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READING GUIDE -Structure of DNA 12.1 and 12.2 (pages 338-348)

A. Section 12.1 Identifying the Substance of Genetics (page 338)

1. Fill in the following chart for the important scientists

Scientist Briefly describe experiment Important Contribution

Griffith

Avery

Hershey-Chase

Rosalind Franklin
Found in Section 12.2

Watson and Crick

Found in Section 12.2

2. Define TRANSFORMATION:

3. Define BACTERIOPHAGE:

The Role of DNA (page 342)

4. What are the 3 functions of DNA?

a.

b.

c.

B. Section 12.2The Structure of DNA (page 344)

1. DNA is made up of monomers called , and each

monomer is made up of 3 parts (list them):
 2. What are the 4 nitrogen bases in DNA?
a. c.

b. d.

Analyzing Data: Base Percentages

In 1949, Erwin Chargaff discovered that the relative amounts of A and T, and of C and G are almost always
equal. The table shows a portion of the data that Chargaff collected.

Percentages of Bases in Five Organisms

Source of DNA A T G C
Streptococcus 29.8 31.6 20.5 18.0
Yeast 31.3 32.9 18.7 17.1
Herring 27.8 27.5 22.2 22.6
Human 30.9 29.4 19.9 19.8
E. coli 24.7 23.6 26.0 25.7

1. Which organism has the high percentage of adenine?

2. If a species has 35% adenine in its DNA, what is the percentage of the other 3 bases?

3. What id the fact that A and T, and G and C, occurred in equal amounts suggest about the
relationship among these bases?

3. What are the base pairing rules (or Chargaff’s Rule)?

4. How does the double helix explain Chargaff’s Rule?

5. What does “antiparallel” mean?

6. What is the complimentary DNA strand?

A T T C T C G A G T C A T A A

7. What is the complimentary DNA strand?

A T G G C A T C A
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12.2-12.3 READING GUIDE: DNA Structure & Replication (pages 344-353)

Section 12.2 - The Structure of DNA (page 344-349)

1) DNA is made up of subunits / monomers called , and each of

these is made up of 3 parts (list them):

2) Sketch one nucleotide & label the 3 parts:

3) What are the 4 nitrogenous bases in DNA? (full names, not just first letter)

, , ,

4) What are the base pairing rules (or Chargaff’s Rule)?

Analyzing Data: Base Percentages

In 1949, Erwin Chargaff discovered that the relative amounts of A and T, and of C and G are almost
always equal. The table shows a portion of the data that Chargaff collected.

Percentages of Bases in Five Organisms

Source of DNA A T G C
Streptococcus 29.8 31.6 20.5 18.0
Yeast 31.3 32.9 18.7 17.1
Herring 27.8 27.5 22.2 22.6
Human 30.9 29.4 19.9 19.8
E. coli 24.7 23.6 26.0 25.7

A) Which organism has the high percentage of adenine?

B) If a species has 35% adenine in its DNA, what is the percentage of the other 3 bases?

C) What did the fact that A and T, and G and C, occurred in equal amounts suggest about
the relationship among these bases?

5) What information was obtained from Rosalind Franklin’s x-ray images of DNA?
6) How does the double helix explain Chargaff’s Rule?

7) What does “antiparallel” mean?

8) What kind of chemical bond holds the nitrogenous bases (& therefore the 2 strands of DNA) together?

9) What is the complementary DNA strand?

A T T C T C G A G T C A T A A

Section 12.3 - DNA Replication (p. 350-353)

1) Define REPLICATION:

2) In what stage of the cell cycle does replication occur?

3) Describe the major events of DNA replication.

4) What is the role of DNA polymerase?

5) Define TELOMERE:

6) What is the role of telomerase?

Replication in Living Cells

7) How many times more DNA do eukaryotes have compared to prokaryotes?

8) What are histones?

9) Complete the table below comparing DNA replication in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Location of DNA

Amount of DNA

Starting point(s) for replication

10)The sequence of bases on one strand of a DNA molecule is:

GGCAGTTCATGCCCATTGAAC. What would be the sequence of bases on the
complementary strand?

.
DNA - The Double Helix Name:

The nucleus is a small spherical, dense body in a cell. It is often called the "control center" because it
controls all the activities of the cell including cell reproduction, and heredity. How does it do
this? Chromosomes, found in the nucleus, are microscopic, threadlike strands composed of the chemical
DNA (short for deoxyribonucleic acid). In simple terms, DNA controls the production of proteins within
the cell. These proteins in turn, form the structural units of cells and control all chemical processes within
the cell.
Chromosomes are composed of genes. A gene is a segment of DNA that codes for a particular protein,
which in turn codes for a trait. Hence you hear it commonly referred to as the gene for baldness or the
gene for blue eyes. Meanwhile, DNA is the chemical that genes and chromosomes are made of. It stands
for deoxyribonucleic acid. DNA is called a nucleic acid because it was first found in the nucleus. We now
know that DNA is also found in organelles, the mitochondria and chloroplasts, though it is the DNA in the
nucleus that actually controls the cell's workings.
In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick established the structure of DNA. The structure is a double helix, which is described
as a twisted ladder. The sides of the ladder are made of alternating sugar and phosphate molecules. The sugar is deoxyribose.
Color all the phosphates pink (one is labeled with a "P"). Color all the deoxyriboses (D) blue .
The rungs of the ladder are pairs of 4 types of nitrogen bases. Two of the bases are purines - adenine and guanine. The
pyrimidines are thymine and cytosine. The bases are known by their coded letters A, G, T, C. These bases always bond in a
certain way. Adenine will only bond to thymine. Guanine will only bond with cytosine. This is known as the "Base-Pair Rule".
The bases can occur in any order along a strand of DNA. The order of these bases is the code that contains the instructions.
For instance A T T A T T would code for a different Trait than A G G A G G. A strand of DNA contains millions of bases. Note
that the bases attach to the sides of the ladder at the sugars and not the phosphate.
Color the bases on the DNA:

thymines = orange. adenine = green.

guanine = purple. cytosine = yellow.

The combination of a single base, a deoxyribose sugar, and a phosphate make up a nucleotide. DNA is actually a molecule of
repeating nucleotides. Examine the nucleotides closer. Two of the bases are purines - adenine and guanine. The pyrimidines
are thymine and cytosine. Note that the pyrimidines are single ringed and the purines are double ringed. Color the nucleotides
using the same colors as you colored them in the double helix.
The two sides of the DNA ladder are held together loosely by hydrogen bonds. Color the hydrogen bonds gray.

Messenger RNA
We know the nucleus controls the cell's activities through the chemical DNA, but how? It is the sequence of bases that
determine what protein is to be made. The only problem is that the DNA is too big to go through the nuclear pores. So a
chemical is used to read the DNA in the nucleus. That chemical is messenger RNA. The messenger RNA (mRNA) is small
enough to go through the nuclear pores. It takes the "message" of the DNA to the ribosomes and "tells them" what proteins
are to be made. Recall that proteins are the body's building blocks and are made of individual amino acids joined into a long
chain. Imagine that the code taken to the ribosomes is telling the ribosome what is needed - like a recipe.
Messenger RNA is similar to DNA, except that it is a single strand, and it has no thymine. Instead of thymine, mRNA contains
the base uracil. In addition to that difference, mRNA has the sugar ribose instead of deoxyribose. RNA stands for ribonucleic
acid.
Color the mRNA as you did the DNA.
Color the ribose a darker blue. Color the uracil brown.

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DNA Replication
Each time a new cell is made, the cell must receive an exact copy of the parent cell DNA. The new cells then receive the
instructions and information needed to function. The process of copying DNA is called replication. Replication occurs in a
unique way – instead of copying a complete new strand of DNA, the process “saves” or conserves one of the original strands.
For this reason, replication is called semi-conservative. When the DNA is ready to copy, the molecule “unzips” itself and new
nucleotides are added to each side.
The image showing replication is similar to the DNA and mRNA coloring. Note the nucleotides are shown as 2 parts
the sugar and phosphate (color blue) and one of the four bases identified by shape, color the same as you did on the
other model..

The Blueprint of Life

Every cell in your body has the same "blueprint" or the same DNA. Like the blueprints of a house tell the builders how to construct a
house, the DNA "blueprint" tells the cell how to build the organism. Yet, how can a heart be so different from a brain if all the cells
contain the same instructions? Although much work remains in genetics, it has become apparent that a cell has the ability to turn
off most genes and only work with the genes necessary to do a job.
To build the body, the code carried on messenger RNA travels to the ribosomes where three bases within the code (called a codon)
specify a single amino acid. A long mRNA chain could contain thousands of these amino acids. When linked together, the amino
acids form proteins, which make up many structures in the body.
In this section, color the bases and RNA chain the same as you did previously. Color the amino acids red.

1. Why is the nucleus called the "control center" of the cell?

2. What is a gene?
3. Where in the cell are chromosomes located?
4. DNA can be found in what organelles?
5. What two scientists established the structure of DNA?
6. Replication is called “semi-conservative” because half of the original strand is
7. What are the sides of the DNA ladder made of?
8. What three parts make up a single nucleotide:
9. What are the 4 bases that make up the rungs of the DNA ladder?
10. What sugar is found in DNA? In RNA?
11. How do the bases bond together? A bonds with G bonds with
12. Why is RNA necessary to act as a messenger?
13. Proteins are made where in the cell?
14. How is RNA different from DNA? (list 3 things)
15. The process of copying DNA is called
16. What is the shape of DNA?
17. Proteins are made from what subunits?
18. What base is found in mRNA, but not DNA?

19. How do some cells become brain cells and others become skin cells, when the DNA in ALL the cells
is exactly the same and has the same instructions?

20. Why is DNA called the "Blueprint of Life"?

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DNA REPLICATION

DNA: The Blueprint of Life

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