the tube.
Capillary action is brought on by two types of forces: cohesion and adhesion.
Cohesion is the intermolecular attraction between similar molecules (water molecules, in
this case). Adhesion is an attraction between unlike molecules, such as those in water and
in the sides of a glass tube. If adhesion is stronger than cohesion, as it is in Figure 4(a), the
contents of the tube will be pushed upward. This process continues until the adhesive force
is balanced by the weight of the water in the tube. This action is by no means universal
among liquids, as Figure 4(b) shows. In mercury, cohesion is greater than the adhesion
between mercury and glass, so that when a capillary tube is dipped in mercury, the result is
a depression at the mercury level—that is, the height of the liquid in the capillary tube is
below the surface of the mercury.

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Figure 4. (a) When adhesion
is greater than cohesion, the liquid
(for example, water) rises in the
capillary tube. (b) When cohesion
is greater than adhesion, as it is
for mercury, a depression of the
liquid in the capillary tube results.
Note that the meniscus in the tube
of water is concave, or rounded
downward, whereas that in the
tube of mercury is convex, or
rounded upward.

Brown, 2015

2. Viscosity

The term "slow as January molasses" owes its reality to another physical property of
liquids called viscosity. Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid to flow. The greater
the viscosity, the more the liquid flows steadily. As temperature increases, the viscosity of a
liquid normally decreases; hot molasses thus flow much faster than cold molasses.
Liquids with strong intermolecular forces are higher in viscosity than those with weak
intermolecular forces (Table 1). Owing to its ability to form hydrogen bonds, water has a
higher viscosity than many other liquids. It is noteworthy that glycerol's viscosity is
significantly higher than all of those other liquids mentioned in Table 1.
Glycerol has the structure like water. It can form hydrogen bonds. Each glycerol molecule
has three-OH groups that can participate in hydrogen bonding with other glycerol molecules.

Figure 5. 3D and 2D
structures of glycerol - a clear,
odorless, syrupy liquid used to
make explosives, lubricants
and ink.

Brown, 2015

Table 1. Viscosity of Some Common Liquids at 20°C

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*The SI units of viscosity are newton-second per meter squared.
Brown, 2015

3. Vapor Pressure

By evaporation, molecules may escape from the surface of a liquid into the gas
phase. Suppose we place in an evacuated, closed container a quantity of ethanol
(CH3CH2OH), as in (Figure 6). Quickly, the ethanol starts evaporating. The pressure exerted
by the vapor in the space above the liquid increases consequently. The pressure of the
vapor reaches a constant value after a short period, which we call vapor pressure.

Figure 6. Vapor pressure over a liquid

Brown,
Any of the ethanol molecules on the2015
liquid s urface have ample kinetic energy at any
moment to overcome their neighbors' attractive forces and thus, escape into the gas phase.
The passage of molecules from the liquid phase to the gas phase continuously goes on at
every given temperature. However, as the number of gas-phase molecules increases, the

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likelihood increases that a molecule will reach the liquid surface in the gas phase and be
recaptured by the liquid, as shown in Figure 6 in the flask on the right. The rate at which
molecules return to the liquid is, finally, equal to the rate at which they escape. In the gas
phase, the number of molecules then reaches a stable value and the pressure exerted by
the vapor becomes constant.
The situation in which two opposing processes occur at equal rates simultaneously is
called dynamic equilibrium (or simply equilibrium). Chemical balance, in which chemical
reactions are the opposite mechanisms, is a type of dynamic equilibrium. When evaporation
and condensation occur at similar rates, a liquid and its vapor are in dynamic equilibrium. It
might appear that since there is no net shift in the system, nothing happens in equilibrium. In
fact, however, as molecules constantly move from liquid state to gas state and from gas
state to liquid state, a great deal happens. The vapor pressure of a liquid is the pressure
exerted by its vapor when the liquid and vapor are in dynamic equilibrium.

4. Boiling Point

A liquid's boiling point is the temperature at which its vapor pressure, acting on the
liquid surface, equals the external pressure. The thermal energy of the molecules at this
temperature is high enough for the molecules within the liquid to break free from their
neighbors and enter the gas phase. As a consequence, bubbles of vapor form inside the
liquid. If the external pressure rises, the boiling point increases. The boiling point of a liquid
at 1 atm (760 torr) pressure is called its normal boiling point. From Figure 7, we see that
the normal boiling point of water is 100°C.
The time required for food to be cooked in boiling water depends on the water. The
temperature is 100 °C in an open container, but it is possible to boil at higher temperatures.
Pressure cookers operate by only allowing steam to escape when it exceeds a
predetermined pressure; therefore, the pressure above the water can rise above
atmospheric pressure. The higher pressure allows the water to boil at a higher temperature,
making it easier for the food to get hotter and cook quicker.
The influence of pressure on the boiling point also explains why cooking food at high
elevations takes longer than it does at sea level. At higher altitudes, the air pressure is lower,
so water boils at a temperature lower than 100 °C, and food typically takes longer to cook.

Figure 7. Vapor pressure for four liquids as a function of temperature.

Brown, 2015

5. Molar Heat of

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 Vaporization

A measure of the strength of intermolecular forces in a liquid is the molar

heat of vaporization (ΔHvap), defined as the energy (usually in kilojoules) required to
vaporize 1 mole of a liquid. The molar heat of vaporization has a direct relationship
to the strength of intermolecular forces that exist in the liquid.

Table 2.Molar heats of vaporization and boiling points of some substances

ΔHvap (kJ/ Boiling Point*

Substance
mol) (OC)

Argon (Ar) 6.3 -186

Pentane(C 5H 12) 26.5 36.1
Acetone (CH COCH ) 30.3 56.5
3 3

Ethanol (C H OH) 39.3 78.3

2 5

Water (H O) 40.79 100

2

*Measured at 1 atm

Rubbing ethyl alcohol on your hands is a realistic way to illustrate variations in the
molar heat of vaporization. Compare what is felt while using water. Ethyl alcohol has a lower
ΔHvap than water so that heat from our hands is enough to increase the kinetic energy of
these molecules and provide additional heat to vaporize them. As a consequence of the loss
of heat from the skin, our hands feel cool.

B. The Structure and Properties of Water

On Earth, water is so prevalent a material that we often forget its special

existence. All processes of life include water. For several ionic compounds, as well
as other substances capable of forming hydrogen bonds with water, water is an
excellent solvent.

Table 3. The Specific Heats of Some Common Substances

Substance Specific Heat (J/goC)

Al 0.900
Au 0.129
C (graphite) 0.720
C (diamond) 0.502
Cu 0.385
Fe 0.444
Hg 0.139
H2O 4.184
C2H5OH (ethanol) 2.460

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 As Table 3 shows, water has a high specific heat. The explanation is that to boost
water temperature (that is, to raise the average kinetic energy of the water molecules), we
must break the several hydrogen intermolecular bonds first. Water can also consume a large
quantity of heat while its temperature increases just slightly. The reverse is also true: with
just a small reduction in its temperature, water will give off a lot of heat. For this reason, by
absorbing heat in the summer and giving off heat in the winter, with just minor changes in
the temperature of the body of water, the vast amounts of water that are present in our lakes
and oceans will effectively moderate the climate of neighboring land areas. Water's most
striking property is that its solid form is less dense than its liquid form on the surface of liquid
water, that is why ice floats (Figure 9). The density of almost all other substances is greater
in the solid state than in the liquid state.

We have to analyze the electronic structure of the H2O molecule to understand why
water is different. There are two pairs of nonbonding electrons, or two lone pairs, on the
oxygen atom:

Karp, 2010
Brown, 2015
Figure 9.Left: Ice cubes float
on water. Right: Solid benzene
sinks to the bottom of liquid benzene.

While intermolecular hydrogen bonds can be formed by many compounds, the

difference is that each oxygen atom will form two hydrogen bonds between H 2O and other
polar molecules, such as NH3 and HF, the same as the number of lone electron pairs on the
oxygen atom. Thus, in an extensive three-dimensional network in which each oxygen atom
is roughly tetrahedrally bound to four hydrogen atoms, by two covalent bonds and by two
hydrogen bonds, water molecules are joined together. This equality in the number of
hydrogen atoms and lone pairs does not define NH 3 or HF, or any other molecule capable of
forming hydrogen, for that matter. Consequently, rings or chains, but not three-dimensional
structures, may be formed by these other molecules.

Figure 10. The three-dimensional

structure of ice. Each O atom is
bonded to four H atoms. The
covalent bonds are shown by short
solid lines and the weaker
hydrogen bonds by long dotted
lines between O and H. The empty
space in the structure accounts for
the low density of ice.

Brown, 2015

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 The highly ordered three-dimensional ice structure (Figure 10) makes it difficult for the
molecules to get too close to each other. But remember what happens with the melting of
ice. A number of water molecules have enough kinetic energy at the melting point to break
free from the intermolecular bonds of hydrogen. In the cavities of the three-dimensional
structure, which is broken down into smaller clusters, these molecules become stuck. As a
consequence, in liquid water, more molecules per unit volume are present than in ice. Thus
because of mass/volume density, the water density is higher than that of ice. More water
molecules are released from intermolecular hydrogen bonding with further heating, so that
the water density continues to rise only above the melting point with the increasing
temperature. Water expands as it is heated at the same time of course, so that its density is
decreased. These two processes work in opposite directions: the trapping of free water
molecules in cavities and thermal expansion. Trapping prevails from 0 °C to 4 °C and water
becomes increasingly denser. However, thermal expansion predominates above 4 °C and
water density decreases with rising temperatures (Figure 11).

Figure 11.Plot of density versus temperature for liquid

water. The maximum density of
water is reached at 4°C.
The density of ice at 0°C is about 0.92 g/cm3.
Brown, 2015

What’s More
Activity 3. Let’s Test Your Understanding!

Directions: Read and answer each question carefully. Write your answers on a
separate sheet of paper.

The boiling points, surface tensions, and viscosities of water and several alcohols
are as follows:

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(a) For ethanol, propanol, and n-butanol the boiling points, surface tensions, and viscosities
all increase. What is the reason for this increase?
(b) How do you explain the fact that propanol and ethylene glycol have similar
molecular weights (60 versus 62 amu), yet the viscosity of ethylene glycol is more than
10 times larger than propanol?
(c) How do you explain the fact that water has the highest surface tension but has the
lowest viscosity?

What I Have Learned

Activity 4. Let’s Think!

Directions: Read and answer each question carefully. Write your answers on a
separate sheet of paper.

1. Which of the following affects the vapor pressure of a liquid?

a. Volume of the liquid
b. Surface area
c. intermolecular attractive forces
d. temperature
e. density of the liquid
2. a. What is the relationship between surface tension and temperature?
b. What is the relationship between viscosity and temperature?
c. Why do substances with high surface tension also tend to have high
viscosities?
3. Explain the following observations:
a. The surface tension of CHBr3 is greater than that of CHCl3.
b. As temperature increases, oil flows faster through a narrow tube.
c. Raindrops that collect on a waxed automobile hood take on a nearly
spherical shape.
d. Oil droplets that collect on a waxed automobile hood take on a flat shape.
4. At 50 °C, the vapor pressure of ethanol is 0.30 atm, acetic acid is 0.08 atm,
water is 0.12 atm, and acetone is 0.84 atm.
a. Arrange these substances in order of increasing rates of evaporation.
b. Arrange these substances in order of increasing boiling point temperature.
c. Arrange these substances in order of increasing intermolecular forces.

What I Can Do
Activity 5. Imagine and Analyze!

Directions: Read and analyze each situation. Answer the questions that follow and
write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.
a. Two pans of water are on different burners of a stove. One pan of water is
boiling vigorously, while the other is boiling gently. What can be said about the
temperature of the water in the two pans?
b. A large container of water and a small one are at the same temperature. What
can be said about the relative vapor pressures of the water in the two
containers?

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Summary:

1. Liquids tend to assume a geometry that minimizes surface area. Surface tension is the
energy needed to expand a liquid surface area; strong intermolecular forces lead to
greater surface tension.
2. Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a liquid to flow; it decreases with increasing
temperature.
3. Vapor - A gaseous substance that exists naturally as a liquid or solid at normal
temperature.
4. Vaporization - The change of phase from liquid to vapor (gaseous phase).
5. A liquid in a closed vessel eventually establishes a dynamic equilibrium between
evaporation and condensation. The vapor pressure over the liquid under these
conditions is the equilibrium vapor pressure, which is often referred to simply as “vapor
pressure”.
6. Boiling point - The temperature at which a liquid boils. The boiling point of a liquid
when the external pressure is 1 atm is called the normal boiling point.
7. Molar heat of vaporization (ΔHvap) - The energy (usually in kilojoules) required to
vaporize 1 mole of a liquid at a given temperature.
8. Water molecules in the solid state form a three-dimensional network in which each
oxygen atom is covalently bonded to two hydrogen atoms and is hydrogen-bonded to
two hydrogen atoms. This unique structure accounts for the fact that ice is less dense
than liquid water, a property that enables life to survive under the ice in ponds and
lakes in cold climates.
9. Water is also ideally suited for its ecological role by its high specific heat, another
property imparted by its strong hydrogen bonding. Large bodies of water are able to
moderate Earth’s climate by giving off and absorbing substantial amounts of heat with
only small changes in the water temperature.

Enrichment
Directions: Read and answer each item carefully and choose the letter of the best
answer.

1. What would be the boiling point of liquid L at the top of a mountain where the
atmospheric pressure is lower than 1 atm?
a. 78.5 °C
b. less than 78.5 °C
c. greater than 78.5 °C
d. It depends on the amount of heat the liquid is exposed to.

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 2. The vapor pressure of ethyl alcohol at 60 °C is 47.02 kPa. What would be its vapor
pressure at 20 °C?
a. 47.02 kPa
b. greater than 47.02 kPa
c. less than 47.02 kPa
d. cannot be determined
3. With all other factors held constant, which of the following places will rice cook for a
longer time?
a. at the peak of a mountain
b. at sea level
c. It would take the same time to cook rice regardless of location.
d. It depends on the variety of rice.
4. What property of water explains why water inside the tiny cracks in rocks helps the
latter break when it freezes?
a. Water has a high boiling point.
b. Water has high surface tension.
c. Water has a greater volume in its solid state.
d. Water has high heat of vaporization.
5. What property of water explains why our body temperature remains essentially
constant?
a. Water has high heat of vaporization.
b. Water has a high specific heat.
c. Water has high density in its liquid form.
d. Water has high boiling point.

POST TEST
Directions: Read and answer each item carefully and choose the letter of the best answer.
1. Which of the following properties refers to the resistance of liquid to flow?
a. surface tension C. vapor pressure
b. viscosity D. heat of vaporization
2. Which of the following properties explains why raindrops are spherical in shape?
a. surface tension
b. viscosity
c. vapor pressure
d. heat of vaporization
For numbers 3-5, refer to the table below.
Liquid Normal Boiling Point (°C)
J 46.0
K 61.7
L 78.5

3. Which liquid would have the highest vapor pressure?

a. J d. It depends on the temperature.
4. Which has the weakest intermolecular forces?
a. J b. K c. L d. they are equally weak
5. Which liquid would be the most viscous?
a. J
b. K
c. L
d. They would be equally viscous.

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