Physics of Applied Science: 23PHI 22A- Module -3: Lasers and Optical fiber

Lasers

The word Laser stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

Interaction of an electromagnetic wave with matter

Three types of interactions, which are possible:

1) Induced absorption/ Stimulated absorption/absorption

2) Spontaneous emission
3) Stimulated emission.
Induced absorption
Consider the system having two energy states E1 and E2, E2 > E1. When a photon of energy h is
incident on an atom at level E1, the atom goes to a higher energy level by absorbing the energy.

When an atom is at ground level (E1), if an electromagnetic wave of suitable frequency  is incident
on the atom, atom absorbs the photon and getting excited to higher level (E2). This phenomenon
is called induced absorption.

Atom + Photon → Atom*

The rate of absorption is proportional to N1U

Where ‘N1’ is the number density of the lower energy state, ‘U’ is the energy density of
incident radiation.

Rate of absorption = B12N1U

Where ‘B12’ is the proportionality constant called Einstein Coefficient of induced absorption.

Dr. Jnaneshwara DM
Associate Prof.
Dept. of physics, SJBIT
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 Physics of Applied Science: 23PHI 22A- Module -3: Lasers and Optical fiber

Spontaneous Emission:
The emission of a photon by the transition of a system from a higher energy state to a lower energy
state without the aid of an external energy is called spontaneous emission. Let ‘E1’ and ‘E2’ be
two energy levels in a material, such that E2>E1. E1 is ground level and E2 is the higher level.
h=E2-E1 is the difference in the energy. The atom at higher level (E2) is more unstable as
compared to that at lower level (E1).

The time taken by the atom to remain in the excited state is normally very short (order of
10-8 s) and it is called life time of the atom. In spontaneous emission atom emits the photon without
the aid of any external energy. It is called spontaneous emission. The process is represented as

Atom* → Atom + Photon

The photons emitted in spontaneous emission may not have same direction and phase similarities.
It is incoherent.

Ex: Glowing electric bulbs, Candle flame etc.

Spontaneous emission depends on N2 which is the number of atoms present in the higher level.

The rate of spontaneous emission = A21N2

Where ‘A21’ is the proportionality constant called Einstein coefficient of spontaneous emission.

Stimulated Emission:
Stimulated emission is the emission of a photon by a system under the influence of a passing
photon of just the right energy due to which the system transits from a higher energy state to a
lower energy state.

Dr. Jnaneshwara DM
Associate Prof.
Dept. of physics, SJBIT
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 Physics of Applied Science: 23PHI 22A- Module -3: Lasers and Optical fiber

The photon thus emitted is called stimulated photon and will have the same phase, energy and
direction of movement as that of the passing photon called the stimulation photon.

Initially the atom is at higher level E2. The incident photon of energy h forces the atom to
get de-excited from higher level E2 to lower level E1. i.e. h=E2–E1 is the change in energy.

The incident photon stimulates the excited atom to emit a photon of exactly the same
energy as that of the incident photons. The emitted two photons have same phase, frequency,
direction and polarization with the incident photon. This kind of action is responsible for lasing
action.

Atom* + Photon → Atom + (Photon + Photon)

The rate of stimulated emission is directly proportional to N2U, where ‘N2’ is the number of atoms
present in the higher energy level and ‘U’ is the energy density.

The rate of stimulated emission = B21N2U, where ‘B21’ is the proportionality constant called
Einstein’s Coefficient of stimulated emission.

Einstein’s A & B Coefficients:-

Consider two energy states E1 and E2 of a system of atoms. Let N1 and N2 be the no of atoms (
no.density population) in the energy states E1 and E2 respectively.

(Let Uν be the energy incident / unit volume). Let a radiations of wavelength in the range
λ and λ + dλ be incident on the system of atoms.

Let be Uν the energy incident / unit volume of the system. Then Uνdλ represents the
energy density of frequency v let us consider.

Dr. Jnaneshwara DM
Associate Prof.
Dept. of physics, SJBIT
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 Physics of Applied Science: 23PHI 22A- Module -3: Lasers and Optical fiber

1. The Case of Induced absorption:

In the case of induced absorption (when) an atom in the ground state. When absorbs a
E2 − E1
radiation of frequency v = then it makes transients the level E2.
h

No.of such absorption per unit time per unit volume is called Rate of absorption.

The rate of absorption = B12N1 Uν.

Where B12 is the proportionality constant called Einstein coefficient of induced absorption.

2. Spontaneous Emission:

An atom in the excited state E2 makes transition to ground state E1 by the emission of
photon of frequency v. No.of such spontaneous emissions per unit time per unit volume is called
Rate of spontaneous emission. Which is proportional to the no. density in the higher energy state
N2.

Rate of spontaneous emission = A21N2 Uν. Where A21 is called Einstein coefficient of
spontaneous emission.

3. Stimulated emission:

When a radiation of frequency v incident on an atom in the state E2. Which stimulate the
atom to make downward translation and causes the emission of stimulated photons. The rate of
stimulated emission  N2.

Rate of stimulated emission = B21UvN2

Where B21 is the constant of proportionality called the Einstein coefficient of stimulated
emission. And N2 is the No, density in the higher energy state E2. At thermal equilibrium.

At thermal equilibrium,

Rate of absorption = (Rate of spontaneous emission + Rate of stimulated emission)

B12N1U = A21N2 + B21N2U

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Associate Prof.
Dept. of physics, SJBIT
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 Physics of Applied Science: 23PHI 22A- Module -3: Lasers and Optical fiber

U (B12N1 - B21N2) = A21N2

A21 N2
U = (B
12 N1 −B21 N2 )

A N2
i.e U= B21 [ B ]
21 ( 12 N1 −N2 )
B21

A 1
= B21 [ B N ] → (1)
21 ( 12 1 ) −1
B21 N2

By Boltzmann’s law,

E2−E1
N2= N1 e−( )
KT = N1 e-h/KT

i.e., N1/N2 = eh/KT

Eqn. (1) becomes

 
  → (2)
A21  1 
U =   h

 
B21 
 
 B12 e  kT 
− 1 
 B 
 21 

By Planck’s law,

 
  → (3)
8h 3
 1 
U =
c3    hkT  
 e −1


 

Comparing equation (2) & (3)

A21 B12
= 8πh3/c3 & =1 i.e. B12 = B21
B21 B21

The probability of induced adsorption is equal to the stimulated emission.

Rename A21 as A and B12 as B

Dr. Jnaneshwara DM
Associate Prof.
Dept. of physics, SJBIT
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 Physics of Applied Science: 23PHI 22A- Module -3: Lasers and Optical fiber

A
Then, we get the required equation Uν =
  h  
B e kT  − 1
 
 

Requisites of LASER

1. Excitation source:

The laser action involves stimulated emissions. Stimulated emissions require a population
inversion. Population inversion is the condition in which the number of atoms in the upper level
far exceeds that in the lower level (i.e., N2 >> N1). For this, atoms must be continuously excited
from ground state to the higher energy state by supplying energy. This excitation process is known
as the pumping of atoms. If the input energy is in the form of light, the pumping is called optical
pumping (in the case of ruby laser). If it is in the form of electrical energy, the pumping is called
electrical pumping (in He-Ne laser, CO2 laser, GaAs laser.,). The external source required to
provide the energy in the appropriate form for the pumping of atoms is known as the excitation
source.

2. Active medium:

A medium which absorbs the energy from an external source and which supports the
population inversion is called an active medium.Active medium consists of atoms/molecules with
suitable energy levels for lasing. Stimulated emission and photon multiplications take place in the
active medium.

In the active medium, stimulated emissions are initiated by a few spontaneously emitted
photons. Each stimulated emission gives rise to two identical photons. These two photons trigger
two excited atoms to undergo stimulated emissions and there will be four identical photons. Thus
the photon multiplication sets in and light is amplified in the active medium.

3. Laser cavity / optical resonant cavity:

An active medium placed between two parallel mirrors forms the laser cavity. One mirror is
completely silvered and other semi-silvered.

Dr. Jnaneshwara DM
Associate Prof.
Dept. of physics, SJBIT
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 Physics of Applied Science: 23PHI 22A- Module -3: Lasers and Optical fiber

The primary function of the laser cavity is to provide feedback of photons into the active
medium so that the stimulated emission sustains (continues). Due to reflection, light travels to and
fro between the mirrors and photon multiplication takes place. Part of the light energy is obtained
as laser beam by transmission through the semi-silvered mirror.

Further, the optical resonator selects and amplifies only those photons which are travelling
along the cavity. Photons travelling in different directions are reflected sideways and are
eliminated. Thus the resonator makes the beam unidirectional.

At a mirror, the incident wave and the reflected wave must superpose /interfere
constructively to form a standing wave. For this, the cavity length must be an integral multiple of
half the wavelength. That is L = m  λ/2 . This condition of constructive interference makes the
beam highly intense.

Conditions for LASER action

1. Metastable state:

In any natural (equilibrium) system, the number of atoms in the ground level is much greater than
that in the higher level (i.e., N1 >> N2 or N1 = 1020 N2, roughly). For lasing, an inverted (non-
equilibrium) condition of the system, called the population inversion (N2 >> N1) must be achieved.
The Population inversion is not possible at an ordinary excited level. The reason is that the average
life time of atom in an ordinary excited state is of the order 10-8 second. The atoms undergo
spontaneous emission without delay. So no accumulation of atoms takes place to achieve
population inversion. On the other hand, if the higher level is a meta-stable state, the life time of
an atom is longer and is of the order of 10-3 second. So, atoms excited to a meta-stable increase in
number leading to a population inversion.

2. Three-level system:

A two-level scheme is not suitable. The reason is that the energy being supplied to pump the atoms
into the upper level has an equal probability of stimulating them back down. So, it is not possible
to pump more than half the atoms into the excited state (at the best, we can achieve N1 = N2). Hence
no population inversion can be achieved with a two level system.
Dr. Jnaneshwara DM
Associate Prof.
Dept. of physics, SJBIT
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 Physics of Applied Science: 23PHI 22A- Module -3: Lasers and Optical fiber

Population inversion can be achieved in a three-level system or four-level system with a

metastable intermediate level.

In a three level system, atoms from the ground /stable state E1 are excited to an
ordinary/unstable excited state E3. Excited atoms from E3 undergo spontaneous (non-radiative)
transitions rapidly to the meta-stable state E2, which is slightly below E3. Atoms are trapped at E2
to give a population inversion with respect to E1. Stimulated emissions take place from E2 to E1.
After the stimulated emissions, atoms reach the ground state E1, and will be available for
absorption of energy and the next cycle of transitions. In each cycle, the stimulated emissions from
E2 to E1 are responsible for the generation of the laser beam. A three-level scheme produces only
a pulsed (discontinuous) beam. To achieve a continuous out put a four-level scheme is essential.

E3

E2

E1

Gallium-Arsenide Laser: Semiconductor laser:

A Semiconductor diode laser is a specially fabricated p-n junction device that emits
coherent light when it is forward biased. In the case of germanium and silicon based diodes, this
energy is released in the form of heat because of recombination of carriers take place through
interaction with the atoms of the crystal. But in the case of GaAs, the energy is released in the
form of photons as the atoms of the crystal are not involved in the release of energy. The
wavelength of the emitted photon depends upon the activation energy of the crystal.

Construction: A schematic diagram of semiconductor laser is as shown in the figure. The diode
is very small size with sides of the order of 1mm. The junction lies in a horizontal plane. The top
and bottom surfaces are metalized and Ohmic contacts are provided for external connection. The

Dr. Jnaneshwara DM
Associate Prof.
Dept. of physics, SJBIT
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 Physics of Applied Science: 23PHI 22A- Module -3: Lasers and Optical fiber

front and rear faces are polished. The polished faces constitute the Fabry-perot resonator. The
other two faces are roughened to prevent lasing action in that direction. The active region consists
of about 1m thickness.

The emitted photon stimulates the recombination of the other carriers.

Cross sectional view of p-n junction diode laser.

Working: The energy band diagram of heavily doped pn-junction is as shown unbiased condition.
At thermal equilibrium, the Fermi level is uniform across the junction. Because of very high doping
on n-side, Fermi level is pushed into the conduction band and electrons occupy the portion of the
conduction band lying below the Fermi level. On P-side, the Fermi level lies within the valence
band and holes occupy the portion of the valence band that lies above the Fermi level. When the
junction is forward biased electrons and holes are injected into the junction region in high
concentrations. At low forward current, the electron-holes recombination results in spontaneous
emission of photons and the junction acts as a LED. As the forward current is increased gradually
and when it reaches a threshold value the carrier concentration in the junction region there will be
large concentrations of electrons within the band. As a result condition of population inversion is
attained in the narrow region. This narrow zone in which polulation inversion occurs is called as
an active region, at that stage a photon emitted spontaneously triggers stimulated emission. This
stimulated electron-hole recombination produces coherent radiation.

Dr. Jnaneshwara DM
Associate Prof.
Dept. of physics, SJBIT
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 Physics of Applied Science: 23PHI 22A- Module -3: Lasers and Optical fiber

Energy level diagram of p-n junction diode laser

(a) Before biasing (b) After biasing.
The stimulated electron-hole recombination causes emission of coherent radiation of very narrow
bandwidth. At room temperature, GaAs laser emits light of wavelength 9000A0 and GaAsP laser
radiates at 6500A0.

Properties of laser:

1. Coherence: The emitted radiation after getting triggered is in phase with the incident
radiation.
Coherence is of two types
a. Temporal or time coherence: In a source like sodium lamp, two waves of slightly
different wavelengths are given out. These waves have slightly different coherence
time (t). A definite phase relationship exists between the two types of waves.
This is known as coherence of the beam.
The coherence length L is determined by the relation
L = c.t
b. Spatial Coherence: A laser beam is said to possess spatial coherence if the phase
difference of the waves crossing the two points on a plane perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of the beam is time independent. Spatial Coherence is also
termed as transverse or lateral coherence.

2. Monochromaticity: The laser beam is highly monochromatic than any other radiations.
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Associate Prof.
Dept. of physics, SJBIT
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 Physics of Applied Science: 23PHI 22A- Module -3: Lasers and Optical fiber

3. Unidirectionality: Laser beam travels in only one direction. It can travel long distance
without spreading.
4. Focusability: A laser beam can be focused to an extremely fine spot.
5. Intensity: The power output of the laser may vary from few milliwatts to few kilowatts.
But this energy is concentrated in a beam of very small cross section. The intensity of laser
beam is approximately given by
2
 10 
I =   P Wm −2

Where p is the power radiated by laser.
In case of He-Ne laser, = 6328x10-10m and P= 10x 10-3W,
the corresponding intensity is
2
 1 
I = −10 
100 10−3 = 2.51011 Wm −2
 6328 10 
To obtain the above intensity from tungsten bulb, the temperature would have to be
raised to 4.6x106K. The normal operating temperature of the bulb is approximately
2000K.
Application of laser:

Laser technology has observed a great advancement over the last few decades. This technology is
used for a wide range of applications including medical sciences, military, industrial
manufacturing, electronics, holography, spectroscopy, astronomy and much more. Military
operations often demand a secure and timely transmission of a massive amount of information
from one place to another.
Laser range finder
To knock down an enemy tank, it is necessary to range it very accurately. Because of its
high intensity and very low divergence even after travelling quite a few kilometres, laser is ideally
suited for this purpose. The laser range finders using neodymium and carbon dioxide lasers have
become a standard item for artillery and tanks. These laser range finders are light weight and have
higher reliability and superior range accuracy as compared to the conventional range finders.
The laser range finder works on the principle of radar. It makes use of the characteristic
properties of the laser beam, namely, monochromaticity, high intensity, coherency, and

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Dept. of physics, SJBIT
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 Physics of Applied Science: 23PHI 22A- Module -3: Lasers and Optical fiber

directionality. A collimated pulse of the laser beam is directed towards a target and the reflected
light from the target is received by an optical system and detected. The time taken by the laser
beam for the to and fro travel from the transmitter to the target is measured. When half of the time
thus recorded is multiplied by the velocity of light, the product gives the range, i.e., the distance
of the target.
A typical laser range finder can be functionally divided into four parts: (i) Transmitter
(ii) Receiver
(iii) Display and readout
(iv) Sighting telescope.

An earlier version of a laser range finder is schematically shown in Fig.. The transmitter
uses a Q-switched Nd:YAG laser which sends out single, collimated and short pulse of laser
radiation to the target. A scattering wire grid directs a small sample of light from the transmitter
pulse on to the photodetector, which after amplification is fed to the counter. This sample of light
starts the counter. The reflected pulse, received by the telescope, is passed through an interference
filter to eliminate any extraneous radiation. It is then focused on to another photodetector. The
resulting signal is then fed to the counter. A digital system converts the time interval into distance.
The range, thus determined by the counter, is displayed in the readout. The lighting telescope
permits the operator to read the range while looking at the target
Special circuits have been used to eliminate Spurious signals with the help of range gating and to
make the use of laser range finder Possible under all weather conditions for which the targets can
be seen visually through the sighting telescope. The modern versions of the laser range finders Use
either high repetition pulsed Nd:YAG laser or carbon dioxide laser with range gating system.
In ranging a target about 10 km away using these systems, an accuracy within 5 m is easily
obtained. The laser range finders of medium range (up to 10 km) are used in several Defence areas,
including
Dr. Jnaneshwara DM
Associate Prof.
Dept. of physics, SJBIT
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 Physics of Applied Science: 23PHI 22A- Module -3: Lasers and Optical fiber

• Tank laser range finder for artillery, an armoured vehicle, or a truck.

• Portable laser range finders, used in the field artillery fire control systems.
• The laser walkie-talkie range finder, a compact small instrument, weighing less than 4
kg, useful to range objects at distances less than 5 km. This range finder uses the
semiconductor diode laser In emitting short duration pulses. With this, it is possible to
which transmit and receive audio/visual communications, or pinpoint targets with a hand-
held laser, even from unsteady environment in a helicopter or on a ship being tossed around
by the rolling seas. There are no separate tripods, unwieldly power packs, or other external
accessories. It gives an immediate readout of distance and elevation right on the instrument.
Optical Fibers

Total Internal Reflection:

When a ray of light travels from denser to rarer medium it bends away from the normal.
As the angle of incidence increases in the denser medium, the angle of refraction also increases.
For a particular angle of incidence called the “critical angle”, the refracted ray grazes the surface
separating the media or the angle of refraction is equal to 90°. If the angle of incidence is greater
than the critical angle, the light ray is reflected back to the same medium. This is called “Total
Internal Reflection”.
In total internal reflection, there is no loss of energy. The entire incident ray is reflected
back.
XX1 is the surface separating medium of refractive index n1 and medium of refractive index
n2, n1 > n2.
AO and OA1 are incident and refracted rays. θ1 and θ2 are angle of incidence and angle of
refraction, θ2 > θ1. For the ray BO, θc is the critical angle. OB1 is the refracted ray which grazes
the interface. The ray CO incident with an angle greater than θc is totally reflected back along OC1.

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Associate Prof.
Dept. of physics, SJBIT
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 Physics of Applied Science: 23PHI 22A- Module -3: Lasers and Optical fiber

From Snell’s law,

n1sinθ1 = n2sinθ2

For total internal reflection,

θ1=θc and θ2=90°

n1sinθc = n2 (because sin90°=1)

θc = sin-¹(n2/n1)

In total internal reflection there is no loss or absorption of light energy.

The entire energy is returned along the reflected light. Thus is called Total internal reflection.

Optical Fibers:

They are used in optical communication. It works on the principle of Total internal
reflection (TIR).

Optical fiber is made from transparent dielectrics. It is cylindrical in shape. The inner
cylindrical part is called as core of refractive index n1. The outer part is called as cladding of
refractive index n2, n1>n2. There is continuity between core and cladding. Cladding is enclosed
inside a polyurethane jacket. Number of such fibers is grouped to form a cable.

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 Physics of Applied Science: 23PHI 22A- Module -3: Lasers and Optical fiber

The light entering through one end of core strikes the interface of the core and cladding
with angle greater than the critical angle and undergoes total internal reflection. After series of
such total internal reflection, it emerges out of the core. Thus the optical fiber works as a
waveguide. Care must be taken to avoid very sharp bends in the fiber because at sharp bends, the
light ray fails to undergo total internal reflection.

Angle of Acceptance and Numerical Aperture:

Consider a light ray AO incident at an angle ‘θ0’ enters into the fiber. Let ‘θ1’ be the angle
of refraction for the ray OB. The refracted ray OB incident at a critical angle (90˚- θ1) at B grazes
the interface between core and cladding along BC. If the angle of incidence is greater than critical
angle, it undergoes total internal reflection. Thus θ0 is called the waveguide acceptance angle and
sinθ0 is called the numerical aperture.

Let n0, n1 and n2 be the refractive indices of the medium, core and cladding respectively.

From Snell’s law,

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Associate Prof.
Dept. of physics, SJBIT
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 Physics of Applied Science: 23PHI 22A- Module -3: Lasers and Optical fiber

nosinθ0 = n1sinθ1 → (1)

At B the angle of incidence is (90 - θ1)

From Snell’s law,

n1sin(90-θ1) = n2sin90

n1cosθ1 = n2

cosθ1 = n2 / n1 → (2)

From eqn (1)

n1
Sin 0 = sin 1
n0

𝑛1
= √1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃1 → (3)
𝑛𝑜

Using eqn (2) in (3)

n1 n22
Sin 0 = 1− 2
n0 n1

√𝑛12 −𝑛22
= → (4)
𝑛𝑜

The surrounding medium is air, no = 1

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Associate Prof.
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 Physics of Applied Science: 23PHI 22A- Module -3: Lasers and Optical fiber

Sin 0 = n12 − n22

Where sinθi is called numerical aperture.

N.A= √𝑛12 − 𝑛22

Therefore for any angle of incidence equal to θi equal to or less than θ0, the incident ray is able to
propagate.

θi < θ0

Sini  Sin0

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖 < √𝑛12 − 𝑛22

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖 < 𝑁. 𝐴 is the condition for propagation.

Fractional Index Change:

“It is the ratio of the refractive index difference between the core and cladding to the
refractive index of the core of an optical fiber”.

n1 − n2
Δ=
n1

Relation between N.A and Δ:

𝑛1 −𝑛2
Consider Δ = 𝑛1

n1 − n2 = n1

We have

N.A = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 = √(𝑛1 + 𝑛2 )(𝑛1 − 𝑛2 )

Considering n1≈n2

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 Physics of Applied Science: 23PHI 22A- Module -3: Lasers and Optical fiber

= √(𝑛1 + 𝑛2 )𝛥𝑛1

𝑁. 𝐴 = √2𝑛12 𝛥

𝑁. 𝐴 = 𝑛1 √2𝛥

Increase in the value of Δ increases N.A

It enhances the light gathering capacity of the fiber. Δ value cannot be increased very much because
it leads to intermodal dispersion intern signal distortion.

V-number:

The number of modes supported for propagation in the fiber is determined by a parameter
called V-number.

If the surrounding medium is air, then

𝜋𝑑
V= √𝑛12 − 𝑛22
𝜆

Where ‘d’ is the core diameter, n1 and n2 are refractive indices of core and cladding
respectively, ‘λ’ is the wavelength of light propagating in the fiber.

𝜋𝑑
V= (𝑁𝐴)
𝜆

If the fiber is surrounded by a medium of refractive index n0, then,

2 2
𝜋𝑑 √𝑛1 − 𝑛2
V= 𝜆 𝑛0

For V >1, the number of modes supported by the fiber is given by, number of modes ≈ V2/2.

Types of optical fibers:

In an optical fiber the refractive index of cladding is uniform and the refractive index of
core may be uniform or may vary in a particular way such that the refractive index decreases from
the axis, radically.

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Associate Prof.
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 Physics of Applied Science: 23PHI 22A- Module -3: Lasers and Optical fiber

Following are the different types of fibers:

1. Single mode fiber

2. Step index multimode fiber
3. Graded index multimode fiber

Single mode fiber: Refractive index of core and cladding has uniform value; there is an increase
in refractive index from cladding to core. They are used in submarine.

2. Step index multimode fiber: It is similar to single mode fiber but core has large diameter. It
can propagate large number of modes as shown in figure. Laser or LED is used as a source of light.
It has an application in data links.

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 Physics of Applied Science: 23PHI 22A- Module -3: Lasers and Optical fiber

3. Graded index multimode fiber: It is also called GRIN. The refractive index of core decreases
from the axis towards the core cladding interface. The refractive index profile is shown in
figure. The incident rays bends and takes a periodic path along the axis. The rays have different
paths with same period. Laser or LED is used as a source of light. It is the expensive of all. It
is used in telephone trunk between central offices.

Signal attenuation in optical fibers:

Attenuation is the loss of optical power as light travels through a fiber. It is expressed in
decibel/kilometer [db/km]. A fiber with lower attenuation will allow more power to reach its
receiver than a fiber with higher attenuation. If Pin is the input power and Pout is the output power

Dr. Jnaneshwara DM
Associate Prof.
Dept. of physics, SJBIT
20
 Physics of Applied Science: 23PHI 22A- Module -3: Lasers and Optical fiber

after passing through a fiber of length ‘L’, the mean attenuation constant or coefficient ‘α’ of the
fiber, in units of db/km is given by

10 p 
 =− log10  out  dB/km
L  pin 

Attenuation can be caused by three mechanisms.

1. Absorption:- Absorption of photons by impurities like metal ions such as iron, chromium, cobalt
and copper in the silica glass of which the fiber is made of. During signal processing photons
interact with electrons of impurity atoms. The atoms are excited and de-excite by emitting photons
of different characteristics. Hence it is a loss of energy. The other impurity such as hydroxyl ions
(OH) causes significant absorption loss. The absorption of photons by fiber material itself is
called intrinsic absorption.

2. Scattering: When the wavelength of the photon is comparable to the size of the particle then the
scattering takes place. Because of the non uniformity in manufacturing, the refractive index
changes with length leads to a scattering. This type of scattering is called as Rayleigh scattering.
It is inversely proportional to the fourth power of wavelength. Scattering of photons also takes
place due to trapped gas bubbles which are not dissolved at the time of manufacturing.

3.Radiation losses: Radiation losses occur due to macroscopic bends and microscopic bends.

Macroscopic bending: All optical fibers are having critical radius of curvature provided by the
manufacturer. If the fiber is bent below that specification of radius of curvature, the light ray
incident on the core cladding interface will not satisfy the condition of TIR. This causes loss of
optical power.

Microscopic bending: Optical power loss in optical fibers is due to non-uniformity of the optical
fibers when they are laid. Non uniformity is due to manufacturing defects and also lateral pressure
built up on the fiber. The defect due to non uniformity (microbendings) can be overcome by
introducing optical fiber inside a good strengthen polyurethane jacket.

Elements of point to point communication with optical fibers:

Dr. Jnaneshwara DM
Associate Prof.
Dept. of physics, SJBIT
21
 Physics of Applied Science: 23PHI 22A- Module -3: Lasers and Optical fiber

Optical fiber communication is the transmission and reception of information by light propagation
through the optical fiber. It involves deriving optical signal from an electrical signal at the
transmission end and conversion of the optical signal back into electrical signal at the receiver end.
The optical signal propagates through the optical fiber by means of total internal reflection.

The information such as voice gives rise to an electric signal in analog form. The analog
signal is converted into a binary / digital signal using coder (analog to digital converter, ADC).
These electric pulses are converted into the pulses of optical power using a light emitter such as
LED or LASER in the optical transmitter.

At the receiver, a photo detector transforms optical signals into corresponding electrical pulses.
The decoder (digital to analog converter, DAC) transforms the binary signals into the analog
signals which is the same as the original information. The speaker converts analog electrical
signals into sound signals. During propagation of signals through the fiber there will be attenuation
i.e., the signal strength decreases. Also, there will be signal distortion i.e., pulses start overlapping

Dr. Jnaneshwara DM
Associate Prof.
Dept. of physics, SJBIT
22
 Physics of Applied Science: 23PHI 22A- Module -3: Lasers and Optical fiber

in time. Then there is need for repeater. A repeater consists of a receiver, a transmitter, and a mid-
section to reshape / separate and amplify the pulses. The amplified pulses are sent further.

Intensity-based displacement optical sensors

The optical fiber sensors or more efficient to their conventional sensors along with additional
benefits like small size, wide frequency capability and noncontact process. These sensors measure
the displacement by comparing the transmitted light intensity against that of the launch light to
provide information regarding the displacement between the probe and the target. The transmitted
and the reflected light intensities are measured by silicon photodiode. The intensity based sensors
or obtained by beam through or reflective techniques.

The experimental set up consists of

The light source-594 nm He-Ne laser
The chopper- modulate the laser light with frequency of 200 Hz
A sensor probe-( i )Transmitting fiber which carries the modulated light from the laser onto the
mirror
( ii ) receiving fibres which are plastic multimode fibres bundled together running parallel all along.
Flat mirror - Controlled by a piezoelectric motor and driver.

Dr. Jnaneshwara DM
Associate Prof.
Dept. of physics, SJBIT
23
 Physics of Applied Science: 23PHI 22A- Module -3: Lasers and Optical fiber

Silicon detector- Detects the light from the receiving optical fiber
Lock in amplifier- chopper is connected to this to inhibit the interference of any stray light.
Working: The distance between the fiber probe and the mirror is varied in steps of 4 µm, and then
light voltage represented by the optical power is measured against the change in the mirror
displacement stage. The photon energy collected by the detector is converted into voltage. The
detector output is directed to lock- in amplifier to reduce noise and amplify the signal. Then
amplified signal is fed to the personal computer (PC) for further monitoring.
When the distance between the mirror and transmitting fiber is zero, the signal is very less, as the
reflected light cone size is small and do not reach the receiving fibers. With the increase in distance,
the cone size increases, light reflects into receiving fiber and small output voltage is developed.
The output voltage after a certain maximum value starts decreasing, as the intensity decreases with
very large size of the light cone. Thus by my knowing the output voltage it is possible to estimate
the displacement through the graph. These type of sensors are used in oil and gas, civil structures,
transportation, aerospace and process industries.
Advantages of optical communication system:

1) It carries very large amount of information in either digital or analog form due to its large
bandwidth.
2) The materials used for making optical fiber are dielectric nature. So, it doesn’t produces or
receives any electromagnetic and R-F interferences.
3) Fibers are much easier to transport because of their compactness and lightweight.
4) It is easily compatible with electronic system.
5) It can be operated in high temperature range.
6) It does not pick up any conducted noise.
7) Not affected by corrosion and moisture.
8) It does not get affected by nuclear radiations.
9) No sparks are generated because the signal is optical signal.

Limitations of optical communications systems

Dr. Jnaneshwara DM
Associate Prof.
Dept. of physics, SJBIT
24
 Physics of Applied Science: 23PHI 22A- Module -3: Lasers and Optical fiber

1. Splicing is a skilful task, which is not done precisely, the signal loss will be so much that it is
virtually a brake in the communication line.
2. While system modification is made, or because of accidents, a fiber may suffer line break.
Operations are required to re-establish the connections are highly skilful and time consuming.
3. Fiber undergo expansion and contraction with temperature that upset some critical alignments
which lead to loss in signal power.

Dr. Jnaneshwara DM
Associate Prof.
Dept. of physics, SJBIT
25