MODULE 3

HUMAN REPRODUCTION

V Sem Open course

CONTENTS
MODULE 3. Human Reproduction
• Male reproductive system: Structure of testis, male accessory organs;
Semen production and composition; ejaculation. Spermatogenesis, Male
Sex hormones

• Female reproductive system: Structure of human ovary; development of

primary follicle; structure of graafian follicle; fallopian tubes; uterus;
external genitalia; mammary glands. Oogenesis. Female Sex hormones
• Menstrual cycle and hormonal control; brief account of fertilization,
implantation, pregnancy, gestation, placenta, parturition and lactation (Brief
account on hormonal control of lactation).
 INTRODUCTION 3

• Reproductive system ensures the

continuation of species.
• Gonads are the primary reproductive
organs which produce the gametes (egg
or ovum); a pair of testes (singular =
testis) produces sperms in males anda
pair of ovaries produces ovum in
females.

Dr. Habeebrehman H, Department of

Zoology Farook College Kozhikode
 MALE
REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
 5

In humans and most of the higher animals,

reproduction occurs sexually, i.e. by mating.

Reproductive organs include:

1. Primary sex organs
2. Accessory sex organs.

Dr. Habeebrehman H, Department of

Zoology Farook College Kozhikode
 6

Primary Sex Organs

• Testes are the primary sex organs
or gonads in males.
Accessory Sex Organs
• Accessory sex organs in males are:
• 1. Seminal vesicles
• 2. Prostate gland
• 3. Urethra
• 4. Penis.

Dr. Habeebrehman H, Department of

Zoology Farook College Kozhikode
 7

Dr. Habeebrehman H, Department of

Zoology Farook College Kozhikode
 8

TESTES

Testes are the primary sex organs or gonads in males.

There are two testes in almost all the species.
In human beings, both the testes are ovoid or walnut-
shaped bodies that are located and suspended in a sac-
like structure called scrotum.
 9

Rete Testis
Rete testis is a network of thin-walled channels
present in mediastinum. All the seminiferous
tubules open into the rete testis.
 10

Vas Efferens
From rete testis, 8 to 15 tubules called vas efferens
arise. Vas efferens join together and form the head
of epididymis and then converge to form the duct of
epididymis
 11

Epididymis
Duct of epididymis is an enormously
convoluted tubule,
with a length of about 4 meter. It begins at
head, where
it receives vas efferens.
 12

Vas Deferens
At the caudal pole of testis, epididymis
turns sharply
upon itself and continues as vas deferens,
without any
definite demarcation.
 13

Interstitial Cells of Leydig

Interstitial cells of Leydig are the
hormone secreting cells
of testis, lying in between the
seminiferous tubules..
 14

SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES
Seminiferous tubules are thread-like convoluted tubular
structures which produce the spermatozoa or sperms.
There are about 400 to 600 seminiferous tubules in
each
testis. Each tubule is 30 to 70 cm long with a diameter
of 150 to 300 μ.
 15

PATHWAY FOR THE PASSAGE OF

SPERMS
 16

Spermatogenic Cells
Spermatogenic cells or germ cells present in seminiferous
tubules are precursor cells of spermatozoa. These
cells lie in between Sertoli cells and are arranged in an
orderly manner in 4 to 8 layers.
In children, the testis is not fully developed.
Therefore,
the spermatogenic cells are in primitive stage called
spermatogonia. With the onset of puberty, spermatogonia
develop into sperms through different stages.
 17

Stages of spermatogenic cells

Different stages of spermatogenic cells seen
from
periphery to the lumen of seminiferous tubules
are:
1. Spermatogonium
2. Primary spermatocyte
3. Secondary spermatocyte
4. Spermatid.
 18

Sertoli Cells
Sertoli cells are the supporting cells for spermatogenic
cells in seminiferous tubules. These cells are also called
sustentacular cells or nurse cells.
Sertoli cells are the large and tall irregular columnar
cells, extending from basement membrane to lumen
of the seminiferous tubule.
Germ cells present in seminiferous tubule are attached to Sertoli cells by
means of cytoplasmic connection.
This attachment between germ cells and Sertoli cells exists till the
matured spermatozoa are released into the lumen of seminiferous tubules.
 19

Functions of Sertoli cells

Sertoli cells provide support, protection and nourishment
for the spermatogenic cells present in seminiferous
tubules.
 20

FUNCTIONS OF TESTES
Testes performs two functions:
1. Gametogenic function: Spermatogenesis
2. Endocrine function: Secretion of hormones.
 21

GAMETOGENIC FUNCTIONS
OF TESTES – SPERMATOGENESIS
Spermatogenesis is the process by which the male
gametes called spermatozoa (sperms) are formed
from
the primitive spermatogenic cells (spermatogonia) in
the testis ,
It takes 74 days for the formation
of sperm from a primitive germ cell..
 22

STAGES OF
SPERMATOGENESIS
Spermatogenesis occurs
in four stages:
1. Stage of proliferation
2. Stage of growth
3. Stage of maturation
4. Stage of
transformation.
1. Stage of Proliferation 23

Each spermatogonium contains diploid number (23

pairs) of chromosomes.
One member of each pair is
from maternal origin and the other one from paternal
origin. The 23 pairs include 22 pairs of autosomal
chromo somes and one pair of sex chromosomes.
Sex chromosomes are one X chromosome and one Y
chromosome.
During the proliferative stage, spermatogonia
divide by mitosis, without any change in chromosomal
number.
In man, there are usually seven generations of
spermatogonia. The last generation enters the stage of
growth as primary spermatocyte.
During this stage, the spermatogonia migrate along
with Sertoli cells towards the lumen of seminiferous
tubule.
 24

2. Stage of Growth
In this stage, the primary spermatocyte
grows into a
large cell. Apart from growth, there is no
other change
in spermatocyte during this stage
3. Stage of Maturation 25
After reaching the full size, each primary spermatocyte
quickly undergoes meiotic or maturation division, which
occurs in two phases:
First phase
In the first phase, each primary spermatocyte divides
into two secondary spermatocytes. The significance
of the first meiotic division is that each secondary
spermatocyte receives only the haploid or half the
number of chromosomes. 23 chromosomes include 22
autosomes and a X or a Y chromosome.
Second phase
During this phase, each secondary spermatocyte undergoes
second meiotic division, resulting in two smaller
cells called spermatids. Each spermatid has haploid
3. Stage of Maturation 26
After reaching the full size, each primary spermatocyte
quickly undergoes meiotic or maturation division, which
occurs in two phases:
First phase
In the first phase, each primary spermatocyte divides
into two secondary spermatocytes. The significance
of the first meiotic division is that each secondary
spermatocyte receives only the haploid or half the
number of chromosomes. 23 chromosomes include 22
autosomes and a X or a Y chromosome.
Second phase
During this phase, each secondary spermatocyte undergoes
second meiotic division, resulting in two smaller
cells called spermatids. Each spermatid has haploid
 27

Stage of Transformation
There is no further division. Spermatids are
transformed into matured spermatozoa
(sperms), by means of spermeogenesis and
released by spermination.
 28

Spermeogenesis
Spermeogenesis is the process by which
spermatids become matured spermatozoa.
Changes taking place during spermeogenesis:
i. Condensation of nuclear material
ii. Formation of acrosome, mitochondrial spiral
filament and tail structures
iii. Removal of extraneous (extra volume of
nonessential) cytoplasm.
 29

Spermination
Spermination is the process by
which the matured sperms are
released from Sertoli cells into
the lumen of seminiferous
tubules.
 30

QUALITIES OF SEMEN REQUIRED

FOR FERTILITY

Minimum required qualities of semen for fertility are:

1. Volume of semen per ejaculation must be at least
2 mL
2. Sperm count must be at least 20 million/mL
3. Number of sperms in each ejaculation must be at
least 40 million
4. 75% of sperms per ejaculation must be alive
5. 50% of sperms must be motile
6. 30% of sperms must have normal shape and
structure
7. Sperms with head defect must be less than 35%
8. Sperms with midpiece defect must be less than 20%
9. Sperms with tail defect must be less than 20%.
Ejaculation 31

Semen is a white or grey fluid that contains

sperms. It
is the collection of fluids from testes, seminal
vesicles,
prostate gland and bulbourethral glands. Semen
is discharged during sexual act and the process of
discharge of semen is called ejaculation.
Testes contribute sperms.
Prostate secretion
gives milky appearance to the semen. Secretions
from
seminal vesicles and bulbourethral glands provide
mucoid consistency to semen.
 32

Semen is a thick, whitish-gray fluid produced by

the male reproductive system.
It plays a crucial role in human reproduction as it
contains spermatozoa (sperm cells) that are
necessary for fertilizing a female egg. Semen is
typically ejaculated from the penis during sexual
intercourse, and
its main functions are to nourish, protect, and
transport sperm during their journey into the
female reproductive tract.
33
 34

Composition of Semen:
1. Spermatozoa: These are the male reproductive cells responsible for fertilizing the
female egg.

2. Seminal Plasma: Seminal plasma is the liquid portion of semen, which provides a
medium for sperm transport. It consists of water, electrolytes, enzymes, vitamins,
hormones, and various proteins.

3. Enzymes: Semen contains enzymes like prostate-specific antigen (PSA) that help
liquefy the semen after ejaculation and enable sperm to swim freely.

4. Fructose: This sugar provides an energy source for sperm, aiding their motility and
endurance.

5. Alkaline pH: Semen has a slightly alkaline pH, which helps neutralize the acidic
 35

Production of Semen:
Semen is produced primarily in the testes
through a process called spermatogenesis.
Spermatogenesis involves the development
and maturation of sperm cells. These sperm
cells are then stored in the epididymis until
they are ready to be ejaculated.
 36

Ejaculation is the process by which semen is

forcefully expelled from the male
reproductive system. It is a physiological
response that typically occurs during sexual
arousal and culminates in the release of
semen from the penis.
 37

Triggered by Sexual Arousal:

Ejaculation is typically triggered by sexual

arousal and stimulation. It can occur during
sexual intercourse, masturbation, or other
forms of sexual activity.
 38

Physiological Response:

During sexual arousal, various physiological

changes occur in the male body, including
increased blood flow to the genital area,
increased heart rate, and heightened sexual
tension. These changes build up to the point
of climax.
 39

Climax:
Ejaculation is often associated with the
climax or orgasm, which is a pleasurable and
intense sensation of release. Orgasm and
ejaculation are closely linked but not
necessarily the same thing. Some men can
experience orgasm without ejaculation, and
vice versa.
 40

Semen Expulsion:

At the moment of ejaculation, the muscles at

the base of the penis contract rhythmically,
propelling semen from the reproductive
organs into the urethra.
 41

Refractory Period:
After ejaculation, most men experience a
refractory period during which they are
unable to achieve another erection or
orgasm. The duration of this period varies
among individuals and can become longer
with age..
 42

Reproductive Function: The primary

function of ejaculation is to facilitate
reproduction

Pleasure and Emotional Satisfaction

Variability: The timing and control of

ejaculation can vary among individuals.
 43

MALE SEX HORMONES

Male sex hormones, also known as androgens,
play a crucial role in the development and
maintenance of male sexual characteristics and
overall health. The primary male sex hormone is
testosterone, although there are other
androgens with important functions as well.
 44

MALE SEX HORMONES

Testosterone:

Production: Testosterone is primarily produced

in the Leydig cells of the testes. A small amount
is also produced by the adrenal glands.
 45

MALE SEX HORMONES

Testosterone:
Roles:
Development of Male Sexual Characteristics:
Testosterone is responsible for the development of primary and
secondary male sexual characteristics, including the growth of facial
and body hair, deepening of the voice, and increased muscle mass.
Spermatogenesis: Testosterone is essential for the production of sperm
(spermatogenesis).
Libido: It plays a role in sexual desire (libido) and sexual function.
 46

MALE SEX HORMONES

Testosterone:
Roles:
Bone Density: Testosterone helps maintain bone density and strength.
Muscle Mass and Strength: It contributes to muscle mass and
strength.
Mood and Well-being: Testosterone can influence mood and overall
sense of well-being.
 47

MALE SEX HORMONES

Dihydrotestosterone (DHT):

Formation: DHT is derived from testosterone through the action of

the enzyme 5-alpha-reductase.
Roles:
It is more potent than testosterone and is responsible for the
development of male external genitalia during fetal development.
DHT is involved in the growth of facial and body hair, as well as the
enlargement of the prostate gland.
 48

MALE SEX HORMONES

Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA):

Production: DHEA is produced in the adrenal glands and, to a lesser

extent, in the testes.
Roles:
DHEA serves as a precursor for both testosterone and estrogen,
contributing to overall hormonal balance.
It plays a role in the development of pubic and axillary (underarm)
hair during puberty.
 49

MALE SEX HORMONES

Androstenedione:

Production: Androstenedione is produced in the adrenal glands and

gonads.
Roles:
It is a precursor to both testosterone and estrogen.
It has a less significant role than testosterone in male sexual
development.
 50

MALE SEX HORMONES

Sex Hormone-Binding Globulin (SHBG):

Function: SHBG is a protein produced by the liver that binds to sex

hormones in the bloodstream.
Role: It regulates the availability of free testosterone, as only unbound
(free) testosterone is biologically active.
 51

MALE SEX HORMONES

The balance and regulation of these male sex hormones are crucial for
maintaining normal male reproductive and sexual function, as well as
overall health.
Hormone imbalances can lead to various health issues, such as
hypogonadism (low testosterone), which may require medical
intervention.
Testosterone replacement therapy is sometimes used to address
hormonal deficiencies in men when necessary, under medical
supervision.
 52

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

• Female reproductive system: Structure of human
ovary;
• development of primary follicle;
• structure of graafian follicle; fallopian tubes; uterus;
external genitalia;
• mammary glands.
• Oogenesis.
• Female Sex hormones
 53

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Female reproductive system
comprises of primary sex organs
and accessory sex organs
PRIMARY SEX ORGANS
Primary sex organs are a pair of
ovaries, which produce
eggs or ova and secrete female sex
hormones, the
estrogen and progesterone External genitalia: Labia majora, labia minora and
clitoris.
Mammary glands are not the female genital organs
Accessory sex organs in females are: but are the important glands of female reproductive
1. A system of genital ducts: Fallopian tubes, system.
uterus, cervix and vagina
 UTERUS 54

Uterus is otherwise known as womb. It lies in the pelvic cavity, in

between the rectum and urinary bladder.
Uterus is a hollow muscular organ with a thick wall. It has a central
cavity, which opens into vagina through cervix. On either side at its
upper part, the fallopian
 UTERUS 55

On either side at its upper part, the

fallopian tubes open. Uterus
communicates with peritoneal
cavity through fallopian tubes.
Virgin uterus is pyriform in shape
and is flattened anteroposteriorly.
It measures about 7.5 cm in length,
5 cm in breadth at its upper part and
about 2.5 cm in thickness.
There is a constriction almost at the
middle of uterus called isthmus.
 UTERUS 56

Divisions of uterus
Uterus is divided into three portions:
1. Fundus (above the entrance points
of fallopian tubes)
2. Body (between fundus and
isthmus)
3. Cervix (below isthmus)..
 UTERUS 57

Structure of uterus
Uterus is made up of three layers:
1. Serous or outer layer
2. Myometrium or middle muscular
layer
3. Endometrium or inner mucus
layer
 UTERUS 58

Changes in uterus
Uterus changes its size, structure and
function in different phases of sexual life.
Just before menstruation, uterus is
enlarged, becomes more vascular. The
endometrium thickens with more blood
supply.
This layer is desquamated during
menstruation and reformed after
menstrual period.
During pregnancy, uterus is enlarged very
much with increase in weight. After
parturition (delivery), it comes back to its
original size but the cavity remains larger.
In old age, uterus is atrophied
 UTERUS- CERVIX 59

Cervix is the lower constricted part

of uterus. It is divided
into two portions:
1. Upper supravaginal portion,
which communicates with body of
uterus through internal os (orifice)
of cervix. Mucus membrane of this
portion has glandular follicles,
which secrete mucus.
2. Lower vaginal portion, which projects into the
anterior wall of the vagina and it communicates with
vagina through external os (orifice) of cervix. Mucus
membrane of this portion is formed by stratified
epithelial cells.
 UTERUS- CERVIX 60

Vagina
Vagina is a short tubular organ. It is
lined by mucus
membrane, which is formed by
stratified epithelial cells.

2. Lower vaginal portion, which projects into the

anterior wall of the vagina and it communicates with
vagina through external os (orifice) of cervix. Mucus
membrane of this portion is formed by stratified
epithelial cells.
 Dr. Habeebrehman H, Department of
61
Zoology Farook College Kozhikode

SEXUAL LIFE IN FEMALES

Lifespan of a female is divided into three periods. SECOND PERIOD
„FIRST PERIOD Second period extends from onset of puberty to the
First period extends from birth to puberty. onset of menopause. First menstrual cycle is known as
During this menarche. Permanent stoppage of the menstrual cycle
in old age is called menopause, which occurs at the
period, primary and accessory sex organs do not
age of about 45 to 50 years. During the period between
function. These organs remain quiescent. Puberty menarche and menopause, women menstruate and
occurs at the age of 12 to 15 years. reproduce.

THIRD PERIOD
Third period extends after menopause to the rest of
the
life.
MAMMARY GLANDS
 Paired, Glandular tissue, variable
amount fats
 Glandular tissue – divided into
15-20 mammary lobes
containing cluster of cells –
alveoli
 Alveoli secrete milk- stored in
lumen (alveoli)
 Alveoli opens mammary tubules
 Tubules of each lobe join –
mammary duct
 Many ducts join to form
mammary ampulla- which is
connected lactiferous duct,
through which milk sucked out
OOGENESIS
THE PROCESS OF FORMATION OF HAPLOID OVUM FROM DIPLOID
OOGONIA CELLS IN THE OVARY IS CALLED OOGENESIS.THIS
BEGINS AT BEGINS AT EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT.

• Gamete mother cell (2n)

Oogonia • At birth many million in fetal ovary

• Propahse –I of meiotic division.

Primary • Temporary arrested in this stage
oocyte

• Primary oocyte+ granulosa cells

Primary • May follicles degenerate from birth to
follicle puberty
• 60,000 to 80,000 in each ovary (puberty)

Secondary
• Primary follicles surrounded by more granulosa cells &
follicles theca
 • Secondary follicles – fluid filled cavity – antrum
• Theca layer – theca interna (vascular) & theca
externa(fibrous)
• T. interna- 10-15 layers follicle cells (membrane granulosa)
Tertiary • Primary Oocyte (2n) within follicle- size increases & first
meiotic division – unequal large haploid secondary oocyte+
follicles 1st polar body

• Retain nutrient rich cytoplasm of primary oocyte

• Tertiary follicles into Graffian follicle
• Secondary oocyte (ovum)- zona pellucida (membrane)
Secondary • Graffian follicle ruptures & releases ovum
oocyte
DEVELOPMENT OF FOLLICLES
DIAGRAM OF A MATURE FOLLICLE
 OOGENESIS.
 The process of formation of haploid
female gamete ovum in the follicles of
ovary is called oogenesis.
 Oogenesis starts during embryonic
stage.
 Germinal epithelium of ovary divides
mitotically to produce millions of
gamete mother cell or oogonia.
 No oogonia formed or added after
birth.
 Oogonia enters into meiosis-I. It
proceeds Prophase-I , get suspended
and forms primary Oocytes.
 during puberty, the primary oocyte
restarts its first meiotic division.
 Oogenesis takes place by three stages
as follows.
1. Multiplicative Phase
2. Growth phase
3. Maturation phase

1. Multiplication phase:
o Certain primary germ cells (large size &
nuclei) of germinal epithelium lining
ovary, undergo rapid mitotic division.
o It result in formation of group of diploid
egg mother cell, oogonia.
o Each group of cells forms a rounded
mass called egg nest.
2. Growth phase:
o Long duration (12- 13 years)
o One of the diploid oogonia undergoes growth
increasing in cytoplasm and accumulation of yolk &
transform to enlarged oogonia called primary oocyte
(2n)
o Other oogonia form single layered follicular
epithelium- P.follicle
o P.follicle surrounded by more granulosal cell-
Sec. follicle
o Sec. follicle- fluid filled antral cavity-
Antrium-Ter.Follicle
o Ter. Follicle- Graffian follicle
3. Maturation phase:
o A fully-grown primary oocyte (2n)
undergoes I meiotic division results
in the formation of two unequal
sized haploid cells.
o The large secondary oocyte (n) and
a small polocyte (polar body).
o The secondary oocyte undergoes
II meiotic division to form a large
ootid/ ovum and a small 2nd polar
body.
o Sec. oocyte forms new membrane-
Zona pellucida- Graffian follicle
o The 1st polar body also undergoes
equal division to produce two cells.
• Thus during oogenesis four cells are produced. Among
them one is functional ootid and three are non-functional
polar bodies.The ootid with very little change becomes an
ovum.
 MENSTRUAL CYCLE:

 Reproductive cycle of female primates is called menstrual cycle.

 Menstruation is the term given to the periodic discharge of blood, tissue,
fluid and mucus from the reproductive organs of sexually mature females.
The flow usually lasts from 3 - 6 days each month and is caused by a
sudden reduction in the hormones estrogen and progesterone.
 The menstrual cycle begins when a female reaches the age of
puberty.The first menstruation begins at puberty is called
Menarche.
 During the menstrual cycle the uterus endometrium prepares itself
for implantation of a fertilized egg. If fertilization does not occur the
uterus lining is shed from the body.
 Menstrual cycle repeated at an average interval of 28 days.
 One ovum is released in the middle usually 14th day of each
menstrual cycle.
MENSTRUAL CYCLE HAS
Following phases:
The cycle can be divided into four
phases:

1. Menstrual phase (bleeding

period).

2. Follicular (before the egg is

released).

3. Ovulatory (egg is released)

4. Luteal (after release of the egg).

MENSTRUAL CYCLE
1. Menstrual phase (bleeding
period).
 It is the 1st phase of menstrual cycle
lasts for 3-5 days.

 Breakdown of endometrial lining and

blood vessel occurs. It leads to
bleeding comes out through vagina.

 It occurs only when ovum released and

fertilization does not occurs.
 Lack of menstruation is the indication
of pregnancy.
2. Follicular phase/
Proliferative
phase:
 1- 14 days
 Menstrual phase followed by
follicular phase.
 P.follicle grows- G. follicle &
endometrium regenerates- proliferation
 Gonadotropins (Pituitary)- FSH &
LH, increases & stimulate follicular
development.This in turn increases
estrogen secretion from growing
follicles.
 LH & FSH attains peak in middle
of cycle (14th day)
 Rapid secretion of LH- LH Surge
induces G. follicle to rupture &
release ovum (ovulation)- Corpus
luteum
3. LUTEAL PHASE/SECRETORY
PHASE:

 This phase begins after ovulation.

 Ruptured Graafian follicle transformed into corpus luteum.It produces large
amount of progesterone- essential to maintain & proliferate endometrium
 Endometrium- necessary for implantation of fertilized egg/ ovum & does not
shed during pregnancy
 If fertilization occurs corpus luteum grows further and pregnancy continues.
Menstrual cycle stops up.
 In absence of fertilization, G. follicle transforms to yellow bodied Corpus
luteum
 Progesterone level decreases. C. luteum degenerates to Corpus albican
 Decrease in Progesterone leads to menstruation

 Menstrual cycles ceases at 50 years- Menopause

 Cyclic menstruation is indicator of normal reproductive phase & extends
between menarche & menopause
FERTILIZATION AND IMPLANTATION

 During copulation (coitus) semen is released by the penis into the

vagina is called insemination.
 The motile sperms swim rapidly, pass through the cervix, enter into
the uterus and finally reach the junction of the isthmus and ampulla
(ampullary-isthmic junction) of the fallopian tube

 Fertilisation - if the ovum and sperms are transported

simultaneously to the ampullary isthmic junction.

 The process of fusion of a sperm with an ovum is called

Fertilisation.
• Sperm contacts with zona pellucida of ovum & induces changes in
membrane that blocks entry of other sperm

• Acrosome of sperm secretes lytic enzymes (hyaluronidase) helps in

penetration into the ovum cytoplasm through zona pellucida & plasma
membrane
 Meiotic division of secondary oocyte
after sperm enters plasma membrane
of the ovum.

 Second meiotic division – second

polar body and ovum / ootid

 Nucleus of Ovum + Sperm = Zygote

 Sex of baby decided this stage

FUSION OF SPERM AND OVUM
FERTILIZATION AND PASSAGE OF GROWING

EMBRYO THROUGH FALLOPIAN TUBE

 SEX DETERMINATION:
 Sex of a baby is determined during fertilization and in the zygote.

 Sex is determined by the sex-chromosomes present in zygote.

 Human contain 2 sets of chromosome- autosome & sex chromosome.

 Sex chromosome present in human female is XX and male XY.

 All the female gametes (ova) produced has 22 autosome and only‘X’
chromosome.

 Sperms produced by male, 50% has 22 autosome with ‘X’ and 50 % has
22 autosome with ‘Y’ chromosome.
 The fusion of sperm withY chromosome with ovum (X) results in male
baby- XY & fusion of sperm with X chromosome with ovum (X) results in
female baby.(XX).

 Zygote carrying XX chromosomes develop into female and with XY

chromosome develops into male.
 CLEAVAGE
 Zygote from isthmus (oviduct) to uterus– mitotic division, first cleavage
in first 36 hrs
 2,4,8,16 daughter cells- blastomeres
 Embryo with 8 – 16 blastomeres – Morula
 Morula – division continues – hollow ball called Blastocyst.
 The blastomeres in blastocyst arranged into two layers. An outer
layer called trophoblast and an inner cells called inner cell mass.
 Trophoblast cells attaches to the endometrium. It helps in
implantation and development of placenta.
 Inner cell mass gets differentiated into the embryo.
 The complete attachment of Blastocyst to the uterine
endometrium is called implantation.
Development of Embryo
 PREGNANCY AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
 Chorionic villi – finger like projections on trophoblast
 Villi surrounded by maternal blood, uterine tissues
 Villi & uterine tissue- interdigitated – structural & functional unit
between foetus (embryo) & maternal body- Placenta
 Inner cell mass – ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm - different organs

Function of Placenta:
1. Helps in nutrition of the embryo & transports nutrients like amino acids,
sugars, vitamins form maternal blood to foetal blood
2. Respiration of embryo- exchange of O2 & CO2 through diffusion from
foetal blood to maternal blood vice versa
3. Excretion – nitrogenous waste like urea into maternal blood
4. Endocrine gland- estrogen, progesterone, human chronic
gonadotropin (hCG) & human placental lactogen (hPL)
5. Antibodies- diphtheria, small pox, measles etc., pass to foetus from
maternal blood
6. Stores glycogen till liver formation
7. Effective barrier- toxic chemicals & germs
• Later phase of pregnancy relaxin- secreted by ovary
• hCG , hPL & relaxin- only during pregnancy
• Other hormones like estrogen, progesterone, cortisol, prolactin,thyroxin-
increases several fold in maternal blood
• Hormones- supporting fetal growth,metabolic changes in mother &
maintenance of pregnancy
• After implantation- inner cell mass differentiates- outer ectoderm and
inner endoderm & middle mesoderm soon appears- tissue & organs
• Inner cell mass contain certain cells- Stem cells- potency to give rise to
all tissues & organs
• Pregnancy will last for 9 months divided as 3 trimesters - 1st :- end of 3rd
month, 2nd :- end of 6th month & 3rd :- end of 9th month
• 1st month- embryo heart formed
• First sign- listening heart sound through stethoscope
• 2nd month- limbs & digits, end of 12 weeks(first trimester)- major organ
system- limbs, external genital organs
• 1st movement & hair on head- during fifth month
• End of 24 week (second trimester)- body covered with fine hair, eye lid
separate, eyelashes formed
• End of nine month- foetus fully developed & ready for delivery
 PARTURITION
 The period of pregnancy is called gestation period. It is 9 months in
human.
 The delivery of foetus is called parturition. It occurs by the
contraction of uterine Myometrium.
 The signal of parturition is originated from the fully developed foetus
and the placenta. It induces mild contraction of uterus called fetal
ejection reflex.
 Hormone (adrenal gland) secreted by foetus diffuses to maternal blood
& stimulate oxytocin secretion
 Oxytocin causes forceful contraction of myometrium (labour pain) &
stimulates further secretion of oxytocin
 Stimulatory reflex between uterine contraction & Oxytocin secretion
continues inducing stronger contraction & pushes the foetus by dilated
cervix (birth canal) facilitated by relaxin- parturition
 After delivery the placenta is also expelled out of the uterus.
 LACTATION
 Mammary gland of female undergo differentiation & produce
milk towards end of pregnancy- Lactation
 The mammary gland starts producing milk towards the end
of the pregnancy.
 Milk produced during initial days of lactation is called
colostrum. It contains several antibodies which provide
immunity (passive) or resistance to the new born baby.
 The milk production is controlled by Lacto trophic or
prolactin hormone secreted by pituitary.
 Breast feeding during initial period of infant growth is
recommended for bringing up a healthy baby
THANK YOU