1

Approaches and key issues - Applied Cognitive Psychology

University of Delhi

AP/10004: Applied Cognitive Psychology

3 October 2023
 2

Introduction

Cognitive psychology, with its focus on understanding the intricate workings of the

human mind, has long been a cornerstone of psychological research. While the theoretical

foundations and empirical investigations of cognitive processes have greatly expanded our

understanding of human cognition, Applied Cognitive Psychology takes this knowledge a step

further by addressing practical, real-world challenges and enhancing human performance in a

multitude of domains.

This dynamic and multidisciplinary field is a testament to the evolution of cognitive

psychology from a purely theoretical discipline into a thriving area of applied research with

profound implications for education, healthcare, technology design, and more. In this paper, we

embark on a comprehensive journey through the major approaches and critical issues within

Applied Cognitive Psychology, exploring how these advancements are not only shaping our

understanding of human cognition but also driving positive changes in our everyday lives.

What is applied cognitive psychology?

Cognitive psychology explores the inner workings of the human mind as it interacts with

the external world and determines suitable responses. It encompasses a wide range of mental

processes, such as attention, perception, learning, memory, language, problem-solving,

reasoning, and thought. Cognitive psychology seeks to gain insights into human cognition by

studying how individuals perform various cognitive tasks. Additionally, it can also encompass

the study of brain activity and structure as valuable components for comprehending human

cognitive processes.
 3

Applied Cognitive Psychology, in essence, extends the purview of cognitive psychology

by translating its principles and findings into actionable strategies and interventions. These

practical applications find relevance in a plethora of domains, including education, healthcare,

technology, human factors engineering, and beyond. Its primary emphasis lies in investigating

how individuals perform in everyday settings, shedding light on human capabilities and

fundamental cognitive abilities in real-world contexts. The field is characterized by its focus on

leveraging cognitive psychology's insights to improve human performance and well-being in

various contexts.

History and Emergence of Applied Cognitive Psychology

Behaviorism was the prevailing school of thought in psychology during the first part of

the twentieth century. It is often attributed to the American psychologist John Watson (1878–

1958), who is considered its founder. Watson advocated that psychologists should concentrate on

stimuli, which are elements of the immediate environment, and responses, which are behaviors

exhibited by individuals in experiments. This approach is often seen as "scientific" because it

centers on stimuli and responses, both of which can be observed.

According to Watson, behaviorism should abstain from using terms like consciousness,

mental states, mind, content, introspectively verifiable, and similar expressions. In sharp

contrast, as we've previously discussed, cognitive psychologists assert that it is vitally important

to investigate these internal mental processes.

While it's often said that behaviorism was replaced by the "cognitive revolution," the

actual shift was not as dramatic as it may seem (Hobbs & Burman, 2009). For instance, Tolman,

a behaviorist, didn't dismiss the significance of internal processes. He conducted experiments

where rats learned to navigate a maze to find food in a goal box. When Tolman blocked the path

they had learned, the rats quickly adapted by finding new routes in the correct direction. Tolman

proposed that the rats had developed an internal cognitive map representing the maze's layout.

The year 1965 was pivotal in this context. During a meeting at the Massachusetts

Institute of Technology, Noam Chomsky introduced his language theory, George Miller

discussed the concept of the "magic number seven" in short-term memory, and Alan Newell and

Herbert Simon talked about the General Problem Solver.

Cognitive neuropsychology emerged 25 years after the development of cognitive

psychology. It was only once cognitive psychologists had formulated reasonable explanations for

normal human cognition that they could fully comprehend the performance of patients with brain

damage. Similarly, the computational modeling efforts of computational cognitive scientists are

typically heavily influenced by pre-computational psychological theories.

Major Approaches and Issues of Applied Cognitive Psychology

In this section, we embark on an exploration of the major approaches within Applied

Cognitive Psychology, namely Cognitive Psychology, Cognitive Neuropsychology, Cognitive

Neuroscience, and Computational Cognitive Science. Each approach is not only a lens but a

powerful toolkit, illuminating distinct facets of cognition and translating them into actionable

strategies.

Cognitive psychology

Several decades ago, the prevailing belief among cognitive psychologists adhered to the

information-processing model, which drew a loose comparison between the human mind and a
 5

computer. In this framework, when presented with a stimulus like a problem or task, internal

processes are set into motion, eventually leading to the desired response or solution. The

processing directly influenced by the initial stimulus was often referred to as "bottom-up

processing." It was generally assumed that only one process occurred at a time. Additionally,

task processing typically included "top-down processing," which was shaped by an individual's

expectations and existing knowledge rather than solely by the stimulus itself.

However, this traditional view oversimplified matters by assuming that processing

predominantly occurred in a sequential manner. In reality, multiple processes often run

concurrently, a phenomenon known as "parallel processing." When individuals engage in well-

practiced tasks, they are more likely to utilize parallel processing compared to when tackling

new or unfamiliar tasks. Furthermore, there is the concept of "cascade processing," which

involves a type of parallel processing where different processing stages overlap as a person

performs a task. Specifically, later stages of processing commence before one or more earlier

stages have completed their functions.

A significant challenge in cognitive psychology is the task-impurity problem, which arises

because most cognitive tasks involve multiple cognitive processes, making it complex to

interpret research findings. To address this issue, one strategy is to focus on a group of tasks that

necessitate the use of the same cognitive process. As an example, Miyake et al. (2000) examined

three distinct tasks that all demanded the intentional inhibition of a dominant response.

The Stroop Task. The Stroop Task is a classic test of cognitive control and interference.

In this task, participants are presented with a list of color words (e.g., "red," "blue," "green")

printed in ink colors that may or may not match the meaning of the word (e.g., the word "red"
 6

printed in green ink). The goal for participants is to quickly name the ink color while ignoring

the word's meaning. This task creates interference because the automatic reading of the word

often competes with the goal of naming the ink color.

The Anti-Cascade Task. The Anti-Cascade Task, also known as the "Anti-Saccade

Task," assesses an individual's ability to inhibit a prepotent response. It is often used to measure

cognitive control, especially related to eye movements. In this task, participants are presented

with a central fixation point and then a target stimulus (e.g., a visual cue) appears to one side.

Participants are instructed to inhibit the automatic response to look at the target and instead look

in the opposite direction. The task evaluates an individual's ability to suppress a reflexive

response and instead execute a controlled and intentional response.

The stop-signal task. The Stop-Signal Task is designed to assess response inhibition and

is often used to study impulsive behavior and cognitive control. It is particularly relevant in

research on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and related conditions. In this task,

participants are presented with a series of stimuli that require a quick response (e.g., pressing a

button when they see a specific visual cue). However, in some trials, an auditory stop signal

(e.g., a beep) is presented after the initial stimulus. Participants are instructed to withhold their

response when they hear the stop signal. The main measure of interest is the "stop-signal reaction

time," which represents the time it takes for participants to inhibit their response after hearing the

stop signal.

Key Issues

Ecological Validity. Our behavior in controlled laboratory settings can differ from how

we behave in our everyday lives. Consequently, research conducted in laboratories may

sometimes lack what we call "ecological validity," which refers to the degree to which findings

from lab studies can be applied to real-life situations.

Verbal Theories. Many theories in the field of cognitive psychology are primarily

articulated in verbal descriptions. Such theories often lack precision, making it challenging to

determine the specific predictions that can be drawn from them and, subsequently, to test or

refute them. Computational cognitive scientists can help mitigate these issues by developing

precise cognitive models that explicitly outline the assumptions of a given theory.

Proliferation of Similar Theories. The difficulty in falsifying theories has led to a

proliferation of numerous theories on the same topic. Additionally, the "toothbrush problem," as

described by Mischel (2008), contributes to this proliferation, as cognitive psychologists tend to

prefer using their theories rather than adopting those proposed by others.

Paradigm Specificity. Findings derived from a particular task or experimental paradigm

sometimes apply exclusively to that specific context and do not extend to other seemingly similar

tasks. This implies that certain findings have limited scope and applicability, as highlighted by

Meiser (2011).

Cognitive Neuropsychology

Cognitive neuropsychology focuses on the patterns of cognitive performance (intact and

impaired) of brain-damaged patients having a lesion (structural damage to the brain caused by

injury or disease). According to cognitive neuropsychologists, studying brain-damaged patients

can tell us much about cognition in healthy individuals. Cognitive neuropsychology allows us to

draw causal inferences about the relationship between brain areas and cognitive processes and
 8

behavior. In other words, we can conclude that a given brain area is crucially involved in

performing certain cognitive tasks.

Cognitive neuropsychology reveals surprising and significant findings. Shallice has

pointed out, “A key intellectual strength of neuropsychology . . . is its ability to provide evidence

falsifying plausible cognitive theories.” For instance, amnesic patients struggle with personal

memory but excel in learning motor skills. These findings led to the rejection of a single long-

term memory system in favor of more intricate theories.

In recent times, cognitive neuropsychology has been effectively integrated with cognitive

neuroscience. For instance, cognitive neuroscience has shown that brain injuries or lesions can

have far-reaching impacts across the brain, known as diaschisis. Understanding the full scope of

brain areas affected by a lesion helps connect brain function to cognitive processes and task

performance.

Key Issues

Assumption of Modularity of the Cognitive System. The concept of modularity

appears to have stronger support for lower-level cognitive processes like color and motion

processing compared to higher-level processes such as consciousness and focused attention. If

the assumption of modularity turns out to be incorrect, it could impact the entire field of

cognitive neuropsychology, as suggested by Patterson and Plaut in 2009.

Assumption of Brain Damage Impact on Cognition. The conventional belief that

patients' task performance directly reflects the effects of brain damage on intact cognitive

systems is problematic. Brain-damaged individuals frequently employ compensatory strategies to

mitigate cognitive impairments. According to the Hartwigsen model, general cognitive functions
 9

like attention, cognitive control, and error monitoring can help compensate for damage to

specific processes like phonological processing caused by brain injuries. However, the model

also suggests that specific processes cannot effectively compensate for disruptions in general

processes.

Effect of Lesion on Brain Organization. According to Blackmon, brain lesions can lead

to various changes in brain organization. For example, individuals who undergo

hemispherectomy, which involves the removal of the entire left hemisphere at a young age,

frequently develop strong language abilities, despite language functions typically being centered

in the left hemisphere.

Connectivity Complication. Brain lesions can disrupt the functional connections

between the lesion site and distant, unaffected brain regions. This means that impaired cognitive

performance after brain damage may stem from both direct damage to a specific area and

reduced connectivity across the brain, making it challenging to interpret findings from brain-

damaged patients.

Cognitive Neuroscience

Cognitive neuroscience involves the intensive study of brain activity as well as behavior.

Under this approach, we study how the brain is organized and how the different areas are

described to understand research involving functional neuroimaging.

The cerebral cortex comprises four primary lobes in each brain hemisphere: frontal,

parietal, temporal, and occipital. These lobes are demarcated by various sulci (grooves) and

fissures, such as the central sulcus, lateral fissure, parietooccipital sulcus, and pre-occipital

notch. These divisions correspond to distinct gyri (ridges) within the cerebral cortex.
 10

Researchers use various terms to describe accurately the brain area(s) activated during

task performance:

Dorsal (or superior). towards the top

Ventral (or inferior). towards the bottom

Anterior (or rostral). towards the front

Posterior. towards the back

Lateral. situated at the side

Medial. situated in the middle.

Techniques for studying brain activity

Single-Unit Recording. This method, also called single-cell recording, involves inserting

a micro-electrode into the brain to study single neuron activity with high sensitivity.

Event-Related Potentials (ERPs). Repeated stimuli elicit electrical brain activity

recorded by scalp electrodes, producing a waveform that precisely determines the timing of

cognitive processes but lacks spatial resolution.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET). It detects positrons emitted from radioactive

substances, offering reasonable spatial resolution but poor temporal resolution, indirectly

measuring neural activity.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI). This technique images blood

oxygenation using MRI machines, providing superior spatial and temporal resolution to PET

while measuring neural activity indirectly.

Event-Related Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (efMRI). Cognitive

processes and brain responses are analyzed independently by separating experiment elements in

time, making it an informative choice.

Magneto-Encephalography (MEG). It measures magnetic fields generated by brain

activity, offering detailed time course information with good spatial resolution.

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS). A coil near the head delivers brief pulses

of current, potentially inhibiting brain processing in the stimulated area, akin to a brief "lesion."

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS). A weak electric current flows

through a brain area, with anodal tDCS enhancing cortical excitability and performance, while

cathodal tDCS decreases excitability and impairs performance.

Cognitive neuroscience has significantly advanced our comprehension of human

cognition by resolving long-standing theoretical disputes that were challenging to address

through purely behavioral studies (Mather et al., 2013. Its primary strength lies in its ability to

provide researchers with a wealth of information, considerably enhancing their understanding of

brain function (Poldrack & Yarkoni, 2016).

The vast and intricate neuroimaging data available to cognitive neuroscientists allows

them to construct theoretical models that can closely emulate the complexities of brain

operations (at least in principle). Cognitive neuroscience has seen the publication of over 10,000
 12

fMRI studies, with numerous meta-analyses utilizing this data to uncover the neural correlates of

specific cognitive tasks (Poldrack & Yarkoni, 2016).

Neuroimaging data can be reanalyzed based on evolving theories. For instance, initial

research on face processing suggested the fusiform face area as the primary site, but a more

accurate understanding involves a network of brain regions (Grill-Spector et al., 2017),

showcasing cognitive neuroscience's self-correcting nature.

Overall, cognitive neuroscience challenges the oversimplified notion of functional

specialization, highlighting the importance of functional integration, where various brain regions

positively correlate within networks.

Key Issues

Overinterpretation of Brain-Behavior Links. Cognitive neuroscientists sometimes

overinterpret findings, making one-to-one connections between cognitive processes and brain

regions. This approach, known as "blobology," relies on reverse inference and can lead to

misconceptions about brain functions.

Limited Use of Cognitive Theories. Cognitive neuroscience has historically focused

more on localizing brain areas associated with processes than testing cognitive theories. While

there has been a growing emphasis on theory testing, this gap remains a limitation.

Challenges in Bridging Psychological Concepts and Brain Activation Patterns.

Connecting psychological processes like "attention" or "planning" to specific brain patterns is

challenging. Brain implementations may not neatly align with our conceptual divisions.
 13

Replication Challenges. Replicating findings in cognitive neuroscience can be difficult,

leading to discrepancies in meta-analyses. Differences often arise from varying criteria for

identifying activated brain areas.

Prevalence of False-Positive Findings. False-positive findings, mistakenly attributing

random brain activity to task relevance, are common due to flexible data analysis methods and

inadequate significance level adjustments.

Limited Causality in Brain-Behavior Associations. Most brain-imaging techniques

establish correlations between brain activation patterns and behavior but do not prove that the

activated brain regions are necessary for task performance.

Little increase in brain activity. Contrary to expectations, cognitive tasks typically

induce only slight increases (less than 5%) in brain activity. Some areas even exhibit decreased

activity, like the default mode network, which complicates data interpretation.

Ecological Validity and Paradigm Specificity. Cognitive neuroscience faces challenges

of ecological validity and paradigm specificity similar to cognitive psychology but may

encounter greater issues. Participants in fMRI studies experience an environment unlike

everyday life, potentially impacting findings.

Beware of "Neuroenchantment". Guard against "neuroenchantment," the exaggeration

of neuroimaging's importance in understanding cognition. Experiments with mock brain scanners

illustrate how perceptions can be skewed, emphasizing the need for a balanced view of

neuroimaging capabilities.
 14

Computational Cognitive Science

Computational modeling involves programming computers to imitate human cognitive

processes, aiming to gain insights into the human mind through computer simulations. These

models typically concentrate on specific aspects of cognition, such as reading aloud, while more

ambitious ones aim to create comprehensive cognitive architectures, essentially computer

programs representing the fixed structure of the mind.

Connectionist models, also known as neural network models, consist of interconnected

networks of simple nodes capable of learning. These models organize nodes into layers,

including input nodes, hidden nodes that process input, and output nodes that produce responses.

On the other hand, production systems employ numerous "IF . . . THEN" production

rules and involve a working memory containing information. The production system operates by

matching the contents of working memory with the "IF" parts of rules and executing the

corresponding "THEN" parts. In cases of conflicting rules, a conflict-resolution strategy selects

one.

Adaptive Control of Thought-Rational (ACT-R)

Anderson and colleagues (2004) introduced ACT-R, a framework further developed in

subsequent work. ACT-R posits that the cognitive system consists of multiple modules,

relatively independent subsystems. It bridges computational cognitive science with cognitive

neuroscience by associating specific brain regions with each module. Notably, four modules hold

particular significance:
 15

Retrieval Module. This module manages retrieval cues required for accessing

information and is believed to be situated in the inferior ventrolateral prefrontal cortex.

Imaginal Module. Responsible for transforming problem representations to aid in

problem-solving, this module is located in the posterior parietal cortex.

Goal Module. It monitors an individual's intentions and regulates information

processing, with its location identified in the anterior cingulate cortex.

Procedural Module. Situated at the head of the caudate nucleus within the basal ganglia,

this module utilizes production rules (IF . . . THEN) to determine the next action to be taken.

Computational cognitive science offers distinct advantages, particularly in constructing

comprehensive cognitive frameworks. This is essential because traditional cognitive psychology

often suffers from limited scope and paradigm-specificity. Computational cognitive science has

broadened its horizons, transitioning from a focus on behavioral data to encompass functional

neuroimaging and EEG data. This expansion is crucial for establishing the credibility of

hypothesized cognitive processes in real-world contexts. Also, creating computational models

demands rigorous thinking, providing intricate task-specific details often lacking in traditional

cognitive psychology theories.

Key Issues

Bonini's Paradox: Understanding vs. Complexity. As the models become more

accurate and comprehensive, they can become as complex and challenging to comprehend as the

phenomena they seek to explain. Conversely, simple and understandable models often lack
 16

accuracy and completeness. To address this, some modelers focus on capturing the essence of

phenomena while simplifying minor details.

Difficulty in Falsification. Many computational models are difficult to falsify due to the

ingenuity of their creators, allowing them to accommodate various behavioral findings.

Addressing this issue requires computational models to not only explain behavioral data but also

provide insights into neuroimaging findings.

Overfitting and Misleading Performance. Some computational models appear more

successful than they truly are due to overfitting, where a model accounts for both noise and

genuine effects in the data.

Neglect of Motivational and Emotional Factors. Many computational models tend to

overlook motivational and emotional factors. Norman (1980) distinguished between the Pure

Cognitive System and the Regulatory System, with computational cognitive science often

emphasizing the former while underestimating the influence of the latter. Addressing this issue

involves developing computational models that depict how emotions modulate cognitive

processes.

Lack of Transparency. Understanding many computational models is challenging due

to various reasons, including the use of diverse programming languages, limited availability of

source code, and the absence of programming guidelines. This lack of transparency hinders

access, verification, exploration, reuse, and further development of models.

Conclusion
 17

In the realm of applied cognitive psychology, where the pursuit of understanding the

intricacies of human cognition takes precedence, it is vital to recognize the unique contributions

of each approach rather than seeking a singular, all-encompassing answer. The landscape of

cognitive research has evolved to embrace the synergy of multiple approaches, recognizing that,

akin to a golfer's toolkit, each method plays a distinct yet indispensable role.

Each approach, while fortified with its strengths, also harbors limitations. To surmount

these constraints, researchers employ converging operations, where a tapestry of diverse research

methods collaborates to address theoretical inquiries. The resonance of findings across multiple

methods amplifies the strength of evidence, underscoring the complexity of cognitive

exploration.

References

Eysenck, M. W., & Keane, M. T. (2015). Cognitive psychology: A student's handbook.

Psychology Press.

Sternberg, R. J., & Sternberg, K. (2018). Cognitive psychology. Cengage Learning.

Anderson, J. R. (2004). Cognitive psychology and its implications. Worth Publishers.