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Korean

Korean: A Comprehensive Grammar is a reference to Korean

grammar, and presents a thorough overview of the language,
concentrating on the real patterns of use in modern Korean.
The book moves from the alphabet and pronunciation through
morphology and word classes to a detailed analysis of sentence
structures and semantic features such as aspect, tense, speech
styles and negation.
Updated and revised, this new edition includes lively descriptions
of Korean grammar, taking into account the latest research in
Korean linguistics. More lower-frequency grammar patterns have
been added, and extra examples have been included throughout
the text.
The unrivalled depth and range of this updated edition of Korean:
A Comprehensive Grammar makes it an essential reference source
on the Korean language.
Jaehoon Yeon is Professor of Korean Language and Linguistics at
SOAS, University of London.
Lucien Brown is Senior Lecturer of Korean Studies at Monash
University.
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Korean
A Comprehensive Grammar, 2nd edition
Jaehoon Yeon, Lucien Brown

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Korean
A Comprehensive Grammar
Second Edition

Jaehoon Yeon and

Lucien Brown
Second edition published 2019
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa
business
© 2019 Jaehoon Yeon and Lucien Brown
The right of Jaehoon Yeon and Lucien Brown to be identified as au-
thors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with
sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or re-
produced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including pho-
tocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval
system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
First edition published by Routledge 2011
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British
Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book has been requested
ISBN: 978-1-138-06448-5 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-138-06449-2 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-16035-1 (ebk)
Typeset in Sabon and Gill Sans
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
 Contents

Preface to the second edition xix

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Korean Language 1

1.1 Characteristic features of Korean 1
1.1.1 Word classes 2
1.1.2 Word order: Korean is an SOV
language3
[Link] Flexible word order 3
[Link] The postpositional
characteristic of Korean 5
[Link] The position of complements 6
[Link] Interrogative word order 6
1.1.3 An intricate system of honorific
categories7
1.1.4 Korean as an elliptical language 8
1.2 Korean script and pronunciation 9
1.2.1 Basic principles of Hangul writing 10
[Link] Letter names and
dictionary order 10
[Link] Writing syllabically 11
1.2.2 Hangul pronunciation guide 13
[Link] Simple vowels 13
[Link] Y-vowels 14
[Link] W-vowels 15
[Link] The compound vowel 의16
[Link] Basic consonants 17
v
Contents [Link] Aspirated consonants 20
[Link] Tensed or ‘Double’
consonants20
1.2.3 Pronunciation changes 21
[Link] Pronunciation of syllable-
final consonants 22
[Link] Simplification of
consonant clusters 23
[Link] Re-syllabification 24
[Link] Nasal assimilation 26
[Link] ㄹ r/l pronounced as ㄴ n28
[Link] ㄴ n pronounced as ㄹ l29
[Link] Palatalization of ㄷ t
and ㅌ t’30
[Link] ㄴ n addition 31
[Link] ㅎ h reduction 32
[Link] Aspiration 32
[Link] Reinforcement 33

Chapter 2 Nouns, nominal forms, pronouns

and numbers 36
2.1 Nouns 36
2.1.1 Lack of articles, number and gender 36
[Link] Lack of articles 37
[Link] Lack of number 37
[Link] Lack of gender 38
2.1.2 Bound/dependent nouns 39
[Link] 것 ‘thing’, ‘object’ or ‘affair’ 39
[Link] 겸 ‘-cum-’ 40
[Link] 곳 ‘place’ 41
[Link] 김 ‘occasion’, ‘chance’ 41
[Link] 대로 ‘in accordance with’ 41
[Link] 덕분 ‘thanks to’ 41
[Link] 데 ‘place’ 42
[Link] 동안 ‘during’ 42
[Link] 둥 ‘may or may not’ 43
[Link] 듯 ‘as if’ 43
[Link] 따름 ‘only, alone’ 43
[Link] 때 ‘when’ 43
vi [Link] 때문 ‘reason’ 44
 [Link] 리 ‘reasons’ 45 Contents
[Link] 무렵 ‘around the time’ 45
[Link] 바 ‘thing’ 45
[Link] 뿐 ‘only’, ‘just’, ‘nothing but’ 46
[Link] 수 ‘case’, ‘circumstance’ 46
[Link] 적 ‘event’ 46
[Link] 줄 ‘the way’, ‘the fact’ 47
[Link] 중/도중 ‘the middle’ 47
[Link] 지 ‘since’ 48
[Link] 쪽 ‘side’ 48
[Link] 채 ‘just as it is’ 49
2.2 Nominal forms 49
2.2.1 Nominal form –이50
2.2.2 Nominal form –개/게50
2.2.3 Nominal form –기50
2.2.4 Sentence patterns with –기52
[Link] –기 나름이– ‘depending on’ 52
[Link] –기 때문(에) ‘because’ 53
[Link] –기/게 마련이– ‘be bound to’ 54
[Link] –기(에) 망정이–
‘fortunately . . . otherwise’ 55
[Link] –기 시작하– ‘start’ 55
[Link] –기 십상이– ‘it is easy to . . .’ 56
[Link] –기 위하– ‘in order to’ 56
[Link] –기 이를 데 없–/그지 없–
‘boundless, endless’ 57
[Link] –기 일쑤이– ‘be apt to’ 58
[Link] –기 전 ‘before’ 58
[Link] –기 짝이 없– ‘very’ 59
[Link] –기나 하– ‘just’ 60
[Link] –기는 ‘no way’ 60
[Link] –기는 하– ‘indeed’ 61
[Link] –기(는)커녕 ‘far from’ 62
[Link] –기도 하– ‘also’ 63
[Link] –기만 하– ‘only’ 64
[Link] –기로 하– ‘decide to . . .’ 64
[Link] –기로 되– ‘be supposed to . . .’ 65
[Link] –기를/길 바라– ‘hope’ 66
[Link] –기에 ‘upon’, ‘because’ 68
[Link] –기에 따라 ‘depending on’ 69
2.2.5 Nominal form –음69 vii
Contents 2.2.6 Using –(으)ㄴ/는 것 to create
nominal forms 72
2.3 Pronouns 74
2.3.1 Personal pronouns 74
[Link] First-person pronouns 74
[Link] Second-person pronouns 75
[Link] Third-person pronouns 77
2.3.2 Demonstrative pronouns 80
2.3.3 Reflexives and reciprocals 81
2.3.4 Interrogative pronouns 82
2.4 Numbers and counting 84
2.4.1 Pure Korean and Sino-Korean numbers 84
2.4.2 Which system to use 86
2.4.3 Sentence patterns with numbers 88
2.4.4 Counting and naming periods of time 90
[Link] Years 90
[Link] Months 91
[Link] Weeks 92
[Link] Days 92
[Link] Telling the time 93
[Link] Telling the date 95

Chapter 3 Particles 96
3.1 Defining particles 96
3.2 Case particles 97
3.2.1 The subject particle 이/가98
3.2.2 The object particle 을/를100
3.2.3 The possessive particle 의103
3.2.4 Particles of movement and location 106
[Link] 에 ‘to/in/at’ 106
[Link] 에다(가) ‘in/on’ 109
[Link] 에서 ‘from/in/at’ 110
[Link] 에게/한테 ‘to’ 113
[Link] 더러 ‘to’ 115
[Link] 보고 ‘to’ 116
[Link] 에게서/한테서 ‘from’ 116
[Link] (으)로부터 ‘from’ 117
[Link] Particle phrase (으)로
하여금 ‘letting/making
viii (someone do something)’ 118
 3.2.5 Instrumental particles 118 Contents
[Link] (으)로 ‘by/with/as’ 119
[Link] (으)로서 ‘as’ 121
[Link] (으)로써 ‘by means of’ 122
[Link] Particle phrase (으)로
인해(서) ‘due to’ 123
3.2.6 Comitative particles 123
[Link] 과/와 ‘and/with’ 123
[Link] 하고 ‘and/with’ 125
[Link] (이)랑 ‘and/with’ 126
3.2.7 Vocative particle 아/야127
3.3 Special particles 129
3.3.1 Plural particle 들129
3.3.2 Particles of topic and focus 131
[Link] Topic particle 은/는132
[Link] (이)야 ‘if it’s . . .’ 138
[Link] (이)야말로 ‘indeed’ 138
3.3.3 Particles of extent 139
[Link] 만 ‘only’ 139
[Link] 뿐 ‘only’ 141
[Link] 밖에 ‘except for’ 141
[Link] 부터 ‘from’ 143
[Link] 까지 ‘up until’ 144
[Link] 도 ‘also’, ‘even’ 146
[Link] 조차 ‘even’ 149
[Link] 마저 ‘even’ 150
[Link] 치고/치고는 ‘with
exception’, ‘pretty . . . for
a . . .’ 150
[Link] (은/는)커녕 ‘far from’ 151
3.3.4 Particles of frequency 152
[Link] 마다 ‘every’ 152
[Link] 씩 ‘apiece’ 153
3.3.5 Particles of approximation and
optionality154
[Link] 쯤 ‘about’ 154
[Link] (이)나 (‘about’, ‘or’, ‘just’) 155
3.3.6 Particles of comparison and contrast 158
[Link] 처럼 ‘like’ 158
[Link] 같이 ‘like’ 159
[Link] 만큼 ‘as . . . as’ 160 ix
Contents [Link] 보다 ‘more than’ 160
[Link] 따라 ‘unusually’ 162
[Link] 대로 ‘in accordance with’ 163

Chapter 4 Verbs164
4.1 Characteristics of Korean verbs 164
4.1.1 Types of verbs: processive and
descriptive164
4.1.2 Types of verbs: 하– verbs 167
4.1.3 Types of verbs: negative verbs 169
4.1.4 Types of verbs: the copula
(equational verb) 170
4.1.5 Verb bases 172
4.1.6 The infinitive form 173
4.1.7 The dictionary form 175
4.1.8 Attaching verb endings 176
4.2 Negatives 179
4.2.1 Short negatives with 안 and 못179
4.2.2 Long negatives with –지 않– and
–지 못하–180
4.2.3 Negative commands and proposals
with –지 말–182
4.2.4 Expressions that require negative
verbs184
4.3 Tense 185
4.3.1 Past tenses 185
[Link] Simple past –았/었–186
[Link] Past-past or discontinuous
past –았/었었–187
[Link] Observed or perceived past
tense –더189
4.3.2 Future tenses 193
[Link] –겠–193
[Link] –(으)ㄹ 거–196
[Link] Other forms with future-
related meanings 198
[Link] Summary of Korean futures 199
4.3.3 Continuous tense 200
[Link] Continuous states with
x –아/어 있–200
 [Link] Continuous actions with Contents
–고 있–202
4.4 Derived verbs: passives, causatives and others 205
4.4.1 Passives 205
[Link] Derived passive verbs
–이–/–기–/–히–/–리–206
[Link] Passives with 되–209
[Link] Passives with other
support verbs 210
[Link] Passives with –아/어 지–213
4.4.2 Causatives 214
[Link] Derived causative verbs 215
[Link] Causatives with –게 하–219
[Link] Causatives with –도록 하–221
[Link] Causatives with 시키–222
4.4.3 Transforming descriptive verbs into
processive verbs 222
[Link] Forming processive verbs
with –지–223
[Link] Forming processive verbs
with –하–223

Chapter 5 Auxiliary (support) verbs226

5.1 Auxiliary verbs with –(아/어)226
5.1.1 –(아/어) 가– (ongoing activity ‘away’) 227
5.1.2 –(아/어) 오– (ongoing activity
‘towards’)227
5.1.3 –(아/어) 내– (finish, achieve) 228
5.1.4 –(아/어) 놓– (do all the way) 229
5.1.5 –(아/어) 두– (do for future reference) 230
5.1.6 –(아/어) 대– (do repeatedly) 231
5.1.7 –(아/어) 버리– (do completely for
regret or relief) 232
5.1.8 –(아/어) 보– (try doing) 233
5.1.9 –(아/어) 보이– (seem) 236
5.1.10 –(아/어) 빠지– (lapse into a
negative state) 236
5.1.11 –(아/어) 쌓– (do repeatedly) 237
5.1.12 –(아/어) 주– (perform a favour) 237
5.1.13 –(아/어) 치우– (do rashly) 239 xi
Contents 5.2 Auxiliary verbs with –다240
5.2.1 –다 말– (stop after) 240
5.2.2 –다 보– (after trying doing) 240
5.2.3 –(아/어)다 주– (run an errand) 241
5.3 Auxiliary verbs with –고242
5.3.1 –고 나– (after finishing) 242
5.3.2 –고 말– (end up) 243
5.3.3 –고 보– (do and then realize) 244
5.3.4 –고 싶– (want to do) 245
5.4 Auxiliary verbs with –(으)ㄹ까246
5.4.1 –(으)ㄹ까 보– (think it might) 246
5.4.2 –(으)ㄹ까 싶– (afraid it might) 247
5.4.3 –(으)ㄹ까 하– (think of doing) 248
5.5 Auxiliary verbs with –나/–(으)ㄴ가249
5.5.1 –나/–(으)ㄴ가 보– (look like) 250
5.5.2 –나/–(으)ㄴ가 싶– (think it might) 250
5.6 Auxiliary verbs with –게251
5.6.1 –게 되– (turn out so that) 251
5.6.2 –게 보이– (seem) 252
5.7 Auxiliary verb with –(아/어)야253
5.7.1 –(아/어)야 되–/하– (must, have to) 253

Chapter 6 Honorifics254
6.1 Speech styles (hearer honorifics) 255
6.1.1 The polite style 256
6.1.2 The formal style 258
6.1.3 The intimate style – Panmal style 261
6.1.4 The plain style 263
Plain style statements 264
Plain style questions 266
Plain style proposals 268
Plain style commands 268
6.1.5 Familiar style 270
6.1.6 Semi-­formal style 272
6.2 Referent honorifics 272
6.2.1 Subject honorifics 273
[Link] The subject honorific
marker –(으)시–273
[Link] Verbs with special subject
xii honorific forms 275
 [Link] Subject honorific particle Contents
께서276
6.2.2 Object honorifics 277
[Link] Verbs with special object
honorific forms 277
[Link] Object honorific particle 께278
6.2.3 Honorific nouns 279
6.2.4 Putting the honorifics system together 280
6.3 Terms of address 282
6.3.1 Names 283
6.3.2 Titles 284
6.3.3 Kinship terms 286
6.3.4 How to address someone 290

Chapter 7 Clausal connectives292

7.1 Causal connectives 292
7.1.1 –­(아/어)서293
7.1.2 –­아/어296
7.1.3 –­아/어서 인지297
7.1.4 –­아/어서(는) 안 되–­ 297
7.1.5 –(아/어) 가지고298
7.1.6 –­(으)니까300
7.1.7 –­(으)니304
7.1.8 –(으)ㄹ테니까304
7.1.9 –(으)므로305
7.1.10 –길래306
7.1.11 –느라고308
7.1.12 –(으)랴309
7.1.13 –더니 and –(았/었)더니309
7.1.14 –(으)ㄹ라310
7.2 Contrastive connectives 311
7.2.1 –지만311
7.2.2 –(으)나313
7.2.3 –(으)나 마나314
7.2.4 –(으)되315
7.2.5 –(아/어)도315
[Link] –(아/어)도 in permissive
constructions317
[Link] Don’t have to . . . with –지
않아도318 xiii
Contents [Link] Idiomatic –(아/어)도
expressions318
7.2.6 –더라도319
7.2.7 –고도320
7.2.8 –(아/어)서라도320
7.2.9 –(으)ㄴ들321
7.2.10 –(으)ㄹ지라도321
7.2.11 –(으)ㄹ지언정322
7.2.12 –(으)ㄹ망정322
7.2.13 –거늘323
7.2.14 –느니323
7.2.15 –(아/어) 봤자324
7.3 Additional and sequential connectives 325
7.3.1 –고325
7.3.2 –고서328
7.3.3 –고는329
7.3.4 –고 나–330
7.3.5 –답시고/랍시고330
7.3.6 –거니와331
7.3.7 –(으)면서332
7.3.8 –(으)면서부터333
7.3.9 –(으)며333
7.3.10 –자(마자)334
7.3.11 –다(가)335
7.3.12 –(으)ㄴ/는데339
7.3.13 –(으)ㄹ텐데344
7.4 Optional connectives 345
7.4.1 –거나345
7.4.2 –든지347
7.4.3 –든가348
7.4.4 –(으)ㄴ/는지 in oblique questions 349
7.4.5 –(으)ㄹ지 in oblique questions 351
7.4.6 –(었/았)던지 in oblique questions 352
7.4.7 –(으)ㄹ락 말락 (하–)353
7.5 Conditional connectives 353
7.5.1 –(으)면353
[Link] –(았/었)으면 좋–355
[Link] –(으)면 고맙겠–356
[Link] –(았/었)으면 하–356
[Link] –(으)면 되–356
xiv [Link] –(으)면 안 되–357
 [Link] –지 않으면 안 되 –/안 . . . Contents
면 안 되–358
7.5.2 –다면/–라면358
7.5.3 –(으)려면359
7.5.4 –다(가) 보면360
7.5.5 –(았/었)더라면360
7.5.6 –거든361
7.5.7 –(아/어)야362
[Link] –(아/어)야 되/하–363
7.5.8 –(아/어)서야364
7.5.9 –(으)면 . . . –(으)ㄹ수록365
7.6 Causative connectives 366
7.6.1 –게366
7.6.2 –게끔367
7.6.3 –도록368
7.7 Intentive connectives 369
7.7.1 –(으)러369
7.7.2 –(으)려고370
7.7.3 –고자373
7.8 Comparison connectives 374
7.8.1 –듯이374
7.8.2 –다시피375

Chapter 8 Modifiers377
8.1 Modifying forms 377
8.1.1 The future/prospective modifier
–(으)ㄹ378
8.1.2 The present dynamic modifier
–는380
8.1.3 The state/result modifier –(으)ㄴ381
8.1.4 The continuous past modifier –던384
8.1.5 The discontinuous past modifier
–(았/었)던385
8.1.6 The prospective past modifier
–(았/었)을387
8.1.7 Intentive –(으)려 with modifiers 387
8.2 Sentence patterns with modifier clauses 388
8.2.1 –는 가운데 ‘in the middle of ’ 388
8.2.2 modifier + 것 ‘the fact that’ 388
8.2.3 modifier + 것 같– ‘it seems that’ 391 xv
Contents 8.2.4 –(으)ㄹ 겸 ‘with the combined
purpose of’ 392
8.2.5 –(으)ㄹ 계획이– ‘plan to’ 392
8.2.6 –(으)ㄴ|는 김에 ‘while you’re at it’,
‘seeing as’ 393
8.2.7 –는|던 길(에) ‘on the way to’ 394
8.2.8 –(으)ㄴ 나머지 ‘as a result’ 394
8.2.9 –(으)ㄴ다음/뒤/후에 ‘after’ 395
8.2.10 –는|–(으)ㄴ 대로 ‘in accordance with’ 395
8.2.11 –는 데 ‘in the matter of’ 396
8.2.12 –는 동안/사이에 ‘while’ 396
8.2.13 –(으)ㄹ|–는|–(으)ㄴ 둥 ‘may or may
not’398
8.2.14 –(으)ㄹ|–는|–(으)ㄴ 듯 ‘just like’ 398
8.2.15 –(으)ㄹ|–는|–(으)ㄴ 듯하–/듯
싶– ‘seem like’ 399
8.2.16 –(으)ㄹ 따름이– ‘only’ 399
8.2.17 –(으)ㄹ 때 ‘when’ 400
8.2.18 –(으)ㄹ 리 없– ‘no way that’ 401
8.2.19 –는/ –(으)ㄴ 마당에 ‘in the
situation where’ 402
8.2.20 –(으)ㄹ 만하– ‘worth’ 402
8.2.21 –(으)ㄹ|–는|–(으)ㄴ 모양이– ‘seem
like’403
8.2.22 –(으)ㄹ 바에(는/야) ‘rather . . . than’ 403
8.2.23 –(으)ㄴ|–는 바람에 ‘because of’ 404
8.2.24 –(으)ㄴ|–는 반면(에) ‘but on the
other hand’ 404
8.2.25 –(으)ㄹ 뻔하– ‘nearly’ 405
8.2.26 –(으)ㄹ 뿐 ‘only’ 406
8.2.27 –(으)ㄹ 수 있–/없– ‘can /cannot’ 408
8.2.28 –(으)ㄴ|는 이상(에(는)) ‘since’;
‘unless’410
8.2.29 –(으)ㄴ|–는 일/적이 있–/없– ‘ever/
never’411
8.2.30 –(으)ㄹ 정도로 ‘to the extent that’ 411
8.2.31 –(으)ㄹ|–는|–(으)ㄴ 줄 알– /모르–
‘think/know’412
8.2.32 –는 중에/도중에 ‘in the middle
of . . .’ 414
xvi 8.2.33 –는 중– ‘be in the middle of’ 414
8.2.34 –(으)ㄹ 즈음(에) ‘when’ 415
 8.2.35 –(으)ㄴ 지 ‘since’ 416 Contents
8.2.36 –(으)려던 참이– ‘just about to’ 416
8.2.37 –(으)ㄴ 채(로) ‘as it is’ 417
8.2.38 –는 척하– ‘pretend’ 418
8.2.39 –는|–(으)ㄴ 탓 ‘due to’ 419
8.2.40 –(으)ㄴ|–는 통에 ‘in the
commotion’419
8.2.41 –(으)ㄴ|는 한– ‘as much as’ 420

Chapter 9 Sentence endings421

9.1 –고말고 ‘of course’ 422
9.2 –거든 ‘it’s because’, ‘you see’ 423
9.3 –나?/ –(으)ㄴ가? dubitative questions 424
9.4 –(는)군, –(는)구나, –(는)구려,
–(는)구만/구먼 exclamations 426
9.5 –네 evidential exclamations 428
9.6 –다마다 ‘of course’ 429
9.7 –담/람 disapproval 429
9.8 –(으)ㄹ걸 presumptions, regrets 430
9.9 –(으)ㄹ게 promise-like futures 432
9.10 –(으)ㄹ까? suggestions, tentative questions 433
9.11 –(으)ㄹ래 ‘feel like (doing)’ 436
9.12 –(으)ㄹ텐데 ‘I’m afraid’ 436
9.13 –(으)랴 ‘could . . . really?’ 437
9.14 –(으)련마는/ –(으)련만 ‘should, must’ 438
9.15 –(으)렴/–(으)려무나 granting permission;
orders439
9.16 –(으)마 promise-like futures 440
9.17 –잖아 ‘you know’ 440
9.18 –지 tag questions 442

Chapter 10 Quotations446
10.1 Direct quotations 446
10.2 Indirect quotations 447
10.2.1 Quoted statements 448
10.2.2 Quoted questions 450
10.2.3 Quoted proposals 452
10.2.4 Quoted commands 453
10.2.5 The verb 주– in quoted commands 454 xvii
10.2.6 Quoting verbs 455
Contents 10.3 Reduced indirect quotations in reported
speech458
10.3.1 –다고, –냐고, –라고, –자고459
10.3.2 –대, –냬, –래, –재461
10.4 Special patterns with indirect quotations 463
10.4.1 –다/냐/자/라니(까)464
10.4.2 –다면/ –라면465
10.4.3 –다/라면서465
10.4.4 –다/라는데466
10.4.5 –(이)라는467
10.4.6 –단/냔/잔/란 말이–468

Chapter 11 Other word classes469

11.1 Adnouns 469
11.2 Adverbs 472
11.2.1 Grammatical classification of adverbs 472
[Link] Proper adverbs 472
[Link] Derived adverbs 474
[Link] Sentence adverbs 479
[Link] Conjunctive adverbs 481
11.2.2 Semantic classification of adverbs 482
[Link] Time adverbs 482
[Link] Degree adverbs 485
[Link] Manner adverbs 486
[Link] Onomatopoeic/mimetic
adverbs488
11.3 Prefixes and suffixes 494
11.3.1 Prefixes 494
11.3.2 Suffixes 498
[Link] Noun-deriving suffixes 498
[Link] Adverb-deriving suffixes 504
[Link] Verb-deriving suffixes 504
[Link] Adnominal suffix –적506

Glossary of linguistic terms508

Related readings and bibliography515
Index of grammatical constructions (Korean) 519
xviii Index of translation equivalents (English) 539
General index 547
 Preface to the second
edition

This revised edition of Korean: A Comprehensive Grammar is

a thorough reference guide to Korean grammar updated based
on the latest research. The level of description that the revised
book offers of Korean grammatical constructions throughout is
perhaps unrivalled by other English-language publications in the
field. Revisions from the first edition include:

• A separate chapter on honorifics, reflecting new research in this

field
• Updated descriptions of Korean grammar taking into account
the latest research in functional syntax, pragmatics and lan-
guage variation and change
• More low-frequency grammar patterns have been added

With the exception of chapter 1 (which provides an introduc-

tion to the Korean language), the book is organized according to
grammatical categories. In turn, we look at nouns, nominal forms,
pronouns and numbers (chapter 2), case particles (chapter 3),
verbs (chapter 4), support (or ‘auxiliary’) verbs (chapter 5), hon-
orifics and politeness (chapter 6), verbal connectives (chapter 7),
modifiers (chapter 8), sentence endings (chapter 9), quotations
(chapter 10) and other word classes (chapter 11). In cases where
a grammatical pattern may belong to more than one category,
the pattern is allotted to the category that it fits best and is then
cross-referenced under the other possible category. Three indexes
are included at the back of the book: a grammatical patterns index
(in Korean), an English equivalents index and a general index.

xix
 Preface to the As readers who already have some familiarity with the language
second edition will know, the way that Korean is spoken (or written) will vary
greatly depending on whom you are talking (or writing) to. This
phenomenon – and the use of honorifics and speech styles – is
covered in Chapter 6. Elsewhere, the common practice has been
to represent examples in the so-called ‘polite’ speech style wher-
ever possible. At times, the inclusion of other speech styles is
necessitated by the fact that the grammatical construction being
described or the example being given is more ‘natural’ in another
style rather than the ‘polite’.
We would like to express our thanks to many people who pro-
vided us with various forms of comments and feedback on the
first edition. We are particularly indebted to Professor Hyo-Sang
Lee at Indiana University Bloomington for his numerous insight-
ful comments. Thanks also to Professor Hee Rak Chae at Hankuk
University of Foreign Studies for providing us with a list of correc-
tions, and Professor Jung Soo Mok at University of Seoul for writ-
ing a useful review. We would like to thank Dr. Adam Zulawnik
for his help compiling the index.
This work was supported by Laboratory Program for Korean
Studies through the Ministry of Education of the Republic of
Korea and Korean Studies Promotion Service of the Academy of
Korean Studies (AKS-2016-LAB-2250003).

xx
 Chapter 1

Introduction to the
Korean Language

1.1 Characteristic features of Korean

Overview
Korean is a language with approximately 82 million speakers which
include 51 million in South Korea, 25 million in North Korea, and
nearly 6 million outside of Korea – mainly in China, the US, Japan,
and central Asia (the former U.S.S.R). The data used in this book
represents the standard Seoul speech in the Central dialectal zone.
Due to its prevalence in education and the media, Standard Seoul
Korean is intelligible across South Korea. Although the post-1945
division between North and South Korea and their different lan-
guage policies have made the two Koreas linguistically divergent,
North and South Korean languages are mutually intelligible.
Korean has a number of characteristic features that distinguish
it from other languages, particularly English and European lan-
guages. For example, Korean has neither the definite nor indefi-
nite article (such as ‘the’ and ‘a/an’ in English). There is no sharp
distinction of gender and plurality of a noun. There is no special
distinction for the third-person present singular in a verb. There
is no conspicuous accent for a word, although there are some
accents in a sentence and these vary according to the region of the
country. As a general rule, Korean usually puts stress on the first
syllable of a word.
The linguistic affinity of Korean to other languages is still disput-
1
able. The most convincing hypothesis about its origin is the Altaic
 1 hypothesis, that is Korean is one of the Altaic languages along
Introduction with Mongolian, Turkic and Manchu-Tungus. The difficulty of
to the Korean reconstructing genetic ties to other languages is mainly due to the
Language lack of evidence of written data.

1.1.1 Word classes

As in any language, Korean words can be classified into several

different classes according to the way they are used.
Korean verbs minimally consist of a base and an ending. The base
cannot stand alone without an ending, and endings can be added
to the base to alter the meaning in various ways, including the
expression of tense:

먹어요. I am eating.
먹었어요. I ate.
먹겠어요. I will eat.

In the examples above, the verb base in each sentence is the same.
It means ‘eat’ – and its base is 먹–. However, by attaching three
different endings, three different meanings are produced.
While languages such as English have a separate category of
adjectives (and use these adjectives in combination with the verb
‘to be’ – ‘He is tall’, etc.), in Korean adjectives can be consid-
ered a subset of verbs. These are known as descriptive verbs,
whereas other verbs (that typically depict an action) are known
as processive verbs. In most ways, descriptive verbs behave
the same as processive verbs and can take a lot of the same
endings:

예뻐요. [She, it, etc.] is pretty.

예뻤어요. [She, it, etc.] was pretty.
예쁘겠어요. [She, it, etc.] will be pretty.

However, there are some differences in the way that descriptive

and processive verbs operate. These differences are summarized
later in this book (refer to 4.1.1). The major properties of Korean
2 verbs are discussed in Chapter 4.
Unlike verbs, Korean nouns can be used with no endings attached Characteristic
to them. Instead, particles are added to show the relationship features of
between the noun and the rest of the sentence (especially the verb). Korean
In the following sentence, 가 marks 민수 as being the grammati-
cal subject of the sentence (i.e., the person performing the action
connoted in the verb) and 를 marks 오징어 ‘squid’ as being the
grammatical object (i.e., the thing having the action connoted by
the verb performed on it). Without these markers, the sentence
could (in context) be taken to mean that it was the squid that ate
Minsu rather than the other way around!

민수가 오징어를 먹었어요

Minsu squid ate Minsu ate squid.

Korean nouns are described in more depth in Chapter 2 and parti-

cles are discussed in Chapter 3. Korean also contains more minor
word classes (such as adnouns and adverbs), which are explained
in Chapter 10.

1.1.2 Word order: Korean is an SOV language

The basic (i.e., most frequent, neutral and canonical) word order
of Korean can be described as SOV: Subject-Object-Verb. With
the verb coming after rather than before the object, this makes
Korean word order quite different from English:

English: Minsu ate kimchi

SUBJECT VERB OBJECT

Korean: 민수가 김치를 먹었어요

Minsu kimchi ate
SUBJECT OBJECT VERB

As an SOV language, Korean has several other features which are

typical of such languages (but different to English). These features
are summarized below.

[Link] Flexible word order

Although the word order presented above is the most typical,

Korean word order can actually be quite flexible. In addition to 3
 1 ‘Minsu kimchi ate’, it is quite possible to also say ‘kimchi Minsu
Introduction ate’.
to the Korean
Language 김치는 민수가 먹었어요
Kimchi Minsu Ate
OBJECT SUBJECT VERB

As in the example above, when a non-subject element is moved to

the start of the sentence, it often takes the topic particle 는 rather
than the object particle 를 (refer to 3.2.2).
So how do speakers choose which word order to use? As a general
rule of thumb, the noun that conveys new or added knowledge to
the hearer will come closer to the verb, whereas nouns that rep-
resent already mentioned or entertained information may come
at the start of the sentence. By this logic, if a speaker asks ‘what
did 민수 eat?’, the interlocutor will put 민수 at the start of the
answer and the type of food (김치) before the verb. Conversely, if
a speaker asks ‘who ate the kimchi?’, the order of the nouns will
be reversed, as shown here:

A: 민수는 뭐 먹었어요? WHAT did Minsu eat?

B: (민수는) 김치를 먹었어요 Minsu ate KIMCHI (new information)

A: 누가 김치를 먹었어요? WHO ate the kimchi?

B: (김치는) 민수가 먹었어요. MINSU ate the kimchi

Like in the above examples, as long as the verb is properly placed

at the end of the sentence, the position of the remaining words
is relatively free. Although, technically speaking the verb should
always come last in a Korean sentence, in real speech this is not
always the case. On occasions, other elements may be heard fol-
lowing the verb:

내 친구는 뛰어갔어요, 집으로. My friend ran to his house.

나는 영희를 보았어요, 어제 여기서. 

I saw Yonghi, yesterday here.

As in these examples, once a complete sentence has been uttered,

it may be supplemented with further constituents which appear
after the verb. This tends to happen when the speaker realizes that
he/she has omitted important information from the sentence or
4
when, judging from the hearer’s reaction, he/she realizes that more Characteristic
clarification is needed. Although such word order is considered features of
nonstandard and does not appear in writing, it can frequently be Korean
heard in casual speech.

[Link] The postpositional characteristic of Korean

Another distinctive feature of Korean which is connected to its

SOV word order is the fact that it has postpositions (that come
after the noun) rather than prepositions (which come before the
noun). Rather than saying ‘at school’ as in English, Korean speak-
ers say ‘school-at’:

민수가 학교에 있어요.

Minsu-subject school-at is
Minsu is at school.

In addition to postpositions that are the equivalent of English prep-

ositions, Korean uses particles attached to the end of nouns to mark
their grammatical function, as noted above. As well as particles
coming after nouns, typical of languages with an SOV language,
Korean also attaches suffixes (or verb endings) to the end of verbs.
Although it is true that English also has suffixes that attach to verbs
(e.g., works, worked, working, eaten), these suffixes in English are
few in number, whereas in Korean they are numerous.

민수가 산에서 뱀을 잡았어요.

Minsu-subject mountain-on snake-object catch-past
tense-polite
Minsu caught a snake on the mountain.

선생님은 좋으시었겠습니다.
You (lit. ‘teacher’)-topic happy-honorific-past-
must-formal
You must have been happy.

As we can see, particles must come after the noun, and verbal suf-
fixes must be attached behind the stem. Also, it is clear that two
or more particles may follow the noun, and, as you can see in the
5
 1 last example above, even as many as four verb endings may attach
Introduction to a verb stem. It is to this extent that in Korean important items
to the Korean are established at the very end of the sentence.
Language

[Link] The position of complements

In Korean, words that complement or modify (i.e., elaborate,

describe, clarify, identify, delimit) a noun always and without
exception come before the noun in question:

Adnoun (refer 다른 사람 another person

to 11.1) other person

Possessive + 민호의 담배 Minho’s cigarettes

Noun Minho’s cigarettes

Modifying clause 마신 술 the alcohol that

+ Noun drink alcohol I drank

Adverb + Verb 빨리 갔어요 went quickly

quickly went

On this point, Korean differs from Indo-European languages, in

which the modifier may also follow the modified. In particular,
note how the last two patterns listed above result in different
word orders than those found in English.

[Link] Interrogative word order

In Korean, the word order in yes/no interrogatives (questions)

does not change from that of statements. Unlike in English, the
position of subject and verb does not alter. In fact, in certain styles
of speech (refer to 6.1), the same sentence can be interpreted as a
statement or as an interrogative purely depending on intonation:
민수가 집에 가요
Minsu is going home. (with falling intonation)
Is Minsu going home? (with rising intonation)
6
In so-called wh-questions, the question word (where, why, Characteristic
when, what, etc.) does not need to come at the beginning of features of
the sentence (as it typically does in English). Usually, it stays in Korean
the same place where the ‘missing’ information being asked for
would be included in the corresponding answer. In the following
examples, see how the Korean word for ‘what’ in the question
appears in the same position as ‘fruit’ in the answer. Also note
how this is not the case in English, where ‘what’ moves to initial
position.

A: 민수가 지금 무엇을 사고 있어요? What is Minsu buying now?

B: 민수는 지금 과일을 사고 있어요. Minsu is buying fruit now.

1.1.3 An intricate system of honorific categories

Although every language has different registers and levels of

politeness, in few languages is this system encoded in an elabo-
rate system of honorifics as it is in Korean. Along with Japanese,
Korean is one of the few languages in which the speaker can sys-
tematically encode his/her social relationship with the hearer and
people he/she is talking about (and between different people he/
she is talking about) through the addition of grammatical mark-
ers and special sets of vocabulary. When speaking Korean, it is
practically impossible to utter a single sentence without bearing in
mind your social position in relation to the hearer and people you
are referring to (i.e., comparative age and rank, level of intimacy,
etc.).
Honorifics can commonly be broken into two groups: hearer hon-
orifics and referent honorifics. Hearer honorifics – more frequently
referred to as ‘speech styles’ in the case of Korean (refer to 6.1)
index the relationship between the speaker and the hearer (and/
or immediate audience). In Korean, this is achieved by a range of
six different ‘speech styles’. As a taster of this, when addressing
an intimate of similar age or younger (or a child), the speaker may
apply the ‘intimate’ speech style as in the sentence below, which
consists of the –어 verb ending:

버스가 벌써 갔어 The bus has gone (intimate speech style)

7
 1 However, when speaking to a non-intimate or someone of supe-
Introduction rior age or rank, the –어요 ending of the ‘polite’ speech style
to the Korean would be more appropriate:
Language
버스가 벌써 갔어요 The bus has gone (polite speech style)

Referent honorifics (refer to 6.2) mark the relationship between

the speaker and the grammatical subject/object of the sentence.
This may either be the hearer him/herself or a third person. In the
most complex of cases, this can result in an ‘honorific’ sentence
that looks quite different to its ‘non-honorific counterpart’:

The teacher is eating a meal.

선생님께서 진지를 잡수십니다. 
(honorific)
제 친구가 밥을 먹습니다. My friend is eating a meal.

In the ‘honorific’ sentence, respect is shown to the teacher by using

the honorific subject particle –께서, the honorific noun for meal
진지 and the honorific verb for eat 잡수시– (which incorporates
the honorific marker –시–). In the ‘non-honorific sentence’, when
discussing one’s friend, the plain counterparts of these words may
be used instead. Although the two sentences have the same mean-
ing, they are composed of two totally different vocabulary sets.
The reasons why Korean and Japanese have developed such elab-
orate systems of honorifics are not totally clear. However, the per-
petuation of the Korean system has seemingly been influenced by
the hierarchical structure of Korean society. Even in modern-day
South Korea, families, companies, schools, etc. have rigid vertical
social structures in which younger parties are expected to show
deference and compliance towards elders and seniors. In some sit-
uations, an age difference of only one year may be enough to trig-
ger a non-reciprocal pattern of honorifics (in which the younger
party uses honorifics, but receives plain forms).

1.1.4 Korean as an elliptical language

Every language has full sentences in which all constituents are

present, and elliptical sentences in which certain words are
dropped. However, a peculiar feature of Korean is that major
8 constituents such as the subject and the object can readily be
dropped from the sentence. On this point Korean differs from Korean
Indo-European languages, in which – apart from certain gram- script and
matically sanctioned drops (for example, ‘you’ does not need to pronunciation
be included in English imperatives such as ‘go home!’) – the sub-
ject should normatively be present in order to produce a well-
formed sentence. To be sure, English speakers sometimes drop
major constituents too (consider examples such as ‘Hope this
helps!’ or ‘Going home?’), but such utterances always sound
casual and may not be considered as complete, well-formed sen-
tences. In Korean, however, dropping major constituents is highly
frequent and usually does not result in any question that the sen-
tence is incomplete or poorly formed.
The general rule is that major constituents such as subjects and
objects can be dropped when these can easily be worked out from
context. For example, when two acquaintances meet by chance on
the street, the following question is understood as meaning ‘where
are you going?’ even though there is no explicit mention of ‘you’:

어디 가요? Where are [you] going?

With this dropping of constituents, many Korean sentences

contain nothing but a verb. In the following, unless a different
contextual frame is in operation, the sentence will normally be
understood as referring to the first person:

먹었어요. I’ve eaten.

Although including the subject (and/or object) is hardly ever incor-

rect, in many cases it seems superfluous and could even sound
clumsy.

1.2 Korean script and pronunciation

Overview
Korean is written using an alphabetic writing system known
both in South Korea and internationally as Hangul (한글) but
in North Korea as Chosŏngul (조선글). Unlike the majority
of writing systems that came into being through a process of
evolution, Hangul is a deliberate invention dating back to the
15th century (1443). The invention of Hangul is attributed to 9
 1 King Sejong the Great, who was the fourth King of the Chosŏn
Introduction dynasty (1392–1910).
to the Korean
Although Korean people today exclusively use Hangul in most
Language
everyday writing activities, Korean can also be written in a mixed
script combining this phonemic system with logographic Chinese
characters, known in Korean as Hancha (한자; 漢字). In South
Korea, the use of Hancha has greatly decreased in recent years and
is now mainly limited to sporadic use in broadsheet newspapers
and some academic publications. North Korea does not use Chi-
nese characters at all.
There are several different systems for rendering Korean in the
Roman script. When Romanizations are given in this book (such
as for the word Hancha above), they typically appear in the
McCune-Reischauer system, as this is generally the most conve-
nient for native English speakers. It should be noted however that
South Korea has now stopped using this system in favour of the
Revised Romanization system.
The current section provides a concise introduction to Hangul
and the sounds of Korean that are associated to it. It should be
noted that the pronunciations given are based on the ‘standard’
language of Seoul. This may at times differ from the pronunci-
ations you will hear in real everyday conversation, particularly
from Koreans who speak regional dialects.

1.2.1 Basic principles of Hangul writing

Hangul is an alphabetic writing system. This means that vowels

and consonants are represented with letter-like symbols. Modern
Korean has a total of 24 basic letter shapes, which extends to 40
when one includes compound letters.
The current section introduces the names of the characters and the
way that they are written syllabically.

[Link] Letter names and dictionary order

The Hangul letters are summarized in the following table, with their
10 names and sorted by the normal South Korean dictionary order.
Regarding the names of consonants, note that these are norma- Korean
tively composed of two syllables that are most commonly formed script and
as follows, taking ㅂ as an example: pronunciation

First syllable: Character in question, followed by the vowel ‘ㅣ’

(e.g., for ㅂ, ‘비’)
Second syllable: The Character in question, preceded by the vowel ‘으’
(e.g., for ㅂ, ‘읍’)

Note that the consonant names 기역, 디귿 and 시옷 are exceptions

to this formula. However, in North Korea, these exceptions have
been abolished and the regular 기윽, 디읃 and 시읏 are used instead.
Regarding the dictionary order of characters, note that consonants
and vowels have separate sequences. The consonant sequence has
priority, and letters in the same line appear in sequence after the
left-most letter:

Consonant signs (with names) Vowels

ㄱ (기역) ㄲ (쌍기역) ㅏ ㅐ ㅑ ㅒ
ㄴ (니은) ㅓ ㅔ ㅕ ㅖ
ㄷ (디귿) ㄸ (쌍디귿) ㅗ ㅘ ㅙ ㅚ ㅛ
ㄹ (리을) ㅜ ㅝ ㅞ ㅟ ㅠ
ㅁ (미음) ㅡ ㅢ
ㅂ (비읍) ㅃ (쌍비읍) ㅣ
ㅅ (시옷) ㅆ (쌍시옷)
ㅇ (이응)
ㅈ (지읒) ㅉ (쌍지읒)
ㅊ (치읓)
ㅋ (키읔)
ㅌ (티읕)
ㅍ (피읖)
ㅎ (히읗)

[Link] Writing syllabically

Although Hangul has individual letters for consonants and vow-

els, these ‘letters’ are not written in a linear fashion such as in the 11
 1 Roman alphabet. Instead, they are grouped together into square
Introduction syllable blocks according to the following principles:
to the Korean
Language 1 Each syllable block must begin with a consonant sign. Where
a spoken syllable begins with a vowel, the absence of the initial
consonant is written with the ‘zero’ letter ㅇ:
Spoken Written Meaning
[a-u] 아우 younger brother/sister
[o-i] 오이 Cucumber

2 The consonant letter (represented below as ‘C’) is placed either

to the left or above the sign for the following vowel (‘V’),
depending on the vowel sign’s shape, resulting in two possible
patterns:

when vowel sign is vertical 㞚 ⻚ 㰖

when vowel sign is horizontal
㭒 㥶 ㏢
Note that in the case of [Horizontal + Vertical] vowel letter
compounds (ㅘ, ㅙ, ㅚ, ㅝ, ㅞ, ㅟ, ㅢ), where the horizon-
tal letter represents a w-like sound, the initial consonant sign
appears in the empty top left corner:

when vowel sign is vertical

and horizontal 㣎 ὒ
3 A syllable-final consonant letter is always written underneath
the initial consonant-vowel grouping, with height adjustments
for a square end product:

when vowel sign is vertical

㩫 Ⱖ
when vowel sign is horizontal
㦢 㤊

12
when vowel sign is vertical
and horizontal 원
4 There are no Hangul blocks with two initial consonant signs Korean
(except for the double consonant letters ㄲ, ㄸ, ㅃ, ㅆ, ㅉ). script and
There are, however, some Hangul blocks with two final conso- pronunciation
nant signs written at the bottom:

when vowel sign is vertical

㌌ ╃
when vowel sign is horizontal
ⴁ ῌ
Note, however, that due to restrictions against consonant clusters,
both of these consonants can only be pronounced if they are fol-
lowed by a vowel (refer to [Link], [Link]).

1.2.2 Hangul pronunciation guide

The current section provides basic guidelines regarding how

each of the 40 Hangul letter shapes should most normally be
pronounced. Note, however, that there are a number of changes
between the way that Korean is written and the way that it is
pronounced. Although some basic sound changes are dealt with in
this section, the majority of irregular pronunciations are described
in the next section (refer to 1.2.3).

[Link] Simple vowels

In terms of their graphic representation, it can be said that Korean

has six simple vowel shapes (ㅏ, ㅓ, ㅗ, ㅜ, ㅡ, ㅣ). However, in
terms of phonetics, ㅐ and ㅔ should also be included as sim-
ple vowels since they are pronounced as such in contemporary
Korean even though they historically originate in the combina-
tions [ㅏ+ㅣ] and [ㅓ+ㅣ]. This means that phonetically Korean
has eight vowels, although this typically reduces to seven since
most speakers pronounceㅐ and ㅔ identically (see below).
Since any Hangul block must begin with a consonant symbol, syl-
lables that begin with a vowel in pronunciation are written with
the zero symbol ‘ㅇ’ to the left or above the vowel sign. Writ-
13
ten in syllable-block form, the eight simple vowels are as follows.
 1 For each vowel, we give an English equivalent, the relevant pho-
Introduction netic symbol and how the vowel is represented in the McCune-­
to the Korean Reischauer system of Romanization:
Language
English parallels Phonetic McCune-
symbol Reischauer
아 A in father [ɑ] a
어 British English: O in often [ʌ] ŏ
American English: U in burn
오 O in core [o] o
우 like OO in moon [u] u
으 like U in urgh! [ɯ] ŭ
이 EE in feet (but usually shorter!) [i] i
애 British English: A in care [æ] ae
American English: A in apple
에 E in bed [ɛ] e

It should be noted that many native speakers of Korean (particularly

younger generations) do not differentiate between 애 and 에 and pro-
nounce both of these as a sound somewhere between the two.

[Link] Y-vowels

Korean has six Y-vowels that consist of a ‘y’-like sound before a

simple vowel. The Y vowels are written by adding one additional
short stroke to the relevant simple vowel signs. Written in syllable-
block form, the Y vowels are as follows:

Hangul sign English Parallels Phonetic McCune-­

symbol Reischauer
Simple Y-vowel
아 야 YA in yahoo [jɑ] ya
어 여 British English: Yo in yob [jʌ] yŏ
14 American Eng: YEA in yearn
 오 요 YO in yoga [jo] yo Korean
script and
우 유 YOU in youth [ju] yu
pronunciation
애 얘 British English: YA in yay! [jæ] yae
American Eng: YA in yak
에 예 like YE in yet or yes [jɛ] ye

Many native speakers of Korean (particularly younger genera-

tions) do not differentiate between 얘 and 예 and pronounce both
of these as a sound somewhere between the two.

[Link] W-vowels

Korean has six W-vowels that consist of a ‘w’-like sound (as in

English was) before a simple vowel. The W vowels are written by
combining the horizontal letters ㅗ [o] or ㅜ [u] with one of the ver-
tical letters ㅏ, ㅓ, ㅐ, ㅔ and ㅣ. Their pronunciation is generally
what one would expect from these combinations, except for the W
vowel that is written as [ㅗ+ㅣ] but usually pronounced as [wɛ].

Hangul sign English parallels Phonetic McCune-­

symbol Reischauer
Elements W-vowel
오+아 와 British Eng: WA in wag [wɑ] wa
Am Eng: WA in swan
우+어 워 like WO in wonder [wʌ] wŏ
오+애 왜 like WEA in wear [wæ] wæ
우+에 웨 like WE in wet [wɛ] we
오+이 외 usually like WE in wet [wɛ] oe
우+이 위 like WEE in weep [wi] wi

Not only do native speakers tend to pronounce 웨 and 외 the

same, but many speakers (particularly younger generations) do
not differentiate between these two and 왜.
Note that, although 외 and 위 are pronounced as [wɛ] and [wi]
by the majority of speakers of Seoul Korean, these are not the 15
 1 original pronunciations of these vowels. Historically, 외 and 위
Introduction were pronounced in accordance with the way that they are written
to the Korean as combinations of [o] and [u] followed by a ‘y’-like sound [j].
Language These complex vowels then transformed into the simple vowels
[ö] (similar to the German ö umlaut) and 위 as [ü] (similar to the
vowel sound in French ‘rue’ or ‘tu’), before finally changing into
the pronunciations we know today. You may still hear 외 and 위
pronounced as [ö] and [ü] by some older speakers.

[Link] The compound vowel 의

Korean has one complex vowel, 의, which consists of a glide from 으

[ɨ] to 이 [i] (and which is romanized in the McCune-­Reischauer sys-
tem as ŭi). However, this vowel is only ever pronounced in this way
when it occurs at the start of a word without being preceded by any
consonant. In other positions, it is pronounced the same as ‘이’ (i.e.,
like EE in feet). These two pronunciations are summarized below:

Position Pronunciation Examples

Word-initial Quick glide 의자 = [으이자]/

(at the start of a word, from [으] [ɨi-ja]
with no preceding to [이]
consonant)
Not word-initial [이] only 띄고 = [띠고]/
(after consonant or in [tti-ko]
second or later syllable)
거의 = [거이]/[kʌ-i]

Also, bear in mind that 의 typically takes on the irregular pro-

nunciation of 에 (i.e., like E in bed) when it appears as the posses-
sive particle 의 (refer to 3.2.3). In the most complex of examples,
의 may be pronounced in three different ways within one short
phrase:

written as: 민주주의의 의의 pronounced as:

[민주주이에 의이]
the significance of democracy

16 Even when 의 appear in initial position, you may sometimes hear

it pronounced as a simple vowel (i.e., like 으 or 이), particularly
in dialectal speech.
[Link] Basic consonants Korean
script and
Korean has ten basic consonants that are presented in the table below. pronunciation
As can be seen, the first four consonants have separate ‘voiced’ and
‘unvoiced’ pronunciations. These will be explained below.

Sign (Name) English Parallels Phonetic McCune-­

symbol(s) Reischauer

When When
unvoiced: voiced:
ㅂ (비읍) P, as in park, B, as in [p]/[b] p, b
but more relaxed about
ㄷ (디귿) T, as in tall, but D, as in [t]/[d] t, d
more relaxed idea
ㅈ (지읒) CH, as in child, J, as in [ʧ ]/[ʤ] ch, j
but more relaxed injury
ㄱ (기역) K, as in kill, G, as in [k]/[g] k, g
but more relaxed again
ㅅ (시옷) S, as in sky, [s] s
but more relaxed [ʃ] sh
or
SH as in shin
(see below)
ㅁ (미음) M, as in mother [m] m
ㄴ (니은) N, as in net [n] n
ㅇ (이응) NG, as in sing [ŋ] ng
ㄹ (리을) Tongue-flap R as [ɾ] r
in Scottish rock [l] l
or Mary
or
Tongue-tip L in
British let or lip
(see below)
ㅎ (히읗) H, as in hack or [h] h
hope, but with
much heavier 17
breath release
 1 Further notes regarding the pronunciation of these consonants are
Introduction as follows:
to the Korean
Language
1. Pronunciation of ㅂ, ㄷ, ㅈ, ㄱ

As shown in the above table, the primary pronunciation of

these is similar to English P, T, CH and K. Like P, T, CH and K,
they are unvoiced (i.e., pronounced without voice sounds in the
vocal cords). However, unlike English P, T, CH and K, they are
unaspirated (pronounced followed by no or very little release
of air). To approximate the Korean pronunciations, attempt to
pronounce the corresponding English sounds without a follow-
ing puff of air.
However, the table also shows that these consonants can – in
some environments – become voiced (i.e., pronounced with voice
sounds in the vocal cords) and thus sound similar to the English
B, D, J and G respectively. This happens under the following
conditions:

1 When the consonant occurs between two vowels. Note how, in

the following examples, the first appearance of the consonant is
unvoiced and the second (between two vowels) is voiced:
Hangul McCune-Reischauer Meaning
바보 pabo fool
도둑 toduk thief
자주 chaju often
고기 kogi meat

2 When the consonant occurs after the voiced consonants ㅁ, ㄴ,

ㅇ and ㄹ:
갈비 kalbi ribs
침대 ch’imdae bed
안주 anju appetizers
경기 kyŏngi game, match

2. Pronunciation of ㅅ

The basic pronunciation of ㅅ is akin to that of S in English, if

18 somewhat weaker. Whereas in English the tongue is grooved,
making a narrow path for the airflow and producing more hiss- Korean
ing, in Korean the tongue is flattened out and relaxed. Perhaps script and
due to this more relaxed tongue shape, when ㅅ occurs before pronunciation
‘ㅣ’, any of the Y-vowels or 위, its pronunciation softens to SH:

사실 sashil truth, fact

샤워 shawŏ shower
쉼표 shwimp’yo a pause

3. Pronunciation of ㅇ

As previously noted, when ㅇ occurs at the start of syllable, it is

a ‘zero consonant’ that is not pronounced. The pronunciation as
NG [ŋ] only applies when it occurs at the bottom of a syllable
block:

영양 Yŏngyang nutrition
잉어 ing-ŏ a carp

4. Pronunciation of ㄹ

ㄹ has multiple pronunciations depending on where it appears in

a word:

1 When it occurs between vowels (such as in 보라 purple or 머리

head), it is pronounced as ‘tongue-flap’ R. ‘Tongue-flap’ R is pro-
nounced by briefly tapping the front of the tongue against the
bone ridge behind the teeth, slightly behind the position used for
[t] or [d]. Although there is no equivalent sound in most varieties
of English, Scottish English, Japanese and Spanish have similar
sounds.
2 When it is pronounced at the end of a syllable (비율 ratio)
or when it occurs twice in succession (빌려요 borrow), it is
pronounced as ‘tongue-tip’ L. ‘Tongue-tip’ L is pronounced by
pressing the front of the tongue against the bone ridge behind
the teeth, as in British let or lip (but not lack or all, which
involve the whole tongue).
3 ㄹ does not tend to occur at the start of Korean words. In fact
when Sino-Korean words starting with a character featuring an
initial ㄹ, this ㄹ drops (for example, 이론 theory) or changes
to ㄴ (for example, 노동 labour). Note that this rule does not
apply in North Korea (where you will see words such as 리론
and 로동). Any words that do start with initial ㄹ tend to be 19
 1 of foreign origins, such as 라면 ramen and 립스틱 lipstick. In
Introduction such cases, ㄹ is most typically pronounced as ‘tongue-flap’ R,
to the Korean but you may also hear it pronounced as ‘tongue-tip’ L (partic-
Language ularly in words such as립스틱 lipstick where the underlying
English word starts with an L).

[Link] Aspirated consonants

In addition to its simple consonants, Korean has two other con-

sonant sets. The first are the four Aspirated Consonants ㅍ, ㅌ,
ㅊ, and ㅋ. These are the aspirated equivalents of ㅂ, ㄷ, ㅈ and
ㄱ. Traditional descriptions claim that ㅍ/ㅌ/ㅊ/ㅋ are differen-
tiated from ㅂ/ㄷ/ㅈ/ㄱ since they are pronounced accompanied
by a heavy puff of air (this is what ‘aspirated’ means). However,
more recent descriptions (for example, refer to Kang 2014) show
that many speakers (particularly younger generations) pronounce
both ㅂ/ㄷ/ㅈ/ㄱ and ㅍ/ㅌ/ㅊ/ㅋ with similar levels of air output
and that the more important distinction is that ㅍ/ㅌ/ㅊ/ㅋ are
pronounced with higher pitch on the following vowel.
Unlike ㅂ/ㄷ/ㅈ/ㄱ, ㅍ/ㅌ/ㅊ/ㅋ never become voiced.

Sign (Name) English ­parallels Phonetic MR

symbol Romanization

ㅍ (피읖) P, as in park [ph] p’

ㅌ (티읕) T, as in talk [th] t’
ㅊ (치읓) CH, as in chat [ʧ h] ch’
ㅋ (키읔) K, as in kill [kh] k’

[Link] Tensed or ‘Double’ consonants

Korean also has five tensed consonants, which are written with the
five ‘double’ consonant letters ㅃ, ㄸ, ㅉ, ㅆ, and ㄲ. These are pro-
nounced by putting the mouth into the same position as that for the
simple counterpart, holding the mouth tense and tight in that position,
and then suddenly releasing the sound with virtually no voice and little
aspiration (breath release). The following vowel takes high pitch.
20 The tensed ‘double’ consonants of Korean have no close parallel
in English. They are, however, somewhat similar to Italian double
consonants (PP, TT, CC) and to Japanese tensed consonants. As Korean
for English pronunciation, the closest we get to Korean ㅃ, ㄸ, script and
ㄲ are English P, T, K when they appear after S (as in ‘spy’, ‘style’ pronunciation
and ‘sky’), which are also pronounced without aspiration (breath
release), but much less tensing. Korean ㅉ is also somewhat sim-
ilar to English TCH in words such as ‘matching’, but more tense
and with no puff of air. As for Korean ㅆ, the best parallel is a
succession of English words finishing and starting on S, such as
‘mass suicide’, with a strong volume increase on the second S.

Sign (Name) English parallels Phonetic MR

symbol ­Romanization

ㅃ (쌍비읍) P, as in spy, but [pp]/[p͈ ] pp

with more
tensing
ㄸ (쌍디귿) T, as in style, [tt]/[t͈ ] tt
but with much
more tensing
ㅉ (쌍지읒) TCH, as in [tʧ ]/[ʧ͈ ] tch
matching, but
with tensing
and no breath
release
ㅆ (쌍시옷) S+S, as in mass [ss]/[s͈ ] ss
suicide, but
with initial
tensing and
later volume
increase
ㄲ (쌍기역) K, as in sky, [kk]/[k͈ ] kk
but with much
more tensing

1.2.3 Pronunciation changes

The pronunciation of Korean is complicated by a number of changes

between how it is written and how it is actually pronounced. The
reason for these spelling-pronunciation irregularities is that modern
Hangul spellings are not supposed to be strict transcriptions of pro- 21
nunciations, but representations of underlying forms.
 1 [Link] Pronunciation of syllable-final consonants
Introduction
to the Korean Generally speaking Korean consonants may appear both at the
Language beginning or the end of a syllable. However, they are only pro-
nounced fully according to the pronunciations detailed above
(refer to [Link], [Link], [Link]) when they appear at the start of
a syllable. When they are pronounced at the end of a syllable, they
lose much of their sound mass and distinctiveness.
The reason for this is that Korean final consonants are never
released. Non-release means that the speaker puts his/her mouth
into the position for the consonant, but then tenses up the mouth,
and finishes by relaxing it again without producing any sound.
With the consonants ㅂ p, ㄷ t and ㄱ k this produces pronun-
ciations quite different from English, where the corresponding
sounds rely on the release of sound (and a puff of air). If you ask
a Korean speaker to read the Korean words below, you should
immediately feel this difference. In fact, you may find it hard to
hear the final consonants at all.

Korean word Compare with the English . . .

국 soup cook
밥 rice pap
곧 immediately cot

The non-release of final consonants means that many of the distinc-

tions between consonant sounds are lost. Without being released,
many of the distinctive features of consonant sounds simply cannot
be realized. This includes the plain consonants ㅈ ch, ㅅ s and ㅎ h
and all of the aspirated and tensed consonants. Thus, although these
consonants may be written in final position (except for ㅃ pp, ㄸ tt
and ㅉ tch), they can never be pronounced in final position. Instead,
as shown in the table below, these consonants are pronounced
according to the closest possible non-released sound (i.e. the sound
which is produced by the same part of the mouth).

Written Pronunciation in Example

consonant final position

ㄹ ㄹ 팔 arm
22 ㄴ ㄴ 은 silver
 Korean
ㅁ ㅁ 몸 body
script and
ㅇ ㅇ 용 dragon pronunciation
ㅂ ㅂ 집 house
ㅍ 짚 [집] straw
ㄷ ㄷ 받– receive
ㅌ 같– [갇] be the same
ㅈ 갖– [갇] have, hold
ㅊ 살갗 [살갇] complexion, skin
ㅅ 등갓 [등갇] lampshade
ㅆ 갔– [갇] went [past stem of ‘go’]
ㅎ 히읗 [히읃] (name of letter ㅎ)
ㄱ ㄱ 역 station
ㄲ 엮– [역] compile, weave
ㅋ 녘 [녁] around, about

Note that although ㅎ is conventionally listed as being pronounced

as ㄷ in final position, the only word where this is actually the case
is 히읗. This should be considered as a convention for pronounc-
ing the name of this letter, rather than as a general sound rule. In
other cases where ㅎ occurs at the end of a syllable (e.g., in verb
bases such as 좋– ‘good’ and 많– ‘many’) it is not pronounced at
all (refer to [Link]), although it may affect the pronunciation of
any consonants that follow it (refer to [Link]).
What is written as a final consonant of one syllable block can in
some cases be pronounced as the opening sound of the next sylla-
ble block (refer to [Link]). In such cases, the full pronunciation
can be maintained.

[Link] Simplification of consonant clusters

A ‘consonant cluster’ refers to instances in which two or more con-

sonants appear in succession without any vowel sounds between
them (examples in English include strike, helps, crisps).
In Korean pronunciation, consonant clusters are not allowed. How- 23
ever, clusters of two consonants do sometimes appear in writing
 1 in final consonant position. In such cases, one of the sounds must
Introduction always drop (or otherwise move to another syllable through ‘re-syl-
to the Korean labification’ (refer to [Link])). Luckily, knowing which consonant
Language drops and which is pronounced is usually totally predictable, as
shown in the following table. Note however, that for the combina-
tions ㄺ lk and ㄼ lp, some speakers may pronounce the ㄹ l rather
than the prescribed ㄱ k or ㅂ p in certain words.

Consonant Sound Example

cluster pronounced

ㄳ ㄱ 넋 [넉] soul, spirit

ㄶ ㄴ 많– [만-] be many
ㄻ ㅁ 삶– [삼] boil
ㄽ ㄹ 외곬 [외골] single way track
ㄿ ㅍ [ㅂ] 읊– [읍] recite
ㅄ ㅂ 값 [갑] price
ㄵ ㄴ 앉– [안] sit
ㄺ ㄱ 읽– [익] read
맑– [막] clear – but frequently
pronounced as [말]
ㄼ ㅂ 밟– [밥] step on
넓– [넙] wide – but frequently
pronounced as [널]
ㄾ ㄹ 핥– [할] lick
ㅀ ㄹ 뚫– [뚤] bore [a hole]

[Link] Re-syllabification

Re-syllabification refers to the process whereby a consonant is writ-

ten at the end of one syllable block but pronounced at the start of
the next syllable. This happens whenever one syllable block ends in
a consonant and the following syllable has no opening consonant
24 sound. The two exceptions to this rule are ㅇ ng and ㅎ h. ㅇ ng
cannot become the opening sound of the following syllable block
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
Fig. 10.—The Common Ship's Barnacle, Lepas anatifera, natural size. The
name "Anatifera," the "goose-bearer," was given to this species by Linnæus
in reference to the legend of its giving birth to young geese.
st., stalk.
cir., cirri, or double hairy legs.
pe., opening of the seminal duct.
 sc., scutum; t, tergum, the two plates or shells of the left side; c, the middle
piece or shell called the "carina."
It is not every one who has the chance of seeing living ship's
barnacles (Lepas), but anyone can pick up a stone or bit of rock on
the seashore with live sea-acorns or acorn-barnacles (Balanus)
adherent to it. Each is like a little truncated volcano (Fig. 11), the
sides of which correspond to the pair of larger shells of the ship's
barnacle, fused together and grown into a cone-like wall. The acorn-
barnacle has no stalk, but adheres by its broad base to the stone.
Just within the shelly crater are four small hinged plates or valves in
pairs, identical with the smaller shelly bits of the ship's barnacle.
When you first see your specimen, the valves are tightly closed.
After a few minutes in a glass of sea-water they open right and left,
and up jumps—jack-in-the-box-wise—a tuft of bowing and scraping
feelers or tentacles, like those of the ship's barnacle. If disturbed,
they shoot inwards, and the valves close on them like a spring
trapdoor.
Now, these clawing, feathery little plumes are
found, when we examine them with a hand-
glass, to be six pairs in number, and each of
them is Y-shaped, like the swimmerets of a
lobster. The arms of the Y are built up of many
Fig. 11.—A large little joints and covered with coarse hairs. As a
British Sea-acorn, result of the study of the young condition of the
Balanus porcatus, ship's barnacle and the sea-acorn, we find that
allied to the Ship's these six pairs of Y-shaped plumes are six pairs
Barnacle. l, the of legs corresponding to those of the mid-body
feather-like legs
issuing from the (some of the walking legs and some of the foot-
shell. Drawn of jaws) of the lobster, and that the shelly hinged
the natural size. plates of the barnacles correspond to the
overhanging sides of the "head" of the lobster
and prawn, which one can imagine to be hinged
along a line running down the back so as to open like the covers of a
book. There are very common little, free-swimming "water-fleas"
(minute crustaceans) of many hundreds of kinds which have hinged
shells of this description when in the full-grown condition, and it is
found that the young barnacles and sea-acorns pass through a free-
swimming phase of growth (the Cyprid stage), in which they greatly
resemble these "water-fleas."
In fact, it is quite easy to hatch the young from the eggs of either
ship's barnacles or acorn-barnacles at the right season of the year.
They commence life as do so many Crustacea—in the "nauplius
state," with three pairs of jerking limbs (Fig. 9). As they grow the
overhanging pair of shells, delicate and transparent, appear; the
three pairs of nauplius legs lose their swimming power; the most
anterior (always called antennules in all crustaceans) become
elongated and provided each with an adhesive sucker, on the face of
which a large cement gland opens, secreting abundant adhesive
cement; the second pair (antennæ) shrivel and disappear
altogether; the third pair lose their long blades for striking the water
and remain as simple, but strong, stumps—the mandibles! Two new
pairs of little jaw-feet appear behind these, and farther back on the
now enlarged body (the whole creature is not bigger than a small
canary seed!) six pairs of Y-shaped legs appear and strike the water
rhythmically, so that the little creature swims with some sobriety.
The region to which these legs are attached is marked with rings or
segments, and behind it follows a small, limbless, hind body of four
segments, or joints, ending with two little hairy prongs like a
pitchfork. The right and left movable, shell-like fold, or downgrowth,
of the sides of the body encloses the whole creature except the
protruding antennules with their suckers.
 Fig. 12.—Two stages in the growth of the Common Barnacle from the
Nauplius stage. Diagrammatic.
cir., the double legs or cirri; m, mouth; o, the single eye; d, the digestive
canal.
a′, one of the antennules or "feelers" (that of the right side of the head)
provided with a sucking disk by means of which the young animal becomes
fixed.

In this condition it swims about for a time, and then, once for all,
fixes itself by means of the suckers and their abundant cement, on
to rock, stone, or floating wood—and there remains for the rest of
its life (Fig. 12). It increases enormously in size, the delicate
transparent shell develops into hard calcareous plates, opening and
shutting on the hinge-line of the back. In the stalked kinds a peculiar
elongated growth of an inch or several inches in length takes place
between the mouth and the fixed suckers of the antennules (Figs. 10
and 12); in the short, so-called, "acorn" kinds, this stalk does not
form, but a separate part of the shell grows into a ring-like
protective wall or cone. The creature is thus actually fastened by its
head—"upside down, with its legs sticking up" not in the air, but in
the water. Those six pairs of Y-shaped legs, though no longer
enabling the barnacle to swim, increase in relative size, and keep up
their active movements. It is they which emerge like a plume when
the valves of the shell open and carry on the rhythmic bowing and
scraping movement described above.
The barnacles have, in fact, undergone a transformation which may
be compared to that experienced by a man who should begin life as
an active boy running about as others do, but be compelled
suddenly by some strange spell or Arabian djin to become glued by
the top of his head to the pavement, and to spend his time in
kicking his food into his mouth with his legs. Such is the fate of the
barnacles, and it is as strange and exceptional amongst crustaceans
as it would be amongst men. Indeed, to "earn a living" human
acrobats will submit to something very much like it. It is this change
from the life of a free-living shrimp to that of a living lump, adherent
by its head to rocks or floating logs, that Vaughan Thompson in
1830 discovered to be the story of every barnacle, and so showed
that they were really good crustaceans gone wrong, and not
molluscs. It is a curious fact that the young ascidian or sea-squirt
which swims freely and has the shape of a tadpole, also when very
young fixes itself by the top of its head to a rock or piece of
seaweed, and remains immovable for the rest of its life. Though
agreeing in their strange fixation by the head, the barnacle and the
ascidian are very different kinds of animals. (For some account of
the Ascidian the reader may consult the chapter "Tadpoles of the
Sea" in "Science from an Easy Chair," Second Series. Methuen,
1912.)
The name "Cirripedes" is commonly used for the order or group
formed by the barnacles—in allusion to the plume-like appearance of
their "raking" legs. Stalked barnacles often are found in the ocean
attached to floating pumice-stone, and one species has been
discovered attached to the web of the foot of a sea-bird. They, like
many other creatures, benefit by being carried far and wide by
floating objects. Whales have very large and solid acorn-barnacles
peculiar to them, fixed deeply in their skin. Others attach themselves
to marine turtles.
With few exceptions the crustaceans are of separate sexes, male
and female. But in nearly all classes of animals we find some kinds,
even whole orders, in which the ovaries and spermaries are present
in one and the same individual. "Monœcious" or "one-housed"—that
is to say, possessing one house or individual for both ovaries and
spermaries—is the proper word for this condition, but a usual term
for it is "hermaphrodite." "Diœcious" is the term applied to animals
or plants in which there are two kinds of individuals—one to carry
the spermaries, the male, and the other to carry the ovaries, the
female. It is probable that the monœcious condition has preceded
the diœcious in all but unicellular animals. In vertebrate animals as
high as the frogs and the toads we find rudimentary ovaries in the
male, and in individual cases both ovaries and spermaries are well
developed. Such a condition is not rare as an individual abnormality
in fishes. In some common species of sea-perch (Serranus) and
others it is not an exception but the rule.
Many groups of molluscs are monœcious, and it is not in any way
astonishing to find a group of crustaceans which are so. The
Cirripedes or barnacles are an example. It is probable that the
presence of ovaries and spermaries in the same individual—the
monœcious condition—is an advantage to immovable fixed animals.
During the voyage of the "Beagle," and making use on his return of
the collections then obtained, Darwin carried out a very thorough
study of the Cirripedes of all kinds from all parts of the world. He
worked out their anatomy minutely, classified the 300 different kinds
then known, and described many new kinds. The stalked barnacles
often occur in groups, the individuals being of different ages and
sizes, the small young ones sometimes fixing themselves by their
sucker-bearing heads to the stalks of their well-grown relatives. In
all the varied kinds studied by Darwin he found that the full-grown
individuals were monœcious—that is, of combined sex—as was
known to be the case in those studied before his day. But Darwin
made the remarkable discovery that in two kinds of stalked
barnacles (not the common ship's barnacles), comprising several
species, "dwarf males" were present perched upon the edge of the
shell of the large monœcious (bi-sexual) individuals. These dwarf
males were from one-tenth to one-twentieth the length of the large
normal monœcious individuals, but usually possessed the
characteristic details of the shell-valves and other features of the
latter.
This existence of a sort of supernumerary diminutive kind of male as
an accompaniment to a race of normal monœcious individuals was
quite a new thing when Darwin discovered it. That all the males in
some diœcious animals are minute as compared with the females
was known, and has been established in the case of some parasitic
crustaceans, in some of the wheel-animalcules, and in the most
exaggerated degree in the curious worms, Bonellia and Hamingia.
But the existence of "complemental males," as Darwin called them,
existing apparently in order to fertilize the eggs should they escape
fertilization by the ordinary monœcious individuals, was a new thing.
And it was doubted and disputed when Darwin described his
observations fifty-six years ago. They were, in fact, by many
regarded as a distinct species parasitic upon the larger barnacles on
which they were found until Darwin's conclusion as to their nature
was confirmed by the report of Dr. Hoek, on the barnacles brought
home by the "Challenger" expedition.
It is an interesting fact that recent studies have shown that in some
of the barnacles with dwarf males (species of Scalpellum) the large
individuals are no longer monœcious, but have become purely
females, whilst in some other species dwarf males have been
discovered which have rudimentary ovaries. Thus we get gradations
leading from one extreme case to the other. Darwin always felt
confidence in his original observations on this matter, and was
proportionately delighted when, after thirty years, his early work was
proved to be sound. In the Natural History Museum at the Darwin
centenary in 1909, a temporary exhibition of specimens, note-books,
and letters associated with Darwin's work, was brought together. His
original specimens and drawings of Cirripedes and of the wonderful
little "complemental males" of the barnacles were placed on view.
 CHAPTER XIV

THE HISTORY OF THE BARNACLE AND THE

GOOSE

T
HE curious belief, widely spread in former ages—that the
creatures (described in the last chapter) called "barnacles" or
"ship's barnacles"—often found attached in groups to pieces of
floating timber in the sea as well as fixed to the bottoms of wooden
ships—are the young of a particular kind of goose called "the
barnacle goose," which is supposed to hatch out of the white shell of
the long-stalked barnacle, is a very remarkable example of the
persistence of a tradition which is entirely fanciful. It was current in
Western Europe for six or seven centuries, and was discussed,
refuted, and again attested by eminent authorities even as late as
the foundation of the Royal Society—the first president of which, Sir
Robert Moray, read a paper at one of the earliest meetings of the
society in 1661, in which he described the bird-like creature which
he had observed within the shell of the common ship's barnacle, and
favoured the belief that a bird was really in this way produced by a
metamorphosis of the barnacle.
The story was ridiculed and rejected by no less a philosopher than
Roger Bacon in the thirteenth century, and was also discredited by
the learned Aristotelian Albertus Magnus at about the same time. No
trace of it is to be found in Aristotle or Herodotus or any classical
author, nor in the "Physiologus." The legend seems to have
originated in the East, for the earliest written statement which we
have concerning it is by a certain Father Damien, in the eleventh
century, who simply declares: "Birds can be produced by trees, as
happens in the island of Thilon in India." We have also a reference
to the same marvel in an ancient Oriental book (the "Zohar," the
principal book of the Kaballah), as follows: "The Rabbi Abba saw a
tree from the fruits of which birds were hatched." The earliest
written statements of the legend are, it appears, to the effect that
there is a tree which produces fruits from which birds are hatched.
The belief in the story seems to have died out at the end of the
seventeenth century, when the structure of the barnacle lying within
its shell was examined without prejudice, and it was seen to have
only the most remote resemblance to a bird. The plumose legs or
"cirrhi" of the barnacle (Fig. 10) have a superficial resemblance to a
young feather or possibly to the jointed toes of a young bird, and
there the possibilities of comparison end.
The notion that a particular kind of black goose (a "brent"), which
occurs on the marshy coast of Britain in great numbers, is the
goose, the bird, produced by the barnacle was favoured by the fact
that this goose does not breed in Britain, and yet suddenly appears
in large flocks, in districts where barnacles attached to rotting timber
are often drifted on to the shore. It was accordingly assumed by
learned monks—who already knew the traveller's tale, that in distant
lands birds are produced by the transformation of barnacles—that
this goose is the actual bird which is bred from the barnacles, and it
was accordingly called "the barnacle goose." I think that this
identification was due to the exercise of a little authority on the part
of the clergy in both France and Britain, who were thus enabled to
claim the abundant "barnacle goose" as a fish in its nature and
origin rather than a fowl, and so to use it as food on the fast-days of
the Church. Pope Innocent III (to whom the matter was referred)
considered it necessary in 1215 to prohibit the eating of "barnacle
geese" in Lent, since although he admitted that they are not
generated in the ordinary way, he yet maintained (very reasonably)
that they live and feed like ducks, and cannot be regarded as
differing in nature from other birds.
Thus we see that in early and even later days a good deal hung on
the truth of this story of the generation of barnacle geese. The story
was popularly discussed by the devout and by sceptics, and appears
to have been known in France as "l'histoire du canard." At last in the
seventeenth century it was finally discredited, owing to the account
given by some Dutch explorers of the eggs and young of the
barnacle goose—like those of any other goose—and its breeding-
place in the far north on the coast of Greenland. The discredited and
hoary legend now became the type and exemplar of a marvellous
story which is destitute of foundation, and so the term "un canard"
(short for histoire d'un canard), commonly applied in French to such
stories, receives its explanation. Our own term for such stories, in
use as long since as 1640, namely, "a cock-and-bull story," has not
been traced to its historical source.[3]
[3] Probably it means "a silly story told by a cock to a bull!" as
suggested by the French word coq-à-l'âne, which means a story
told or fit to be told by a cock to an ass!

That the story of the goose or duck and the transformed barnacle
was a popular one in Shakespear's time, whether believed or
disbelieved, appears from his reference to barnacles in "The
Tempest." Caliban says to Stephano and Trinculo, when they have all
three been plagued by Prospero's magic, and plunged by Ariel into
"the filthy mantled pool" near at hand, "dancing up to their chins":
"We shall lose our time and all be turned to barnacles, or to apes
with foreheads villainous low." Probably enough, this is an allusion to
the supposed Protean nature of barnacles. They are not alluded to
elsewhere in Shakespear.
One of the most precise accounts of the generation of geese by
barnacles is that of the mediaeval historian Giraldus Cambrensis,
who visited Ireland and wrote an account of what he saw in the time
of Henry II, at the end of the twelfth century. He says: "There are in
this place many birds which are called Bernacæ; Nature produces
them, against Nature, in a most extraordinary way. They are like
marsh-geese, but somewhat smaller. They are produced from fir
timber tossed along the sea, and are at first like gum. Afterwards
they hang down by their beaks as if they were a seaweed attached
to the timber, and are surrounded by shells in order to grow more
freely. Having thus in process of time been clothed with a strong
coat of feathers, they either fall into the water or fly freely away into
the air." "I have frequently seen," he proceeds, "with my own eyes,
more than a thousand of these small bodies of birds, hanging down
on the seashore from a piece of timber, enclosed in their shells and
ready formed. They do not breed and lay eggs like other birds; nor
do they ever hatch any eggs nor build nests anywhere. Hence
bishops and clergymen in some parts of Ireland do not scruple to
dine off these birds at the time of fasting, because they are not flesh
nor born of flesh!"
It is noteworthy that Giraldus does not state—in accordance with the
tradition as reported by earlier writers—that there is a tree the buds
of which become transformed into the geese, but says merely that
the "small bodies of birds," clearly indicating by his description
groups of ship's barnacles, are "produced from fir timber tossed
along the sea." It is also noteworthy that he calls the geese
themselves "Bernacæ," which is the Celtic name for a shell-fish.
Later the belief seems to have reverted to the older tradition, or
probably enough the complete story, including the existence of the
bird-producing tree, existed in its original form in "seats of learning"
in other parts of the British Islands outside Ireland, and also in Paris
and other places in Western Europe. For we find that in 1435 the
learned Sylvius, who afterwards became Pope Pius II, visited King
James of Scotland in order, among other things, to see the
wonderful tree which he had heard of as growing in Scotland from
the fruit of which geese are born. He complains that "miracles will
always flee further and further," for when he had now arrived in
Scotland and asked to see the tree, he was told that it did not grow
there, but farther north, in the Orkneys. And so he did not see the
tree.
In 1597, John Gerard, in the third book of his "Herbal, or History of
Plants," writes as follows: "There are found in the north parts of
Scotland and the Islands adjacent called Orchades, certaine trees
whereon do grow certaine shell-fishes of a white colour tending to
russett, wherein are contained little creatures which shels in time of
maturity doe open and out of them grow those little living things
which, falling into the water, doe become foules whom we call
Barnacles, in the north of England Brent Geese, and in Lancashire
Tree Geese." Gerard is here either adopting or suggesting an
identification of the tradition of the tree which produces birds from
its buds, with the floating timber bearing ship's barnacles, which
were supposed to give birth to the brent geese. He does not say that
he has seen, or knows persons who have seen, the barnacles
attached to the branches of living trees. Nevertheless, he gives a
picture of them so attached (Fig. 13). It has been suggested, in later
times, that such a fixation of barnacles to the branches of living
trees might occur in some of the sea-water lochs of the west of
Scotland,—just as oysters become attached to the mangrove trees in
the West Indies,—and it has further been suggested that willows
might thus droop their branches into the sea-water, and that the
catkins on the willow-shoots might be taken for an early stage of
growth of the barnacles; but I have not come across any record of
such fixation of barnacles on living shrubs or branches of trees, and
I am inclined to think that Gerard's story of what occurs in the
distant Orkneys is merely an attempt to substantiate the bird-
producing tree of the Oriental story, by quietly assuming that the
sea-borne timber covered with barnacles existed somewhere as
living trees and exhibited this same property of budding forth
barnacles which on opening liberated each a minute gosling. Gerard
continues as follows: "But what our eyes have seen and hands have
handled we shall declare." There is, he tells us, a small island in
Lancashire called the Pile of Foulders, and there rotten trees and the
broken timbers of derelict ships are thrown up by the sea. On them
forms "a certain spume or froth which in time breeds into certaine
shells." He then gives a description of these shells and the fish
contained therein, which is a correct enough account of the common
ship's barnacle. He proceeds, however, to an assertion which is not
of something which he saw or handled, namely, that the animal
within the shell, though like the fish of an oyster, gradually grows to
a bird and comes forth hanging to the shell by its bill. Finally, he
says, it escapes to maturity. At the end of his chapter on this
subject, Gerard says: "I dare not absolutely avouch every
circumstance of the first part of this history concerning the tree
which beareth those buds aforesaide, but will leave it to a further
consideration."

Fig. 13.—The picture of the "Goose Tree," copied from the first edition of
Gerard's "Herbal."
The fruit-like oval bodies are "barnacles" (Lepas) fancifully represented as
growing like buds or fruit on a little tree. Some of the young geese are drawn
as in the act of escaping from the barnacle-shells, and others are
represented swimming in the water.
Gerard's "Herbal" was reprinted forty years later (in 1636) and
edited by Johnson, a member of the Society of Apothecaries. He
writes with contempt of Gerard's credulity as to the story of the
barnacle and the goose, and states that certain "Hollanders" in
seeking a north-east passage to China had recently come across
some islands in the Arctic Sea which were the breeding-place of the
so-called barnacle goose, and had taken and eaten sixty of their
eggs, besides young and old birds.
Probably there were always lovers of the marvellous and the occult
who favoured and would favour to-day the tradition of the
conversion of one animal into another and such wonders; and there
were also both in the days of ancient Greece and Rome, and even in
the darkest of the Middle Ages, men with a sceptical and inquiring
spirit, who accepted no traditional testimony, but demanded, as the
basis of their admitting something unlikely as nevertheless true, the
trial of experiment and the examination of specimens. What has
happened since Gerard's time and the incorporation of the Royal
Society in 1662, is that the sceptical men have got the upper hand,
though not without much opposition. In this country, owing to the
defective education administered in our public schools and older
universities, there is still quite a large number of well-to-do people
ready to believe in any "occult" imposture or fantasy that may be
skilfully brought to their notice.
On the other hand, we must bear in mind when we consider these
strange beliefs held by really learned and intelligent men in the past,
that the investigation of nature had not advanced very far in their
time. It was not held, as it is to-day, as an established fact that living
things are generated only by slips or cuttings of a parent or from
eggs or germs which are special detached particles of the parent. It
was held to be a matter of common observation and certainty that
all sorts of living things are "spontaneously generated" by slime, by
sea foam, by mud, and by decomposing dead bodies of animals and
trees. It was also held, in consequence of a blind belief in, and often
a complete misunderstanding of, the legends and fairy tales of the
ancients and of the preposterous "Bestiaries" and books on magic
which were the fashion in mediaeval times, that it is quite a usual
and natural thing for one animal or plant to change into another.
Hence there was nothing very surprising (though worthy of record)
in a barnacle changing into a young goose, or in the buds of a tree
becoming in some conditions changed into barnacles!
So, too, the notion that rotting timber can "generate" barnacles was
not, to our forefathers, at all out of the way or preposterous. Sir
Thomas Browne in 1646 was unable to make up his mind on this
matter, and believed in the spontaneous generation of mice by
wheat, to which he briefly alludes in his curious book called
"Pseudodoxia Epidemica, or an Enquiry into Vulgar and Common
Errors." The account of the creation given by the poet Milton was
based upon the belief in the daily occurrence of such spontaneous
generation of living things of high complexity of structure and large
size, from slime and mud. The process of creation of living things
conceived by him was but a general and initial exhibition of an
activity of earth and sea which in his belief was still in daily
operation in remote and undisturbed localities.
In 1668 the Italian naturalist, Redi, demonstrated that putrefying
flesh does not "spontaneously breed" maggots. He showed that if a
piece of flesh is protected by a wire network cover from the access
of flies, no maggots appear in it, and that the flies attracted by the
smell of the meat lay their eggs on the wire network, unable to
reach the meat, whilst if the wire cover is removed they lay their
eggs on the meat, and from them the maggots are hatched. It took
a long time for this demonstration by Redi to affect popular belief,
and there are still country folk who believe in the spontaneous
generation of maggots.[4]
[4] See the chapter, "Primitive Beliefs about Fatherless Progeny,"
in "Science from an Easy Chair," Second Series.
But few, if any, persons of ordinary intelligence or education now
believe that these sudden productions of living things, without
regular and known parentage, take place. The spontaneous
generation of large, tangible creatures having ceased to be an article
of general belief, the conviction nevertheless persisted for some time
that at any rate minute microscopic living things were generated
without parentage. This theory was more difficult to test on account
of the need for employing the microscope in the inquiry, which was
not brought to a high state of efficiency until the last century. By
experiments similar to those of Redi, it was shown in the first half of
last century by Theodor Schwann that even the minute bacteria do
not appear in putrescible material when those already in it are killed
by boiling that material, and when the subsequent access to it of
other bacteria is prevented by closing all possible entrance of air-
borne particles, or insect carriers of germs. It took another fifty
years to thoroughly establish by observation and experiment the
truth of Schwann's refutation of the supposed "spontaneous
generation" of the minutest forms of life.
As an example of the strange incapacity for making correct
observation and the failure to record correctly things observed which
are frequently exhibited by the most highly placed "men of
education," as well as by uneducated peasants and fisher folk, we
have the short paper entitled, "A Relation concerning Barnacles," by
Sir Robert Moray—the first president of the Royal Society of London
(from 1661 until its incorporation in 1662)—a very distinguished
man, and an intimate friend of King Charles II. This paper was read
to the society in 1661 and published in 1677 in vol. xii. of the
"Philosophical Transactions." Sir Robert relates how he found on the
coast a quantity of dead barnacles attached to a piece of timber, and
that in each barnacle's shell was a bird. He writes: "This bird in
every shell that I opened, as well the least as the biggest, I found so
curiously and completely formed that there appeared nothing
wanting, as to the external parts, for making up a perfect sea-fowl;
every little part appearing so distinctly that the whole looked like a
large bird seen through a concave or diminishing glass, colour and
feature being everywhere so clear and near. The little bill like that of
a goose, the eyes marked, the head, neck, breast, wings, tail and
feet formed, the feathers everywhere perfectly shaped and blackish
coloured, and the feet like those of other waterfowl—to my best
remembrance. All being dead and dry, I did not look after the inward
parts of them." If the reader will now look at Fig. 15, C, which
represents the soft parts of a barnacle when the shells of one side
are removed, he will see how far Sir Robert Moray must have been
the victim—as so many people naturally are under such
circumstances—of imagination and defective memory when he wrote
this account. I have put into italics in the above quotation from his
"Relation" his confession that he is writing, not with his specimens
before him, but from remembrance of them. Moreover, he tells us,
with admirable candour, that the specimens were dead and dry when
he examined them! One could not desire a better justification for the
motto adopted by the Royal Society, "Nullius in verba," and for the
procedure upon which in its early days the Society insisted—namely,
that at its meetings the members should "bring in" a specimen or an
experiment, and not occupy time by mere relations and reports of
marvels. It is necessary even at the present day to insist on such
demonstration by those who urge us to accept as true their relations
of mysterious experiences with ghosts, and their "conviction" that
they have conversed with "discarnate intelligences."
 CHAPTER XV

MORE AS TO THE BARNACLE AND THE

GOOSE

I
T is clear that there was a widespread tradition known to the
learned in the early centuries of the Christian era, according to
which there existed in some distant Eastern land a tree which bore
buds or fruits which became converted into birds. Connected with
this, and perhaps really a part of it, there existed a tradition that
marine "barnacles" gave birth to geese from within their shells, or
are in some way converted into geese. The two stories were in some
localities and narrations combined, though in others they were
distinct. On the coast of Ireland the early missionaries of the Church
(learned men acquainted with the traditions of their time) identified
the migratory brent goose with the bird said to be produced by the
barnacle; and elsewhere, on the Scottish coast, the barnacles were
(it was reported) found growing on trees. There is no such
resemblance between barnacles and brent geese as to have
suggested to the Irish monks the regular and natural conversion of
one into the other. It seems most probable that the learned
churchmen knew the traditional story already before arriving in
Ireland, and applied it to the barnacles and the geese which they
discovered around them. Eventually the word "barnacle" without
qualification was applied to the geese, as we see in Gerard's account
given in the last chapter. Is there, it may be asked, anything further
known as to such a tradition, and the place and manner of its origin?
In the absence of such knowledge, an ingenious attempt was made
by my old friend, Professor Max Müller, to account for the tradition
by the similarity of the names, which he erroneously supposed had
been given independently to the barnacle and to the "Hibernian"
goose. I will refer to this below, but now I will proceed to give the
most probable solution of the mystery as to the tradition of the tree,
the goose, and the barnacle. Its discovery is not more than twenty
years old, and is due to M. Frederic Houssay, a distinguished French
zoologist of the Ecole Normale, who published it in the "Revue
Archeologique" in 1895. It has not hitherto been brought to the
notice of English readers, and I shall therefore give a full account of
it.

Fig. 14.—Fanciful designs by Mykenæan artists, showing change of the

cuttle-fish (octopus or "poulpe") into a bull's head and other shapes.
a, Octopus drawn on a goblet from Crete, the arms reduced to two, the eyes
detached.
b and c, Bull's head variations of the octopus, from designs found at Koban
in the Caucasus.
d, Spiral treatment of the arms of the octopus (a pose actually seen in living
specimens).
e, f, Human faces painted on Cretan jars across the whole width of the neck,
the design being derived from the octopus with detached eyes as in Fig. a.
Such designs survive long after their origin is forgotten, as (according to M.
 Houssay) the legend of the barnacle and the goose survived two thousand
years after the Mykenæan drawings assimilating one to the other had been
forgotten.
The solution is as follows: The Mykenæan population of the islands
of Cyprus and Crete, in the period 800 to 1000 years before Christ,
were great makers of pottery, and painted large earthernware basins
and vases with a variety of decorative representations of marine life,
of fishes, butterflies, birds, and trees. Some of these are to be seen
in the British Museum at Bloomsbury, where I examined them a few
years ago. Others have been figured by the well-known
archæologists, MM. Perrot and Chipiez, in the sixth volume of their
work, "L'Ossuaire de Crète." M. Perrot consulted M. Houssay, in his
capacity of zoologist, in regard to these Mykenæan drawings, which
bear, as M. Houssay states, the evidence of having been designed
after nature by one who knew the things in life, although they are
not slavishly "copied" from nature. These early Mykenæan painters
on pottery were members of a community who worshipped the great
mother—"Nature"—as Astarte or Aphrodite risen from the foam of
the sea. Being sailors and fishermen, marine life was even more
familiar to them than that of the land, and they placed little models
of sea animals as votive offerings in the temples of the great mother,
and also honoured her in decorating their pottery with marine
creatures. The little fish, Hippocampus, called the sea-horse, the
sea-urchin, the octopus, the argonaut and its floating cradle, the
sea-anemone, and the butterfly-like Pteropod, were subjects used by
these artists for which they found terrestrial counterparts. The sea-
horse was convertible decoratively into a true horse, with
intermediate phases imagined by the artists; the sea-urchin into a
hedgehog, the sea-anemone into a flower, and the Pteropod into a
true butterfly. These artists loved to exercise a little fancy and
ingenuity. By gradual reduction in the number and size of
outstanding parts—a common rule in the artistic "schematizing" or
"conventional simplification" of natural form—they converted the
octopus and the argonaut, with their eight arms, into a bull's head
with a pair of spiral horns (Fig. 14). In the same spirit it seems that
they observed and drew the barnacle floating on timber or thrown
up after a storm on their shores. They detected a resemblance in the
marking of its shells to the plumage of a goose, whilst in the
curvature of its stalk they saw a resemblance to the long neck of the
bird. The barnacle's jointed plumose legs or cirri and other details
suggested points of agreement with the feathers of the bird. They
brought the barnacle and the goose together, not guided thereto by
any pre-existing legend, but by a simple and not uncommon artistic
desire to follow up a superficial suggestion of similarity and to
conceive of intermediate connecting forms. Some of their fanciful
drawings with this purpose are shown in Figs. 15, 16, and 17. These
(excepting the drawing of the barnacle lying within its opened shell)
are copied from M. Houssay's paper on the subject, and were taken
from the work of M. Perrot on Cretan pottery.
Fig. 15.—The Goose and the Barnacle.
A, Drawing of a Ship's Barnacle attached to a piece of timber by its "peduncle" or
stalk, which represents the neck of a goose, if we regard the shell-covered region
as the goose's body. From a sketch by M. Frederic Houssay published in the
"Revue Archæologique," January 1895.
B, Copy of a drawing on an ancient Mykenæan pot found in Crete, and figured by
M. Perrot in his "Ossuaire de Crète" vol. vi. p. 936. It is a fantastic blend of the
goose and the barnacle. The barnacle's stalk is given a beak and an eye; the body
of the bird corresponds to the shells of the barnacle both in shape and marking.
There are no wings or legs, but the curious single limb which I have marked pe is
obviously the same thing as that marked pe in figure C, which represents the
barnacle when cut open so as to show the structures within the shell, pe is the
rod-like body at the end of which the seminal duct opens. It is seen in the drawing
of the expanded barnacle (Fig. 10), lying between the two groups of six forked
and jointed legs or "cirri."
C, A correct modern drawing of a ship's barnacle, with the shells of one side
removed so as to show the six double legs of one side, the seminal rod (pe), and
the internal organs. This is what Sir Robert Moray and his mediaeval predecessors
saw on opening the barnacle's shell and described as "a young bird complete in
every detail."
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