FED 413 SUMMARY process whereby the top echelon staff in the

TOPIC 1: Introducing Educational Management educational system such as the, minister of

Administration as a Concept education, commissioner for education, proprietors
Administration can be defined as the process etc. director of studies plans and formulates policies
whereby the person in the hem of affairs known as meant for the educational sector in other to achieve
the administrator tends to implement polices, desired goals.
programmes, by organizing and directing the Functions/Elements of Management
human and materials resources with the aim of POSDCORB stands for? It was the American
achieving a specific goal. political scientist Luther Gulick and the British
Management as a Concept management consultant Lyndall Urwick who
The verb 'manage' has Italian origin called elaborated Henri Fayol‘s management ideas in their
‘maneggiare’, which means ‘to handle’. Its Latin management paper Notes on theory of
word is ‘manus’, that is, ‘hand’. But the French Organizations, which they published in 1937.
word ‘mesnagement’ (later ménagement) influenced POSDCORB, which stands for Planning,
the development in meaning of the English word Organising, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating,
‘Management’ in the 17th and 18th Centuries. Reporting, Rewarding, Evaluation and Budgeting.
Management as a concept has lent itself to different 1. Planning It is the task of managers not only to
opinions and interpretations. decide what to do, but also to plan this in the agenda.
Managements is seen as a group of people in Planning has to do with foresight. This includes
different positions of authority within a formal short-term planning (weekly, monthly and
organisation. quarterly), medium-term planning (annual) and
Management can be seen as an organization. In this long-term planning (looking ahead with a timeline
case, Management entails the creation of formal of 3 years). Planning determines the direction of the
structures and an establishment based on a mission organisation.
(or goals), functions, targets, objectives, and tasks. 2. Organising Managers not only have the task of
Management as an activity is the process of getting assigning activities, but also have the task of
things done through the efforts of other people, allocating these tasks to their respective
while according to Oladejo and Ige (2004), it is the departments and employees. To achieve an end
process of achieving the organizational goals result, the manager needs the necessary resources.
through the cooperative efforts of other people in He/she will have to organize all sorts of things to
the organization by performing such functions as achieve the end result.
planning, organizing, controlling, and coordinating. 3. Staffing: This section relates to the personnel
In essence, management plans/ formulates and policy and all related activities within an
Administration executes/ implements the plan. organisation. Good and competent personnel is
Concept of Educational administration and crucial for an organisation to function optimally.
Educational Management 4. Directing The ddirections lies in the hands of
Educational administration can be defined as the the manager; he/she is the person with final
process whereby the school administrators e.g. the responsibility and is held accountable for this. In
principal, head teacher etc. implements the policies practice, this means that the manager maintains
that are formulated but the Educational managers by control over all functions. In addition, the manager
utilizing the human and materials resources towards monitors but also motivates his employees.
achieving the stated organisational goals. It can also 5. Coordinating With this concept, it is the task of
be defined as the process of carrying out stated and the manager to connect different sections and to
set plans, policies and procedures made by the achieve cooperation. A good manager has a
educational managers in achieving the schools goals so-called helicopter view, which gives him/her an
and objectives. e.g. Principal, Vice Chancellor, overview of what is happening and what still needs
rectors, provost head teachers etc. to be done. From this perspective, he/ she is able to
Educational management can be defined as the coordinate tasks and manage his employees. It is

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his/her task to synchronise different departments communicate, motivate, mentor, and
and to bring them together with the right end goal in delegate
mind. Diagnostic: This entails the ability to visualize
6. Budgeting Finance is the lifeblood of any most appropriate response to a situation
organisation. The manager is responsible for the Leadership: This skill is the ability to lead and
management, expenditure and control of the provide guidance to a specific group
department’s budget and also has to keep an eye on Technical: The skill needed to become an
tax details. expertise in one's particular functional area.
7. Reporting Without reporting, there is no
evidence. A clear report keeps communication open Scope and Specialised Areas in Educational
throughout the entire organisation. Managers are the Management
linking pin between the management team and their Educational administration can be defined as the
own employees, who form the constituency. process whereby the school administrators e.g. the
Reporting provides insight into the progress and principal, head teacher etc. implements the policies
agreements can also be recorded in this way. Other that are formulated but the Educational managers by
essential information—such as problems with utilizing the human and materials resources towards
employees, new processes, performances interviews achieving the stated organisational goals. It can also
8. Reward: Managers are responsible to be defined as the process of carrying out stated and
Rewards positive outcomes that are earned as a set plans, policies and procedures made by the
result of an employee's performance. These rewards educational managers in achieving the schools goals
are aligned with organizational goals. When an and objectives. e.g. Principal, Vice Chancellor,
employee helps an organization in the achievement rectors, provost head teachers etc.
of one of its goals, a rewaoften follows. Educational management can be defined as the
9. Evaluation- Managers are responsible for process whereby the top echelon staff in the
providing employees with constructive feedback on educational system such as the, minister of
a regular basis. Throughout the evaluation period, education, commissioner for education, proprietors
managers give their employees ongoing support, etc. director of studies plans and formulates policies
feedback and counseling on performance issues and meant for the educational sector in other to achieve
disciplinary and corrective action. desired goals.
Economics of Education
Basic Roles and Skills in Educational It is one of the branches of ordinary economics,
Management though, it is the study of how educational managers
There are some basic roles that are expected to be make official or approved choices from scarce
carried out by any Education Manager. These roles available resources which is meant for the
include the followings: realisation of the best possible educational
Informational: This role involves handling, outcomes. Oladejo (2019) defined Economics of
sharing, and analyzing information education as the systematic application of
Decisional: This role has to do with Economics principles, concepts, theories, and laws
decision-making process in the organization. to the process of education with a view to solving
Interpersonal: This role entails coordination educational issues and problems in an analytical
and interaction with employees manner.
In terms of skills acquisition, an Education
Manager is expected to have the following Educational Leadership and Policy Studies
skills to be able to perform well in his task This area of specialisation is designed for educators
areas: who are seeking to be equipped with the knowledge
Conceptual: This is the ability to analyze and skills necessary to become effective leaders
complex situations. /administrators in educational institutions.
Interpersonal: This is the skill used to Educational leadership entails the enlisting and

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 guiding the talents and energies of teachers, pupils,
and effectiveness and in particular, the conduct of the manageria
and parents toward achieving
activities of planning and control. Certain management skills ar
common educational aims. It involves working required for effective educational administration, These include:
with and guiding teachers toward
Technical skills, Human relations skills, Conceptual skills
improving educational processes at any level Administrative
of and Financial skills, Leadership skills, Communicatio
education. skills and Decision making skills.
Pillars of Management
Career Prospects in Educational Management The 4 Pillars of Management are:
The following are careers open to an Education i. Man
Manager: ii. Materials.
Teacher, Education Administrators, Community iii. Money
Education Officer, Education Consultants, Private iv. Methods
Home Tutors, Private Sector, School Business,
Coaching Centres Business. QUALITY ASSURANCE AGENCIES IN EDUCATION
Task Areas of the School Administrator Quality Assurance Agencies in Education include:
1. Pupil personnel: - this involves the provision of National Universities Commission
orientation, guidance and counseling service, National Board for Technical Education
establishment of child safety policies and National Commission for Colleges of Education
procedures, discipline irregularities etc. Universal Basic Education Commission
2. Staff personnel: - this involves the provision of
opportunities for the professional growth of staff MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES (MBO)
through seminars, symposium, conferences etc.
3. Community- School Relationship: - this task has Management by objectives (MBO) otherwise
to do with the development and administration of known as management by Results was first
policies and programmes for the parents and developed by Peter Drucker in 1954 in his book
community, community participation in school entitled ‘the practice of management and later
matters, ensuring the school has good image in the developed by his student, George Odiosor.
public
REPLACEMENT THEORY
4. Instruction & Curriculum Development: School
administrators help in the provision of materials, Replacement theory can be defined as a process of
resources and equipment, development of student restoring or changing used equipment with a
centered programme of instruction, formulation of substitute; in most cases a new one in order to
curriculum content and organisation. enhance better usage. The application of
5. School Finance & Business Management: - Replacement theory in the school system is due to
this involves preparation of school budgets, proper the fact that the school as an organization is made
administration of school purchases etc. up of Human, material and financial resources
6. School Plant Planning: - involves provision which are used for the purpose of attaining goals of
and maintenance of facilities and equipment, a particular level of education.
maintenance of the physical plans, supervision of
custodial staff. DECISION MAKING MODELS
7. General Task: - involves keeping of school
records, attending meeting of heads of schools, Decision making involves the choice of an
organizing staff and parent meeting, etc. alternative from among series of competing
alternatives in order to provide solutions to a
TOPIC 2 problem.
MODERN MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES Decision making Models are:
anagement techniques refer to the systematic and analytical methods
ed to assist in decision-making, the improvement of the efficiencya. Rational-comprehensive model, b. Disjointed incrementa

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 model c. Satisfying model d. Mixed scanning model
Games are competitive interaction among participants in order t
achieve stated goals / objectives. Games are usually played fo
A GENERAL SYSTEMS VIEW OF AN entertainment. And clearly identify winners/ losers. Success depend
ORGANIZATION on skills or chance and it can be both. Simulations or managemen
games dates back to 1957 when a group at the Rand Corporatio
The idea of the general systems was proposed by
Ludwig Von Bertalanffy in 1947; hence, he (created what is perhaps the first computerized business gam
is
(simulation).
generally referred to as the father of the general
systems theory. MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM
QUEUING THEORY A management information system (MIS) is an information system
used for decision-making, and for the coordination, control, analysis
This is a mathematical method of analysing the
congestions and delays of waiting in line. and It visualization of information in an organization. The study of th
management information systems involves people, processes an
examines every component of waiting in line to be
technology in an organizational context the ultimate goal of the use of
served including the arrival process, service process,
management information system is to increase the value and profits o
number of servers, number of systems places and
the business. This is done by providing managers with timely an
the number of customers. Queuing theory is an
appropriate information allowing them to make effective decision
aspect of operations research which was proposed
within a shorter period of time.
by A.K. Erland. The theory is also known as the
“waiting line Model”. The theory examines every First Era – Mainframe and minicomputer computing Second Er
aspect of waiting in line to be served including the
– Personal computers Third Era – Client/server networks Fourth Er
arrival process, service process, number of servers,
– Enterprise computing Fifth Era – Cloud computing
number of system places and the number of
customers.
OTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT TOPIC 3: Leadership System in Education
tal Quality Management (TQM) is a management strategyLeadership
aimed at is a critical factor in institutional administration. t
eating awareness of quality in all organizational processes.achieve
The father
effective performance in any organization, the leadership i
Modern Quality is Edward Deming. It is an approach expected to to plan, and execute directions, provides administrativ
provement which has established itself because there is logistics,
a notion inenhance relationship with the institution stakeholders
ople’s minds that the status quo is not sufficient. There is an inbuilt effectiveness and development depends largely o
Institutional
sire in humans to seek improvement. TQM has thereforeleadership.
evolved as Leadership Functions Revolve around Interna
process which can facilitate improvement efforts within organisation.
Organizational Structure, Management System, Planning, Financia
lays emphasis on Zero Defect. Management Etc.
ELPHI TECHNIQUE School is an education manufacturing industry .
(Input>>>>> Throughput>>>>> Output). The
is a method of accessing group opinion by individuals through procedure of the INPUT will determine the
sponses to a series of successive questionnaires with a goal of OUTPUT through POSCOR²DBE.
ming to a group consensus. It can be used to forecast future
rricular development which can have profound effect on the trainingLEADERSHIP
ogramme, purchases, construction, and it can also be used to predict
ure enrolment of students. Counselors also use it for effective There's no single and correct way to define the term
unselling. leadership. leadership is a process of influencing
other to understand and agree about what needs to
MULATION AND GAMING be done and how to do it. The level of development
of an organization will be determined by the style of
can be done with board games, computer assisted board games, or leadership. It can be summarized the act and
ly computerized environments. Simulation means imitation of reality.
process of influencing human behavior in an
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organization (formal or informal) towards leadership which it is achieved with the use of force,
achieving the set goals and objectives through the threat of force, or coercion.
use of power and authority. Leadership is indeed
very important and crucial in educational AUTHORITY
management for proper and effective application of
It is the legitimate power which one person or group
efforts and resources which set organizational of people possesses and practices over another. it is
direction based on clear vision, curriculum content,
the legal right of the leader to lead. It can be
and staff welfare. If the leaders and employees in an
attained through election, selection, and
institution are unsure of which direction to follow,
appointment by a recognized institution, body or a
such leadership is blind, myopic and of no effect. A
person authorized to do so.
good institutional leadership is visionary i.e. he or
she is visualizing and taking mental picture of the Delegated Authority is an organizational process
entire institution and the purpose for it established. where in the manager divides his work among
Leadership in education is viewed and summarized subordinates and give them the responsibility to
as the responsibility assigned the school accomplish the respective task
administrator and has theabilityto handle them
EXAMPLES OF GOOD LEADERSHIP
INSTITUTION QUALITIES
It is an organized system a social relationship which CLEAR VISION, HIGH INTEGRITY, GOOD
embodies certain common value, practice, and SENSE OF DEDICATION, SENSE OF
procedure meeting certain basic needs of the society. HUMILITY, PATIENCE, SENSE OF
There are different types of institution and these CREATIVITY, HAVING A GOOD SENSE OF
include financial, education, family, religious etc HUMOR
WHAT IS EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION? LEVELS OF LEADERSHIP IN
INSTITUTIONAL ADMINISTRATION.
Educational Institution is the process of
socialization which begins informally at home and • Education Leadership is synonymous to school
then formally in schools. educational institution or institutional administration this is because they
helps to develop knowledge, skills, attribute and deal with school and education matters. The
understanding of the people and strive to make them following comprise levels at which leadership in
competent member. educations received in the education applies. • PRIMARY/BASIC LEVEL. •
institution under the mental horizon of the people SECONDARY LEVEL. • TERTIARY LEVEL.
and make them receptive to new ideas.
TOPIC 4: THE CONTROL OF EDUCATION
WHAT IS INSTITUTIONAL IN NIGERIA
ADMINISTRATION?
Education in Nigeria is overseen by the Federal
It is administering of an institution either primary, Ministry of Education. National Minimum standard
secondary, or higher institution. This refers to all Act Number 16 of 1999 and the Constitution
those activities carried out to provide for the day to (chapter 2, Section 18) mandated the Federal
day functioning and the ling range availability of Ministry of Education (FME) to oversee policy
institution as an operating institution. development, data collection and management for
educational and financial planning, and quality
POWER
control in the educational sector. Education features
It is the capacity of an individual to influence the in the concurrent legislative list in the 1999
conduct or behavior of others with or without constitution that provides the legal framework for
resistance. it is the ability to make subordinate act educational management in Nigeria.
accordingly to the organization expectancy or
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The Federal Ministry of Education (FME) is at the Information Technology, Directorate of Finance
apex of the regulation, control and management of and Accounts, Directorate of Accreditation,
education in the country. It is advised in the Directorate of Open and Distance Education,
discharge of its responsibilities by the National Directorate of Liaison Services and
Council on Education (NCE), the highest International Cooperation, Directorate of
policy-making body on educational matters which is Corporate Communications, and the
composed of the Federal Minister of Education and Directorate of the Executive Secretary’s Office.
the State Commissioners for Education. Each of the Directorates is headed by a Director.
The NCE operates through the instrumentality of National Board for Technical Education
the Joint Consultative Committee on Education (NBTE)
(JCCE), composed of professional officers of the The Federal Government established the
Federal and State Ministries of Education. National Board for Technical Education by Act
9 of January 1977. In August, 1985 and January
AGENCIES CONTROLLING EDUCATION IN
1993 respectively, the Federal Government
NIGERIA
enacted Act 16 (Education (National Minimum
The Universal Basic Education Standards and Establishment of Institutions)
Commission (UBEC) Act) and Act 9 (Education (National Minimum
Standards and Establishment of Institutions)
manages a National Primary Education Fund and (Amendment) Act. Act No.9 of 1st January
oversees the quality of primary education is 1993 further empowered the Board to
responsible for implementing the project. recommend the establishment of private
Polytechnics and Monotechnics in Nigeria.
State Universal Basic Education Board
(SUBEB) National Commission for Colleges of
Its primary functions include advising the Education (NCCE)
government on the development of basic education, The enabling Decree (now Act) No. 3 of
management of affairs of teaching and non-teaching January 1989 (amended decree No. 12 1993)
staff, upholding of children rights to education.
Board members including the Chairman are
appointed by the Governor.
TOPIC 4: COMMUNICATION IN
National Universities Commission EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATIONS
It was established in 1962 as an advisory Communication is important for management
agency in the Cabinet Office. However in 1974, functions (planning, organising, staffing, direction
it became a statutory body and the first and controlling) in organisations. Effective
Executive Secretary, in the person of Prof. Jibril communication often yields positive results in terms
Aminu was then appointed. The Commission of individual behaviour and organisational
has a Governing Council, its Executive processes. t is a two-way process that involves the
Secretary is Prof. Abubakar Adamu Rasheed transfer of information from one person to the other
mni, MFR, who assumed office on August 3, (the sender to the receiver). It has to do with people
2016. The Commission has twelve Directorates; and how they relate with information. It can be
Directorate of Academic Planning, Directorate multi-directional, complex, simple, formal or
of Inspection and Monitoring, Directorate of informal depending on the nature and role of the
Management Support Services, Directorate of message. Communication has been derived from the
the Establishment of Private Universities, Latin word “communicatio” meaning “to import,
Directorate of Students Support Services, share or make common” . Hargie (2016) opines that
Directorate of Research, Innovations & communication is a process which involves the

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transmission of accurate and timely information Ideating
between individuals and/or organization to elicit Encoding
actions and proper feedbacks. The information may Transmitting
arise from ideas, facts, attitudes, beliefs, opinions or Decoding
emotions. Reacting

TOPIC 5: Principles and Theories of

Educational Management
Types of Communication These principles are the fundamental guidelines an
education manager can use in decision
Verbal communication refers to the process of
making and management of behaviour of
conveying meaning in oral form while non-verbal
employees in educational institutions. These
describes the transmission of information, ideas,
principles have general validity and
emotion and skills in written
universal applicability.
texts and non-verbal elements such as gestures,
They include:
symbols and postures.
Written Communication can be used in place of 1. Fundamental or universal principles by
Henri Fayol.
oral communication where message needs to be
2. Principles of scientific management by
modified and revised before transmission. It is
Fredrick Taylor.
written in text form such as e-mails, letters, reports,
3. Bureaucratic principles by Max Weber.
circulars, minutes, memoranda and telephone text
4. Leffingwell’s principle of effective work.
messages.
PRINCIPLES OF ADMINISTRATION
Non-Verbal Communication is a fundamental
Universal/Fundamental Principles of
interactive communication that occurs without
Administration
words. It involves the transmission of information
This principle was formulated by Henry Fayol
through the use of body gestures and language,
(1841 – 1925). He is regarded as the founder
facial expression, signs, symbols, postures, maps,
of classical management school. He
charts, graph, pictures and posters.
propounded fourteen principles on which a
The Process of Communication good administration should be based. These
The process of communication can be described as are:
the way the sender gives message to the receiver 1. Division of work.
using a medium. It is a process because of its 2. Authority and responsibility. Authority is
continuous, cyclic in nature and it entails the basic the right of a manager to give order and
elements that establish the means of transmitting command, while responsibility is the
information through a two-way channel from one accountability of authority so that the
person to another. These include a sender, a authority is not misused.
message, a medium, a receiver, a response and 3. Discipline. This is the outward mark of
feedback. Communication begins with the sender respect that is observed in accordance with
and ends with the receiver but most importantly the the employment agreements and
message must be transmitted free of noise, through organisational rules and regulations. This
a channel, understood and confirmed through results from good leadership, fair treatment
feedback. It is a dynamic process that has two basic and the imposition of penalties for
phases, the transmission and feedback phases indiscipline. These rules and regulations
embedded between the two phases in the potential should be clearly stated.
for noise which is an inhibiting factor (Isola, 2010), 4. Unity of command. There should also be
though there are other barriers which will be one man one supervisor. A worker should
discussed later in this chapter. The key components receive order from one superior authority
of the communication process are: only.

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5. Unity of direction. There should be one head ideas.
one plan for a group of activities having the 14. Espirit de corps. Team spirit should be
same objective. For example, the human encouraged.
resource department only should recruit
workers for the organisation while the
finance department should concentrate on Principles of Scientific Management
appropriation of funds.
This principle of management was developed by
6. Subordination of individual interest to the
Fredrick Winslow Taylor (I856 – 1917), who was a
general interest. While the interest of the
shop-floor worker and later rose to the post of a
individual should be integrated with the
manager. Taylor observed that workers’ output was
organisational interest, it should not only one third of what they could do. He also
supersede that of the organisation.
observed that management decisions were taken
Whenever there is conflict, the interest of
based on the “seat of-the–pant”. Workers were put
the organisation should prevail.
on the job of which they know little or nothing
7. Remuneration of staff. Payment of staff for
about. Constantly, both the workers and
the work done should be fair to both the management were always in a conflict. He
worker and the organisation with
conducted two experiments. The first one was
commensurate incentive for additional work
called the pig iron experiment where he discovered
done.
that by giving a worker an economic incentive and
8. Centralization. Although some authority
putting the right person on the right job the output
could be given to some subordinates to level could be greatly improved. In this pig iron
make some decisions, all major policies
experiment, a worker who was only able to load
should be made at the top management
12.5tons onto rail cars on a daily income of $1.15
level.
was now able to load between 47 and 48 tons per
9. Scalar chain. There must be a clear line of
day when the daily income was increased to $1.85
instruction running down from the top to the per day. Based on these two experiments Taylor
bottom. This will enable organisational
propounded four principles of management.
members to know to whom they can
delegate responsibility, who can delegate to These are:
them and who they are responsible to.
10. Order. The workers and the material 1. Develop scientific method for each element
resources should be in the right place at the of an individual work. Previously, workers
right time for maximum efficiency. People use the rule-of-thumb method to do work.
should be put in the right jobs they best 2. Use scientific method to select and train
know how to do. Right pen should be put in employee that is best suited to perform a
the right hole. particular job. Before, workers chose their
11. Equity. Managers should be both fair and own work and trained themselves as best as
friendly to their subordinates. For managers they could.
to do this, they require good sense, 3. Cooperate with the workers to ensure that all
experience and good nature. This will help the work is done in accordance with the
in bringing loyalty and commitment from principle of science that has been laid down.
subordinates. Before, management and workers were in
12. Stability of staff. Employee turnover should continual conflict.
be reduced. This can be achieved through 4. Divide work and responsibility almost
good conditions of service, good income and equally between the management and the
job security. workers. That is, management should take
13. Initiative. Subordinates should be given over all work for which it is better suited
freedom to suggest and implement new than the worker. Before, almost all the work

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 and greater part of the responsibility were 4. Systems theory.
left for the workers.
CLASSICAL THEORY
Bureaucratic Principles of Administration
At the beginning of the 18th century there was a
This principle was developed by Max Weber. It is shift from agriculture to industry societies. This
similar to the one proposed by Henry Fayol. Weber period came with lots of innovation in the way
believed that for any organisation to perform well, it goods were produced and sold. This led to
must: improvement in the production process, which
further brought significant reduction in the cost of
• Eliminate managerial inconsistencies, production. Lower cost of production further led to
• Not deviate from the formal structure, lower prices, which, in turn, led to higher demand
• Adhere strictly to rules that would make and the need for increase in supply. Classic theorists
bureaucracy a very efficient form of believe that workers have both physical and
organisation that is founded on principles of financial need.
logic, order and legitimate authority.
At the beginning of the 18th century there was a
The major elements of bureaucratic principles are: shift from agriculture to industry societies. This
period came with lots of innovation in the way
1. Division of labour.
goods were produced and sold. This led to
2. Hierarchy of authority.
improvement in the production process, which
3. Stipulated rules.
further brought significant reduction in the cost of
4. Impersonality in official matters.
production. Lower cost of production further led to
5. Documentation and written documents.
lower prices, which, in turn, led to higher demand
6. Selection and promotion of staff based on
and the need for increase in supply. Classic theorists
technical competence and excellence
believe that workers have both physical and
performance.
financial need.
The chief proponents of classical theories are: Henri
MANAGEMENT THEORIES Fayol,Fredrick W. Taylor and Max Weber.
For every human activity, there is always a definite Henri Fayol
pattern of order to follow in order to achieve
maximum goals. Management theories are specific As mentioned earlier, Henri Fayol was a young
explanations to assist employers and employees in engineer who rose to the position of a managing
an organisation to achieve its organizational goals. director. He examined organisational
Management theories are important in every responsibilities from the perspective of managerial
organisation because, they help in simplifying functions. He further argued that the art of
decision making, maximizing productivity, thinking management is an activity that was peculiar to all
objectively and adapting to changes. human endeavours which could be seen in
government, business, and even in the household.
Over the time, there have been many theories of With this belief, he recommended the breaking of
management that were propounded by different the complex managerial responsibilities into distinct
schools of thoughts. Some of them are: but interdependent areas of responsibility. These
include:
1. Classical theories.
a. Technical operations – the production and
2. Human relations theories.
manufacturing of goods.
3. Neo–human relation theories.
b. Commercial operations – purchasing and
selling of raw materials and finished products
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respectively. management and supervisors.
c. Financial operations – looking for and It was on the basis of these that Taylor proposed the
securing capital and effectively allocating it to scientific theory of management. The theory has
various units for operational performance. four principles. They are as follows:
d. Security operations – the security and safety - develop scientific method for each element
of both human and material resources in the of an individual work.
organisation.
- use scientific method to select and train
e. Accounting operations – recording and employee that is best suited to perform a particular
inventory of costs, profits, liabilities, assets, etc. job.
f. Managerial operations – the core functions - cooperate with the workers to ensure that all
performed by a manager. the work is done in accordance with the principles
that have been laid down.
He divided the functions into five:
- divide work and responsibility almost
- planning, equally between the management and the workers.
- organising,
- commanding, Max Weber
- coordinating, and Max Weber, a German sociologist, philosopher,
jurist, and political economist, was another
- controlling.
contributor to the classical theories. Weber’s
It was on this backdrop that Fayol propounded the position was quite different from other classical
14 principles of administration as discussed earlier. theories. LikeFayol and Taylor, he developed a
theory of authority structures and described
organisational activities based on authority relations.
He looked at organisation behaviour from the
Fredrick W. Taylor structural point of view. He maintained that
Fredrick Winslow Taylor, an American mechanical management must adhere to the rules as any
engineer was born in 1856. He started his career as deviation would interfere with the efficiency of the
a labourer and rose to the level of Chief Engineer. organisation.
He criticized the traditional methods of On this premise, he propounded the bureaucratic
management on the ground of: principles. The elements are as follows:
a. being evaluated through subjective and a. Job specification
intuitive methods,
b. Hierarchy of authority
b. performing jobs by the rule of thumb,
c. Formal selection of employees
c. lack of innovation to introduce new
techniques of management, d. Documentation of rules and regulations
d. lack of formal techniques for training in e. Impersonation
skills and professional development, as trainings
were left to apprentice system, and f. Career orientation

e. absence of clear distinctions between Benefits of classical theories

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Some of the benefits of classical theories are: production and managerial efficiency in
organisation. They found out that this could be
a. Encouraging maximum utilization of achieved only through an understanding of the
resources thereby eliminating waste. people.
b. Emphasis on assigning workers to specify The major contributors to these theories are: Elton
tasks gives room for greater efficiency. Mayo, Mary Parker Follet, and others. These
scholars focused more attention on the behaviour of
c. Adoption of formal methods of training
the workers as individuals and groups, as well as the
workers encourages more productivity.
behaviour of leaders in the organisations. These
d. Consistent employee behaviour as a result of areas of focus justify the name ‘Human Relations’,
standard rules and procedures. which simply defines the interaction between the
leaders and the led.
e. Eliminating the use of rule of thumb by
setting standards for hiring and promotion of
workers.
Elton Mayo (1880-1949)
George Elton Mayo was a leading contributor to the
Weaknesses of classical theories theories of human relations. He was an Australian
psychologist, industrial researcher, and
The classical theories have been criticized on the organisational theorist. He used his Hawthorne
following grounds: experiment to empirically determine the effect of
better physical conditions on workers output.
a. They are too general, hence they failed to
meet the complexities of present day organisations. The experiment came up due to the curiosity of
Western Electric Company in Cicero, Illinois to find
b. Theprinciple of specialization makes a out the effects of illumination on workers’
worker redundant if his unit is no longer viable. productivity in 1924. Two groups of girls were used,
c. They do not fit the democratic nature of the one was put in a special room with variable lighting
present organisation. The dichotomy between and the other group into a room where the lighting
employers and employees is too wide. They give was kept at normal standard. Surprisingly, there was
too much power to the management without increase in productivity in both rooms. When
adequate consideration to the workers. lighting was reduced in the first one, productivity
kept increasing even in both rooms. This made the
d. Strict compliance with rules and regulations engineers at the industry to conclude that
makes the theories regimented. illumination intensity was not directly related to
group productivity. This confusion made them to
e. Employees become robotic as they do the invite Professor Elton Mayo of Harvard University
same thing every day. It therefore gives room for and his associates to join the research group as
high resistance to change. consultants in 1927.
Human Relations Theories The implications of this finding are that:
The human relations theories popularly known as a. economic benefits in itself were not
the behavioural approach was developed by a sufficient enough in motivating workers.
conglomerate of researchers in the fields of
sociology, psychology, and other related disciplines. b. management should see an office beyond a
They used their wealth of experience in their work place, but also as a social environment where
various fields to develop the best way to increase workers interact together for better performance.

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c. the quantity of work done by workers is not Integrative conflict resolution is an approach where
necessarily dependent on his physical strength but the desires of both parties are integrated together to
also on his social capability. arrive at an alternative that meets the needs of both.
This is an innovative approach that allows people to
d. informal groups within the formal think outside the box.
organisation play a greater role in the productivity
of workers. This means that a leader who could be Neo-Human Relations Theories
more effective than the person appropriated to be in
charge could develop among the workers. This is a modified form of human relations theories.
This was a reaction to the harshness of Taylor’s
e. workers should be involved in the process of theory of scientific management. The scientific
decision making especially ones that will affect theory was criticised on the ground of neglecting
them. the social needs of employees.
The major contributions to this theory are: Abraham
Maslow, Frederick Hezberg, and others.
Mary Parker Follett
Abraham Maslow (1908 – 1970)
Mary Parker Follett was born in 1868 and died in
1933. She belonged to the school of thought of the Abraham Maslow moved a bit from the physical
human relations theories. She expressed her idea in conditions and attention to workers as proposed by
her theory of constructive conflict and Mayo to the basic needs of workers. He maintained
coordination.To Follett, conflict could be a good that if the basic needs are met, they will perform
mechanism of improving the performance of the well. He, therefore, concentrated on motivation and
organisation. She defined conflict as the appearance personality. He grouped man’s basic needs into five
of difference, difference of opinions, or interest in in order of hierarchy:
an organisation. She stressed further that conflict is
inevitable, therefore, managers should make good - Physiological Needs, which include house,
use of it to achieve optimal productivity. food, cloth, etc.

In the theory, Follett suggested three ways of - Safety Needs, which include personal,
handling conflict. These are: emotional, financial, health and security.

- Domination, - Social needs, these are needs for friendship,

intimacy, association, family, and others.
- Compromise, and
- Self-esteem Needs, these are the needs of
- Integrative conflict resolution. being accepted by others through improved status,
respect, freedom from inferiority complex and
Domination, according to her, is an approach where depression.
the manager prevails on the subordinates to have his
way. This is usually victory of one side over the - Self–actualisation Needs, in this category
other. This may appear the easiest way of solving are marriage, parenting, continued self-
problems in the organisation, but not usually the development, etc.
best as it may not be successful in the long run.
In this hierarchical order, Maslow maintained that
Compromise is an approach where each side gives each need in the hierarchy must be met. This will
up something in order to achieve peace. The encourage the workers to be more productive.
problem with this approach is that no one is really
ready to compromise as this was the cause of the Douglas McGregor (1906-1964)
disagreement in the first instance.
McGregor, an American psychologist, was well

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known for his two sets of assumptions, that is, system. Discipline has become a problem for a lot
theory X and theory Y about the human nature. of schools even in the most developed countries.
Theory X is based on four premises that humans by What is Discipline?
nature: Discipline in schools is a required set of rules
1. hate work ; administered to teachers and students, which they
have to obey or expect to be punished for their
2. have little ambition; disobedience. Adesina (1980:108), says that
discipline is to teach the students manners on how to
3. do not like responsibility; and show respect to school authorities, to observe the
school laws and regulations and to maintain an
4. need to be closely instructed to work
established standard of behaviour. From this
effectively.
definition the school has a primordial role to play in
On the other hand, theory Y assumes that humans: instilling discipline into their students. Discipline is
the practices of making people obey rules or
1. are mature to direct themselves; standards of behaviour, and punishing them when
they do not.
2. are willing to accept responsibility; and
The Importance of Discipline in Schools
3. consider work to be as rest and therefore like
Discipline implies a strict adherence to legislation
it.
and guidelines and to cultural standards and values.
With theory Y, he believes that if humans are given The disciplinary elements of each achievement must
freedom, they will perform better in their respective be adopted by students that make them continuously
tasks. productive. Thus, discipline can impact learning in
the following ways:
Systems Theory
1. Eliminates stress from student life
The Systems theory was introduced due to the 2. Assist Students Get Good Grades
criticisms levied against the human relations 3. Discipline Moulds Students’ Character
theories. The human relations theories, although, 4. It Enhances and encourages students’
made some generalizations on social relations they motivation
failed to recognize the impacts of cultural, 5. Set Good Example for others to follow.
economic and other forms of environments on
Helpful Strategies to Maintain Classroom
organizations. The major founder of this theory was
Discipline
Karl Ludwig Von Bertalanffy (an Austrian
Biologist). Melisa (2020), gave the following tips to help
maintain classroom discipline:
• Parental Involvement

• School Discipline Plan to be Created and

DISCIPLINE, INDISCIPLINE, AND Enforced
VIOLENCE IN SCHOOLS • Establish Leadership
• Practice Effective Follow-Through
School discipline relates to the actions taken by a • Alternative Education Opportunities can be
teacher or the school organization towards a student Provided
or group of students when the student's behaviour • Reputation for Fairness
tries to disrupt the ongoing educational activity or • Implement Additional Effective School
breaks a rule created by the teacher or the school Policies

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 • Maintain High Expectations
➢ Harsh school rules and regulations
Indiscipline ➢ Unconducive school environment
➢ Poor leadership/high handiness of some
Indiscipline on the other hand is any act that diverges
school administrators
from the acceptable societal norms and values. It is a
➢ Lack of extra-curricular activities
violation of school rules and regulations which is
➢ Poor teaching by some teachers
capable of obstructing the smooth and orderly
➢ Teachers lateness and absenteeism
functioning of the school system. An undisciplined
➢ Overcrowded classrooms.
child is an uncontrollable child and can do any
damage in school when he does not get what he
Society based Factors that Causes Indiscipline in
wants.
Schools
Major Indiscipline in Schools • Poor value system
• Injustice in the society revealed by
Students portray different types of indiscipline favouritism, nepotism and corruption
behaviour among which include the following acts: • Unwholesome mass media
• Unsatisfactory home condition in some
Boycotting of lessons, Watching and practicing
homes
pornography, lies telling, violence , Dishonesty,
Disobedient to teachers, prefects, and school • Parental over protection of children
administration, Rape, Alcohol consumption, • Parental rejection of children.
Confronting and stabbing teachers in schools,
Vandalism, lateness to school, Cultism , Common Causes of Indiscipline at Work Place
Hooliganism, Mass Protest, etc. • Lack of proper leadership
Students’ indiscipline behaviours in school are • Lack of supervision
correlated to the following:
• Violation of rights of employees
• influences of their peer group
• Absence of grievance settlement machinery
• their parents’
• Employer's attitude
• socioeconomic achievements
• Lack of communication
• parent’s attitude
• Lack of proper rules and regulations.
• teacher’ attitude
Indiscipline in School Greatly Affects:
• family backgrounds.
• the quality of teaching and learning
Students based Factors that Causes Indiscipline
in Schools • uncovered/unfinished school curriculum

• Low self-concept due to constant negative • poor results

labels • maximum destruction
• Abuse of seniority by prefects
• Poor study habits • dropouts, and
• Restlessness and inattention
• wastage of resources invested by
Schools-based Factors that Causes Indiscipline in stakeholders of education such as
Schools parents, and the government.
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Possible Strategies to Curb Indiscipline in
Schools

1. Good moral leadership and education

2. School authorities to be of good role models
3. Provision of adequate facilities for teaching,
games and sports
4. Manageable class size
5. Active Parents Teachers Association (PTA),
etc.

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Violence in Schools • Being bullied by others
Developing new models and techniques of conflict
resolution to use in schools and in the family is an
important means of living happier lives, and a way Nature of School Violence and different types of
of challenging destructive gender norms. It is a way Bullying
of building self-awareness, teaching practical skills,
creating trust and building a safe environment, and School violence is widespread, it occurs in all
solving specific problems. countries and affects a significant number of
children and adolescents. School violence is mostly
Concept of Violence perpetrated by peers but, in some cases, is
perpetrated by teachers and other school staff.
Violence is any action or word intended to cause School violence includes physical, psychological
hurt, emotional or physical, to a person, to groups of and sexual violence.
people, or to oneself. Violence is often directed at a
person or people because of their gender, race, Bullying, Physical fights, Sexual violence,
sexual orientation, or physical and mental abilities. Physical violence perpetrated by teachers,
Violence is using power to control another person Corporal punishment perpetrated by
through subtle and not so subtle ways. teachers.
School violence is any activity that can create a Measures to Stop Violence in School:
disturbance in an educational system. It's not just
school shootings. It includes verbal, physical 1. Report to the principal as quickly as possible
violence, psychological violence and physical any threats, signs of or discussions of
altercations. It is also bullying through electronic weapons, signs of gang activity, or other
means or social media, threats, weapon use, or gang. conditions that might invite or encourage
Violence in schools is one of the most visible forms violence.
of violence against children. It is often expressed
through acts of bullying, intimidation and 2. Use students set norms for behaviour in your
repression. Violence in schools creates insecurity classroom. Refuse to allow violence. Use
and fear which harm the general school climate and students to help set penalties and enforce the
infringe pupils’ right to learn in a safe, rules.
unthreatening environment. Schools cannot fulfill
3. Always invite parents to talk with you about
their role as places of learning and socialization if
their children's progress and any concerns
children are not in an environment free of violence
they have. Send students home with notes
(Wikipedia).
celebrating children's achievements.
Causes of School Violence 4. It will be good to learn how to recognize the
There are factors that can increase a student's warning signs that a child might be heading
likelihood to commit a type of school crime. Some of for violence and know how to tap school
these factors include: resources to get appropriate help.

• An impoverished community 5. Encourage and sponsor student-led

anti-violence activities and programs ranging
• Poor academic success from peer education to teen courts to
mediation to mentoring to training.
• A history of violence
TOPIC 6: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION
• Poor family structure FINANCING
• The use of alcohol, tobacco, or drugs
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Educational financing is the process of procuring There are two major sources of funding education in
and disbursing financial resources for the provision Nigeria and they are Government sources and
of education of a given standard stipulated. non-Government sources.
Educational finance can be viewed as the process by
which resources are generated by government and Government sources: are the funds that come from
organisation through taxation, tuition, philanthropy the government through grants or subventions. The
which are distributed and capital support of formal government grants constitute an important source of
schooling by a society. educational financing. The grant can be capital
and/or recurrent grants.
Rationale for the Study of Educational Finance
• Capital Grant: This constitutes the bulk of
• Education is an instrument for the payments to educational institutions for the
attainment of national development construction of new buildings, undertaking major
repairs of old structures and purchase of hardware,
Larger percentage of the budget goes to education school equipment such as laboratory equipment.
Education is a large employer of labour: The • Recurrent Grant: These are grants for
education sector as an industry is highly labour expenditure which comes up every year in the
intensive. budget. This grant is meant for salaries and
allowances of both teaching and non-teaching
Reduction of Wastages: There is high rate of
members of staff in the school system, maintenance
wastages in the educational system which is
and so on.
measured by the drop-out and repetition rates and
many factors are responsible for this. • Special Grant: This grant given by the
federal, state or local governments in form of
percentage of the Gross National Product (GNP)
assistance to some schools to some school with
that goes to education: The Government allocates a
special needs. The essence of the special grant is to
large percentage of the Gross National Product
enable schools improve the quality of education.
(GNP) to the funding of education and this shows
th. • Tertiary Education Tax Fund
(TETFUND): Education Tax Fund was introduced
• To determine the cost of education: There is
in 1993 to raise fund for education sector. It is now
need to study educational finance because it wil
known as the Tertiary Education Tax Fund
help to determine the various cost of education at
(TETFUND) with TETFUND Act 2011. The
different levels of education, especially with
federal government through the enabling decree (7)
enrolment figures growing astronomically in
felt that the private sectors also benefit from
educational institutions.
education and provides that:
• The need to improve management practices.
a. All registered companies in Nigeria are to
With the present status of finance in higher
pay 2% of their profit to education fund
education, there is the need for revolutionizing the
management of educational institutions to make b. The fund is to be managed and disbursed
more efficient and in line with present demand. by a special tax board of trustees of the federal
Inland Revenue department
• Equity in the provision of higher education.
c. That the fund will be used to finance the
• Education must be well funded if we want
development of houses in the universities and other
economic growth.
educational institutions, procurement of books and
Sources of Funding to Education library facilities, purchase and maintenance of
equipment.

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d. That 50% of the fund would go to tertiary the cost varies with the level of output or
institutions. In fact 25% for university and operations.
remaining 25% should be for polytechnics and
Colleges of education. The remaining 50% to • Capital cost is the cost of purchasing durable
primary and secondary schools. assets whose life span extends beyond one
fiscal year.
In 2011 the fund is now directed to the tertiary • Recurrent Cost: This refers to expenditure
institutions alone, thus necessitating the change of on “consumable” goods that get used up
nomenclature to tertiary education tax fund within one fiscal year. This explains why
(TETFUND), with the scope of now covering they are called “recurrent” or “operating”
capacity building. cost
Non-Government source: Non-governmental • Total Cost: The total cost of education refers
sources of funding education in Nigeria include: to the sum of recurrent and capital costs. That is to
say all the expenses incurred in the provision of
School fees educational services.
Internally Generated Revenue • Average Cost or Unit Cost: This is cost per
Free-will Donations unit of an input or item. Unit cost is usually
expressed in terms of per students enrolled. This is
Proceeds from School activities. the total expenditure incurred in a given period.
Cost Analysis in Education
•Accounting Cost: This refers to the monetary
Cost put in a simple way refer to the amount of outlays for producing a certain good or commodity.
resources in monetary terms which must have been
•Sunk Cost: These are costs that have been incurred.
given up in the course of pursuing certain objective.
This cost however cannot be recouped.
Cost analysis can be viewed as a detailed
examination of the nature, composition and •Direct Cost: All the money spent in running a
behavior of costs for purposes of evaluation, programme like fees, pocket money and other
planning, policy making and general improvement expenses incurred in the course of running a
of their cost-effectiveness. programme is referred to as direct cost. In other
words, direct costs are those costs that identifies
especially with the outcome of product.
Different Concepts of Costs
• Indirect Cost: Cost is referred to as indirect,
• Opportunity Cost/ Real Cost: This refers to if the cost does not directly have impact on the
the alternative forgone when resources are used in a outcome of product. In other words, it refers to the
particular way.Economists measure such real costs earnings forgone by students when they attend
in terms of opportunity costs or alternative. school instead of engaging in either paid job or any
other thing that will enable them earn money.
• Fixed Cost: The cost which do not vary with
changing output. This cost concept applies to the Factors influencing educational financing
short run situation that is when certain factors of
Budgetary allocation to education lag behind the
production are fixed. Fixed cost might include the
general rise or increase in the level of prices and as
cost of building a factory, insurance and legal bills.
a result, the expenditure of government in providing
• Variable Cost: This is the cost which educational resources has increased.
depends on the output. This refers to the costs that
• Change in Educational policy: Virtually any
change with the number of students. In other words,
alteration of educational policy or practice which

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affects the size, academic programmes, delivery words, they are based on the taxpayer’s ability to
method or the staffing position within an education pay as measured by income. Direct taxes are often
system is likely to have an impact on educational adjusted so as to take care of some situation that
costs. may affect the citizens’ ability to pay taxes.
Examples of direct taxes are: personal income tax,
• Rising Demand for Education: Associated company tax, petroleum profit tax, death and gift
with sharp increase in school age population, tax duties and penalties, etc.
recognition of education as a tool for individual and
social advancement, popular demand for greater Indirect Taxes
access to education and technological
improvements Indirect taxes are taxes imposed by government
which are assessed on objects rather than on
• Economic Growth: The ultimate determinant individual. In other words they are taxed imposed
and limit on educational costs is the amount of on the consumption of goods and services or on
revenue available for the education sector to spend transactions. The burden of indirect taxes can be
each year. shifted to another individual or group in the country
because it is not deducted from the source. Example
• Inflation: This is the rapid increase in price include: export duties, import duties, value added
level of goods and services. taxes (VAT), property taxes or tenement rate, etc.
• Diversification of the Curriculum: With the
diversification of the curriculum, more resources
have been spent to purchase some of the heavy Criteria for Evaluating Taxes
machinery and equipment required.
Ease of Administration and Compliance
• The Influence of Foreign Aids: there are
times when the promised foreign aid may not be One of the yardsticks for assessing a tax is on the
forthcoming or may come too late. Such irregular base of how much money that accrues to
flow of foreign aid can disrupt educational plans government purse when compared with the effort
and raise educational costs. put in to collect them. In other words, a good tax is
the one with low cost of administration since every
TAXATION tax has a cost for administering it. Administration
cost and other costs must be put into consideration
Tax is a compulsory level that is collected by the which should be low and the compliance high.
government of a country to fund the affairs of the
country. Taxes are levied in almost every country of Equity
the world mainly to raise revenue for the
expenditures of the government, although taxes Equity here is talking about fairness of a tax. The
serve other purposes too. The citizens of a country citizens and business should view the taxes that they
are taxed according to their income and business are expected to pay as being fair.
pay tax based on the profit they make.
Yield or Elasticity
Types of Taxes
Tax yield should be responsive to changes in
There are two major classification of tax and they individual income. As soon as an individual’s
are direct and indirect taxes. income increases, this should be accompanied by
increase in the tax automatically. There are some
Direct Taxes taxes that have the tendency to yield high income e
and they are personal income, corporate income,
Direct taxes are taxes imposed on person (e.g profit tax, etc.
individual income or personal income). In other

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Introduction to Budgeting and Budgetary Budget used for the current fiscal year becomes the
Process in Education base for working on the forthcoming year’s
budgetary allocation. It is assumed that department
Definition of Budget and Budgeting will continue to operate at their present level of
expenditure and where there is need for any
A budget is a comprehensive financial plan used to
additional fund; this will be added to get the next
estimate revenues and expenditures for a specific
year’s budget estimates.
period of time. A budget is a tool that managers use
to plan and control the use of resources. It is a plan Programme Budgeting
showing the objectives and how management
intends to acquire and utilize resources to attain The programme budget is the budget that serves a
those objectives. It is an estimate of expected specific programme likewise in education; it is
income and expenses. It is very helpful when it prepared by the school for specific purpose. Here
comes to planning of how one intends to go about expenses and revenues that are connected to
finances and also entails an examination of actual specific project are included in the budget and
financial transactions. Budgeting on the other hand stands alone without being combined with another
is the process of budgeting expenses with income. project.
In other words, it describes the overall process of Zero-Based Budgeting
preparing and using a budget.
Zero-based budgeting has to do with preparing the
Types of Budget budget from the beginning, in other word, from the
scratch. It entails analyzing critically all the items
There are many approaches to budgeting in
and providing a justification for all the expenditure
education. These include traditional budgeting
that is going to be incurred by the unit or
system, programme budgeting system, zero-based
department concerned.
e.t.c.
Traditional Budgeting: This is a traditional
method of budgeting and it is the most widely used. Topic CASE STUDIES IN EDUCATION
In this type of budgeting, emphasis is not on the
purpose to be achieves but rather on how to
generate income and expenditure which comes CASE STUDIES IN EDUCATIONAL
under different headings. In other words, specific ADMINISTRATION
revenues and expenditures are listed on line by line
basis hence the name line-item. Concept of Cases and Case Studies
It specks the items for the allocation of fund. That is School administration in Nigeria, and indeed all
to say that right from the onset, the money over the world, is no longer immune to the ills of
earmarked for a particular item should be spent on our modern day society. Okunola (2002: 2)
that item. For example, in the education sectors, describes cases as “administrative decisions or
allocation is based on salaries of both teaching and problems encountered in the process of
non-teaching, equipment, e.t.c. traditional budgeting administration of educational institutions and
is usually prepared with denotation to the previous programmes”. They are also “administrative,
year’s budget with the sources of income and classroom-oriented techniques that managers of
various expenditures which comes under various educational institutions can apply to resolve
heading does not change from what it was in the contemporary school problems and other issues in
previous years. In other words, budgets are often and out of class”.
produced by taking the previous year’s achials and
There are two dimensions to the perception:
adding a few percentages to account for salary
increase and inflation.

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1.Cases can translate to emerging problems in General Categories
school administration.
1. Finance Management: these include stealing,
2. Cases also refer to the appropriate solution fraud, wasteful spending, non-observance of
templates designed such as applicable theories, due process in contract management, etc.
principles and techniques for analysis, interpretation 2. Interpersonal School Relations: they include
and resolution of emergent issues. In this wise, they power abuse, assaults, verbal attacks, acid
are administrative instruments applied to solve attacks, corporal punishment, robbery,
school problems. unruly behaviour, unwholesome affairs
(with students and staff), witch-hunting,
Types of Cases rape, child labour, child abuse, character
There are three types of cases namely: Issue cases, assassination, favouritism, indoctrination,
Descriptive cases and Substantive cases. tribal and political persecution, extortion,
etc.
3. Curriculum Planning and Implementation:
relevant issues in this segment cover such
1. Issue Cases: An issue case is hypothetical in things as cheating in examinations, leakages,
nature because it is drawn from imaginary scenarios absenteeism, lateness to class or to the
created to trouble-shoot and stimulate critical school, under-marking, over-scoring,
thinking and problem-solving skills. They stimulate plagiarism, false declaration, etc.
diverse thinking on particular problems. For
instance, a teacher may put it to students by saying:
“Imagine you are a Principal of a school…”, or,
“Assuming you are the Commissioner for Education 4. School-Community Relations: these include
in your State… ”, etc. These phrases challenge the student unrest, violence, poor welfare,
critical cognitive skills in students, making them to cybercrimes, double employment.
assume roles and, in such capacities, present their
views on how they would handle given issues, 5. Facilities: illegal occupation and sub-letting
supposing they are real role players. of institutional property, shortage of
accommodation for facilities for staff and
Descriptive cases enable students to acquire students, poor state of institutional facilities,
analytical and diagnostic skills. They also emanate etc.
from classroom situations.
School Issues
3. Substantive Cases: They are not
hypothetical or suggestive types but they are actual • Finance, lean budgets; financial recklessness,
or real problems confronting education and which fraud, mismanagement of school funds, that
require immediate investigation and resolution for can trigger staff protests and student
the system to survive. Examples are issues relating violence;
to organisational conflict, school-community
relations, staff-student relations, labour relations, • Shortage of facilities, accommodation for
unionism and violence, funding of certain staff and students; power supply, potable
educational projects and programmes, etc. water that usually upsets smooth academic
calendar;
Sources of Instructional Cases
• Corrupt practices, election igging, graft,
These include textbooks, newspapers, professional perjury and falsification of information that
journals as well as common experiences of can lead to mistrust and civil disobedience;
stakeholders…students, staff, parents, school
management, ministry officials, the community, etc. • Immoral and unethical actions that may lead
Complied by NUESA GRANDEUR 20/21 Page 21
 to public ridicule and disgrace; under-aged, etc.

• Overpopulated classes due to

over-enrolment problems that can make
• Stealing from the school or others and from
learning difficult and leading to mass
the school which definitely is against the
failure; rules and regulations of the school system.
• Insecurity of lives and property, kidnapping,
rape that may provoke student violence;

• Staff and student strikes, disruptions, unrests

that can lead to sudden closure of academic • Wilful damage: mutilating library books and
activities; defacing school walls andborrowed text
books from the school library.

• Poor management of school examinations:

mass leakages, mass failure in external Staff-induced Cases
certificate examinations that may result in
These can be collated into four aspects:
social stigma and economic wastages;
Professional misconduct:

• Failure to attend classes as scheduled.

• Setting questions in areas of syllabus not
Student-induced Issues
covered in class.
• Leakage of examination questions to
students for corrupt gains.
• Habitual lateness to school and to • Unwholesome affairs with students/other
classes,absenteeism,cheating in staff.
examinations, nonconformity with rules and • Male teacher putting female student in the
regulations, unruly behaviours, stubbornness, family way.
deliberate wickedness, indecent dressing, • Idling in alcohol consumption, smoking on
cybercrimes, plagiarism, gangsterism, illegal school premises, selling hard drugs to
abortion, etc., all leading to unsatisfactory students
school outcomes. • Award of grades or marks to undeserving
students or cutting down student’s marks for
refusing immoral advances.
• Assault andbattery: for example,physical Interpersonal relations
fighting, acid attacks, bullying, arson,
murder, all amounting to violation of the • Deliberately witch-hunting students
people’s fundamental rights. /wickedness to students, extorting students.
• Character assassination of colleagues,
management members and students
• Illegal conversion of school property to
• Noise making, murmuring, brooding, personal use.
reckless driving leading to ghastly • Assaulting students and colleagues.
automobile accidents and vehicle use by the • Battering students and colleagues.
• Rape, attempted rape / impregnating and
Complied by NUESA GRANDEUR 20/21 Page 22
 procuring abortion for female students. of school property to personal use; false
• Child labour in form of making innocent declaration and deliberate falsehood; double
students to serve corporal punishment or do employment / double loyalty / employment
unsolicited physical work during school sabotage; renting out institutional property
hours). for personal pecuniary gains; vandalising
Personal indulgences institutional property.

• Leakage of examination questions to • Leaking official secrets to outsiders;

students for corrupt gains. journeying without official permission.
• Unwholesome affairs with students/other
staff, leading tomale teacher putting female • Delayed resumption after expiration of leave
student in the family way. period; failure to resume work when leave
• Consuming alcohol, smoking cigarette on
ends, without reasons.
school premises, supplying hard drugs to
students.
• Indecent dressing by way of wearing
materials that expose the body unnecessarily,
thus harassing others emotionally and Management-induced Cases
sexually; vulgar talks; verbal attacks on
others.
• Carrying students’ examination scripts out
of school premises, thus exposing official These are grouped into three headings:
documents to possible risks such as fire,
• Financial crimes: greed, fraud,
robbery, flood, etc.
• Plagiarizing, by using ideas from other embezzlement of school funds, wasteful
sources without due acknowledgements, spending / stealing of funds/
misappropriation, failure to observe due
mutilating books borrowed from individuals
process in contract management, etc.
or libraries, etc.

• Power abuse. Undue harassment of staff

Employer-related Issues
members, staff and student leaders,
punishment not commensurate to alleged
• Failure to attend classes as scheduled on the offences committed; disrespect for
school’s timetable. fundamental rights of students and staff;
hostility towards the stake holders in the
• Setting questions in areas of syllabus not system; favouritism in student admissions,
covered in class. staff promotions and staff discipline, in
contract awards and in granting reliefs,
awards of rights and privileges; stubbornly
• Fraud/ misappropriation of funds meant for sticking to unpopular policies;
school projects or collected to be remitted political/religious/ethnic persecution of staff
and students; found to be promoting student
• Dishonest practices e.g. use of fake riots and violence; forceful and illegal
conversion of institutional property to
documents to secure employment or other
personal benefits; having many abandoned
favours; running courses without official
school projects despite sufficient provisions
permission by employer; illegal conversion made available by superintending
Complied by NUESA GRANDEUR 20/21 Page 23
 authorities; imposition of preferred Akagbusun (2008). Organisational leaders need to
candidates in and rigging of elections to encourage healthy conflicts. Healthy conflicts
perpetuate tenure, false declaration of age according to Akagbusun results in:
and qualifications, etc.

i. common concern for organisational goals;

• Incompetence: Lack of commitment to
official responsibility; integrity crisis/moral ii. willingness to see other view points;
degradation. Found to be encouraging
iii. issue oriented; and
indiscipline among students and staff; poor
attention given to the welfare of students iv. increase in communication.
and staff, inability to ensure peace in the
school environment; decrepit state of While unhealthy conflicts might lead to the
teaching and learning facilities; rampant following:
threat to security of life and property, etc.
i. selfish concern to win own points;
ii. minds being closed to others;

TOPIC: CONFLICT AND CONFLICT iii. being personalities oriented; and

RESOLUTION STRATEGIES IN iv. crease in communication.
ORGANISATIONS
Conflict is a natural condition existing in any
multiparty, heterogeneous system. It is an inherent Types of Conflict
social condition derived from the fact that persons,
parties, social groups and collectivities differ from Conflict is widespread in human societies; it occurs
one another on a variety of values, goals and in profit and nonprofitable organisations. There
material resources. Conflict is often defined as a are two major sources of conflict in organisation
form of behaviour – mutual interference and according to Fajana (2000) – the internal and the
escalated hostilities. It is the condition whereby the external. The internal conflict is that which occur
concerns of two or more parties appeared to be within the organization, it is an in-house
incompatible. Some writers like Fajana (2000) disagreement between employees and their
argued that examination of conflict should include employer e.g. the conflict between the university
the following: “the total range of behaviour and staff and the university management. The external
attitudes that express opposition and divergent conflict is that which occur between the employees
orientations between individual owners and and the body outside the organisation. It is usually
managers on the one hand and working people and the disagreement between the employees in an
their organisation on the other” organisation and the management or policy makers
that are not within the organisation e.g the conflict
A conflict situation is therefore the one that is between the university employees and the federal
characterised by the inability of those concerned to government. Besides the two major sources of
iron out their differences. It is the perceived conflict, we have other types as follows: They are:
incompatibility of goals, actions and outcomes
between two or more people. Conflict means Inter-Organisational conflict: This is the Conflict
different things to different people. occurring between two or more organisations, It is
usually caused by economic factors, innovation,
In organizations, conflict is a natural occurrence; it price, war, market share etc.
could be healthy or unhealthy as pointed by

Complied by NUESA GRANDEUR 20/21 Page 24

Inter group conflict: This is the Conflict between Affective conflict: This is the disagreement within
different groups in the same organisation arising the individual caused by emotional related factors.
from series of factors such as role conflict, power It is derived from the disturbances in the
struggle, line and staff polarisation etc. interpersonal relation of the individual.
Intra group conflict: This is the Conflict within CAUSES OF CONFLICT
individuals in the group arising from the methods
adopted by an individual to conform to the group Conflict is precipitated or triggered by various
norms. The disagreement cuts across the individual factors depending on the situation, the environment
and the group. and the people involved. Ojo (2008) classified the
following as the major causes of conflict in relation
Asongo (2008), identified other types of conflicts to the antecedent conditions, they are:
by their features, they are:
Information: The content or the channel through
Social conflict: This involve struggle over values or which the information is disseminated might be
claim to status; power and scarce resource in which such that the parties involved have different
the main motivation is not only to gain the desired information or no information. This may result in
values but also to neutralise, injure or eliminate wrong signals that can bring in disagreement.
rivals.
Perceptual: The way the parties involved
Psychological conflict: This the conflict arising as a perceived the information can triggered off conflict
result of the employee involvement in two or more when they all viewed the issue differently.
mutually exclusive activities, it leads to trauma, it
could occur at different levels – overt behavioural Communication barriers: Different factors such as
level, verbal level, symbolic level, and emotional inappropriate channel, space, time, position,
level. personality of the parties can constitute barrier
leading to misunderstanding and disagreement.
Political conflict: This results from closely related
processes whereby two or more individuals are in Role of different organisations: The different roles
contact and are carrying out incompatible functions of the parties in any interaction might make them
at the same time. It is borne out of the strong desire take different positions on issues resulting in
to gain attention or promotion from the authority at deadlock and crisis.
the work place.
Differences in Goals or Philosophy: Every
Conflict can also be classified according to the organisation or individual has goals or philosophy.
individuals, they include: When these goals are so distinct without mutual
agreement, conflict results.
Intra-personal conflict: This is the conflict resulting
within the individual, arising from uncertainty about Values: Differences in values in any interaction lead
the organisation, expectations or any situation. to the parties involved choosing differently in terms
Under this type, work conflict with other of solutions or agreement which usually trigger off
demands personal to the individual. conflict.

Inter-personal conflict: This is the conflict between Dependence on one party: This is a situation when
individuals, usually caused by personality conflict ensues as a result of the reliance of one
difference e.g. conflict between the manager and the party on another for resources that might not be
subordinates. met.
Association of parties: No individual can be an

Complied by NUESA GRANDEUR 20/21 Page 25

inland unto self, as long as people work together in vi. ambiguous responsibilities;
any sphere, the greater the chances of conflict.
vii. bottleneck in the flow of work; and
Unresolved prior conflict: There is always the
tendency for previous conflict not to be amicably viii. personality clash
resolved. This lingering hidden grudge will sooner
than later results in full blown conflict.
CONFLICT RSOLUTION STRATEGIES
Work conditions: This refers to the structurer
condition in the work place. These involve Conflict resolution is a relational approach to
organisationally imposed roles, inadequate attention handling conflicts; it is a process in which
to staff, poor administrative practices/ management interpersonal communication is used to get the
style, organisational climate, introduction of charge parties in conflict reach an amicable and
and other extremists’ tendencies that can spur staff satisfactory point of agreement (Albert, 2005).
to rebel against highhandedness. All these can Conflict resolution strategies therefore are the
further trigger off more crises leading to conflict. different modes of settling the ensuing disputes
arising in organisations, institutions or relationship.
Personal behavior: Every individual differs in terms
There are different types of conflict resolution
of personality, temperament, morals, attitude and strategies, just as we have different causes and cases
other individual idiosyncrasies that are peculiar to
of conflict. The type of strategy used in settling
the person. All these intrinsic individual
conflict could be;
differences can easily spark off seemingly new
waves of trouble in any organisation or relationship. Collective bargaining: This is perhaps the main
Man by nature is aggressive; they will always machinery that employers and trade unions use to
spring up surprises, leading to more tussles and consider demands and resolve conflict. This is a
future problems in any interaction among two or round table type of resolution. It is a resolution
more people. process that takes place between an employer and a
group of employees when conflict arises.
Scarce resources: Most material resources are
scarce in every organisation . Individuals and Litigation: This is a third party resolution strategy
groups in organisation therefore compete for limited whereby the parties involved empowered the justice
scarce resources which may result in conflict. system to render a solution to their conflict in the
court. Most conflicts are resolved by negotiation
Communication gap: Organisation vertical and
between the attorney and the disputants.
hierarchical authority may lead to conflict due to
inadequate or distortion in communication. Arbitration: This is a third party intervention
process when a neutral third party directs the
negotiation process and renders a fair solution to the
Succinctly put, William 1978 (cited in Ejiogu, conflict. The arbitrator main focus is to bring the
2002) made a summary of eight causes of conflict parties to agreement and work on what the
as follow: agreement should be.

i. line- staff competition; Mediation: Mediation is the commonest form of

third party intervention in conflict resolution. It is
ii. functional inter-dependence; a process by which a neutral third party tries to
facilitate the negotiation process by creating new
iii. labor – management polarisation; communication links between the parties. This will
further bring the attention of the disputants to
iv. organisation-individual disagreement;
settlement clues resulting in compromise. Under
v. disagreement over goals this mode of settlement, power articulation and
Complied by NUESA GRANDEUR 20/21 Page 26
knowledge differences are neutralised court. Most conflicts are resolved by negotiation
between the attorney and the disputants.
Litigation: This is a third party resolution strategy
whereby the parties involved empowered the justice Arbitration: This is a third party intervention
system to render a solution to their conflict in the process when a neutral third party directs the
court. Most conflicts are resolved by negotiation negotiation process and renders a fair solution to the
between the attorney and the disputants. conflict. The arbitrator main focus is to bring the
Arbitration: This is a third party intervention parties to agreement and work on what the
process when a neutral third party directs the agreement should be.
negotiation process and renders a fair solution to the
conflict. The arbitrator main focus is to bring the Mediation: Mediation is the commonest form of
parties to agreement and work on what the third party intervention in conflict resolution. It is
agreement should be. Conflict resolution is a a process by which a neutral third party tries to
relational approach to handling conflicts; it is a facilitate the negotiation process by creating new
process in which interpersonal communication is communication links between the parties. This will
used to get the parties in conflict reach an amicable further bring the attention of the disputants to
and satisfactory point of agreement (Albert, 2005). settlement clues resulting in compromise. Under
Conflict resolution strategies therefore are the this mode of settlement, power articulation and
different modes of settling the ensuing disputes knowledge differences are neutralised
arising in organisations, institutions or relationship.
There are different types of conflict resolution
strategies, just as we have different causes and cases
of conflict. The type of strategy used in settling
conflict could be;
CONFLICT RSOLUTION STRATEGIES
Conflict resolution is a relational approach to
handling conflicts; it is a process in which
interpersonal communication is used to get the
parties in conflict reach an amicable and
satisfactory point of agreement (Albert, 2005).
Conflict resolution strategies therefore are the
different modes of settling the ensuing disputes
arising in organisations, institutions or relationship.
There are different types of conflict resolution
strategies, just as we have different causes and cases
of conflict. The type of strategy used in settling
conflict could be;
Collective bargaining: This is perhaps the main
machinery that employers and trade unions use to
consider demands and resolve conflict. This is a
round table type of resolution. It is a resolution
process that takes place between an employer and a
group of employees when conflict arises.
Litigation: This is a third party resolution strategy
whereby the parties involved empowered the justice
system to render a solution to their conflict in the
Complied by NUESA GRANDEUR 20/21 Page 27