NAVAL

POSTGRADUATE
SCHOOL
MONTEREY, CALIFORNIA

THESIS

A STUDY OF SPACE-BASED
SOLAR POWER SYSTEMS

by

John P. Pagel

September 2022

Thesis Advisor: Bonnie W. Johnson

Co-Advisor: John M. Green

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A STUDY OF SPACE-BASED SOLAR POWER SYSTEMS

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13. ABSTRACT (maximum 200 words)
Space-Based Solar Power (SBSP) is best defined as delivering meaningful amounts of energy without
moving or employing mass between the transmitter and receiver. The current modus operandi for the Department
of Defense (DOD) requires the delivery of energy by physical transport of fossil fuels or its derivatives, which is
burdensome, costly, and dangerous in the face of threats.
SBSP is known to be technically possible, with varying degrees of success, from ground-based wireless
power transmission demonstrations; integrated solar collection, conversion, and transmission systems
development; and microwave conversion and rectifying efficiency studies, but a full end-to-end SBSP system has
yet to be realized.
This thesis aims to explore SBSP’s utility in DOD operations at the tactical edge, serving the warfighters at
forward operating bases as well as expeditionary forces where power infrastructure is problematic or extant. A
collection of SBSP research, studies, and articles was pored over to identify the major stakeholders for such a
system, analyze their requirements, and identify a valid reference architecture to maximize the SBSP solution
space.
This thesis’s conclusive results can serve as a baseline for further research in this field. The international
community is already aggressively underway in SBSP system design, and the results herein highlight the need for
the DOD to act as a leader in this space decisively and quickly.

14. SUBJECT TERMS 15. NUMBER OF

solar, power, beam, beaming, space, photonic, photon, energy PAGES
83
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 Approved for public release. Distribution is unlimited.

A STUDY OF SPACE-BASED SOLAR POWER SYSTEMS

John P. Pagel
Civilian, Department of the Navy
BA, University of Texas, Austin, 2009

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN SYSTEMS ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT

from the

NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL

September 2022

Approved by: Bonnie W. Johnson

Advisor

John M. Green
Co-Advisor

Oleg A. Yakimenko
Chair, Department of Systems Engineering

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 ABSTRACT

Space-Based Solar Power (SBSP) is best defined as delivering meaningful

amounts of energy without moving or employing mass between the transmitter and
receiver. The current modus operandi for the Department of Defense (DOD) requires the
delivery of energy by physical transport of fossil fuels or its derivatives, which is
burdensome, costly, and dangerous in the face of threats.

SBSP is known to be technically possible, with varying degrees of success, from

ground-based wireless power transmission demonstrations; integrated solar collection,
conversion, and transmission systems development; and microwave conversion and
rectifying efficiency studies, but a full end-to-end SBSP system has yet to be realized.

This thesis aims to explore SBSP’s utility in DOD operations at the tactical edge,
serving the warfighters at forward operating bases as well as expeditionary forces where
power infrastructure is problematic or extant. A collection of SBSP research, studies, and
articles was pored over to identify the major stakeholders for such a system, analyze their
requirements, and identify a valid reference architecture to maximize the SBSP solution
space.

This thesis’s conclusive results can serve as a baseline for further research in this
field. The international community is already aggressively underway in SBSP system
design, and the results herein highlight the need for the DOD to act as a leader in this
space decisively and quickly.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................1
A. OVERVIEW ...............................................................................................1
B. RESEARCH OBJECTIVE .......................................................................2
C. SCOPE AND RESEARCH APPROACH ................................................2
D. THESIS ORGANIZATION ......................................................................3

II. LITERATURE REVIEW .....................................................................................5

A. SPACE-BASED SOLAR POWER ...........................................................5
B. TECHNOLOGY TO DATE .....................................................................7
C. ELECTRICAL POWER FOR MILITARY OPERATIONS ..............12

III. SPACE-BASED SOLAR POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS ..............................15

A. MILITARY APPLICATIONS ...............................................................15
B. STAKEHOLDER NEEDS ......................................................................17
C. REQUIREMENTS ANALYSIS .............................................................20
1. Energy Demand Requirements ...................................................20
2. Requirement Focus Areas for SBSP System .............................21
3. SBSP System Requirements ........................................................24
D. CONCEPTUAL SYSTEM DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE ..........25
1. Reference Architecture ................................................................25
2. Solar Power Satellite ....................................................................28
3. Receiving Station ..........................................................................32
4. Command and Control ................................................................34
5. System Security ............................................................................37
E. CONCEPT OF OPERATIONS ANALYSIS .........................................38
1. Reduction of Energy Logistics ....................................................39
2. Increase of Energy Architecture Flexibility ..............................40
3. Ushering of Autonomous Systems ..............................................41

IV. ASSESSMENT OF SPACE-BASED SOLAR POWER BENEFITS

AND CHALLENGES ..........................................................................................43
A. ANALYSIS OF BENEFITS ....................................................................43
1. Net Zero ........................................................................................43
2. Synergy with Terrestrial Energy ................................................44
3. Leadership in Power Beaming Technologies.............................45
B. ANALYSIS OF CHALLENGES ............................................................46
1. Technological ................................................................................46
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 2. Economical....................................................................................48
3. Political..........................................................................................49

V. CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................51
A. SUMMARY OF THESIS RESEARCH .................................................51
B. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE WORK................................52
1. Space Segment ..............................................................................52
2. Ground Segment ..........................................................................53
3. Spectrum Requirements ..............................................................53

LIST OF REFERENCES ................................................................................................55

INITIAL DISTRIBUTION LIST ...................................................................................61

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Patent US645576, System of Transmission of Electrical Energy by

Nikola Tesla. Source: U.S. Patent Office (1900). ........................................6

Figure 2. Patent US3781647, Method and Apparatus for Converting Solar

Radiation to Electrical Power. Source: Glaser (1973). ................................7

Figure 3. Version 1 of the SPS-ALPHA Concept. Source: Mankins (2012). .............9

Figure 4. Artist’s Image of Arachne, an Experimental Solar Power Satellite.

Source: AFRL (2021). ...............................................................................10

Figure 5. JAXA’s SSPS’s Operational View. Source: Nippon Electric Glass

(2022). ........................................................................................................11

Figure 6. DOD Total Energy Consumption by Fuel Type (Trillion BTU).

Source: Department of Energy (2022). ......................................................12

Figure 7. SBSP Input/Output Diagram......................................................................26

Figure 8. Functional Hierarchy Diagram ..................................................................27

Figure 9. Solar High Study Group’s DOE/NASA Reference System. Source:

Jaffe (2013). ...............................................................................................29

Figure 10. SPS Concept Using Concentrating Mirrors. Source: Torrey (2009). ........30

Figure 11. Modular Symmetric Concentrator Concept. Source: NSSO (2007, 8). .....32

Figure 12. Thin-Film Etched-Circuit Rectenna. Source: Brown and Triner

(1982). ........................................................................................................33

Figure 13. Existing Mobile Deployment Solution for Solar Panels, AKA Rapid
Roll “T” by RenovaGen. Source: IMPO-RF (2022)..................................34

Figure 14. SBSP SPS C2 Architecture. Adapted from Butler (2018). ........................35

Figure 15. Rectenna’s Pilot Beam Transmission. Source: Caldeira and Hoffert
(2004). ........................................................................................................36

Figure 16. Operational View of a SBSP System .........................................................39

Figure 17. Energy Use of DOD in Trillion BTUs. Source: Department of

Energy (2022). ...........................................................................................44

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Electrical Power Source Levels. Source: DA (2018, 1–3).........................13

Table 2. Military Operations Scenarios Summary. Source: Jaffe (2010, 587). .......16

Table 3. Stakeholder Needs. ....................................................................................18

Table 4. Power Planning Factor. Source: Vavrin (2010, 4). ....................................21

Table 5. SBSP Core Requirements. .........................................................................24

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 LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

AC Alternating Current
AFRL Air Force Research Laboratory
AKA Also Known As
ASAT Anti-Satellite
AT/FP Antiterrorism / Force Protection
C2 Command and Control
CONOPS Concept of Operations
DA-ASAT Direct Ascent Anti-Satellite
DC Direct Current
DOD Department of Defense
DoE Department of Energy
ERDA Energy Research & Development Administration
FOB Forward Operating Base
GEO Geostationary Equatorial Orbit
GTO Geostationary Transfer Orbit
ICOM Inputs, Controls, Outputs, and Mechanisms
INCOSE International Council of Systems Engineering
iSA In-Space Assembly
ISS International Space Station
ITU International Telecommunication Union
JAXA Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency
kW Kilowatt
LEO Low Earth Orbit
MW Megawatt
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NFC Near Field Communications
NRL Naval Research Laboratory
NSSO National Security Space Office
OECIF Operational Energy Capability Improvement Fund
OPTEMPO Operational Tempo
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PRAM Photovoltaic RF Antenna Module
PTROL Power Transmitted Over Laser
PV Photovoltaic
RF Radio Frequency
RFID RF Identification
SBSP Space-Based Solar Power
SME Subject Matter Experts
SOC Satellite Operations Center
SPS Solar Power Satellite
SPS-ALPHA Solar Power Satellite - Arbitrarily Large Phased Array
SSPIDR Space Solar Power Incremental Demonstrations and Research
SSPS Space Solar Power Station
TRL Technology Readiness Level
TT&C Telemetry, Tracking, and Commanding
USMC United States Marine Corps
USSF United States Space Force
VAC Volts Alternating Current
W Watt(s)
WPT Wireless Power Transmission

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 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

United States (U.S.) military operations are dependent on electrical energy to power
systems, ranging from weapons, ships, aircraft, communications, and intelligence-
collection to quality-of-life amenities like heating, ventilation, air condition, and coffee
machines. The ability to power these systems is a critical enabler of military operations
spanning peacetime, conflict, and war. Because these day-to-day activities are governed by
electrical power availability, an innovative solution for electrical energy distribution would
be a game-changing technology deserving of highly prioritized investments. The outcome
of such investments would be a boon to all military equities with collateral benefits to
humanitarian efforts and ultimately the planet itself.

The U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) is engaged in efforts to become more

energy-efficient in support of Executive Order 14008, “Tackling the Climate Crisis at
Home and Abroad,” which includes a U.S. goal of net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by
2050 towards which the DOD is actively developing technologies and roadmaps. Fossil
fuels are ancillary to the energy distribution that vitalize military systems and come with
detrimental baggage like harmful environmental impacts and troublesome transport. A
revolutionary innovation that avoids these negative effects is space-based solar power
(SBSP) which harnesses the sun’s persistent radiance and channels that energy into a
directed stream of wireless power. Gone would be the inconvenience, danger, and high
expenses that accompany energy resupply for forward-deployed forces. Less focus would
be divested from the warfighter’s mission itself but rather funds could be redirected to other
ventures supportive of missions directly, notwithstanding the beneficial side effects to
humanitarian efforts and the environment.

The innovation of SBSP lies in the wireless power transmission from space, where
solar energy collection is done free from inefficiencies caused by an atmosphere or physical
coverage, and converted to microwave signals. This power source can be pointed to any
target location in the world effectively providing clean energy that is near-constant and on-
demand. There are numerous research studies and demonstrations from national
institutions, Naval Research Laboratory the chief among them, that have demonstrated
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terrestrial laser power transmission, wireless network signal power transmission, and
sunlight conversion to microwave in space. These all play a part in furthering the SBSP
concept.

Once realized, SBSP can directly support DOD operations at strategic and remote
locations absent of existing power infrastructure. Forward operating bases are stood up in
these locations typically with large areas to support air logistics along with reconnaissance
and surveillance teams. Due to their nature, power demands are unpredictable and can be
exacerbated with joint or multi-coalition personnel coming and going. The fuel resupply
of a remote base invites risks to soldiers, vehicles, and equipment, and can be timely and
costly because of the amount of fuel required to execute the actual fuel delivery.
Incorporating the SBSP system into base planning and operations eliminates the risks
associated with fuel resupply because generator fuel is unnecessary. Additionally, SBSP
can be combined with hybrid energy solutions like terrestrial solar and wind to provide
more flexibility in the DOD’s energy architecture for forward operating bases. The
persistent power transmission also provides for more power-hungry autonomous systems
to be considered in future operations, reducing the number of troops on the ground and
associated amenities and logistics needed for subsistence and quality of life.

This thesis conducted a systems engineering analysis approach, beginning with a

literature review that focused on conceptual origins of SBSP. Its roots started with an early
patent for wireless power transmission that can be traced to the most recent demonstrations
for SBSP capabilities. This literature review also delved into some of the ongoing
international efforts that can be viewed as opportunities for or contention to the goal of
U.S. space superiority. Next, a qualitative needs analysis was conducted that included the
identification of stakeholders and a discussion of how those needs are addressed by a future
SBSP system. Based on that assessment, functional and performance requirements were
defined and analyzed with considerations to the SBSP system’s life cycle. Finally, the
SBSP system’s architecture was proposed, stemming from the requirements definition
process, whereby an operational analysis was performed to develop high-level concepts of
operation.

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 The potential benefits of SBSP are vast because of its disruptive technology. This
thesis touches on the benefits towards the Net Zero goal of removing the amount of
greenhouse gases coming into the atmosphere. This thesis also distinguishes SBSP as a
complementary source of power to terrestrial solar as opposed to a competing one. Lastly,
this thesis recognizes now as an inflection point in determining the U.S. role in SBSP
development and dependency and highlights adversarial uses to encourage U.S. investment
in SBSP so it can be at the forefront of power beaming technology. Some challenges are
also addressed that range from the technological, economical, and political that without
resolution, will keep a SBSP out of reach.

This thesis is meant to serve as a baseline top-level analysis for a SBSP system
design that has been recognized as having no fundamental technical barriers. SBSP is not
impossible, and a full-scale system is very much in the realm of realization within the next
three decades. The information presented herein is meant to be used to foster research in
SBSP and enabling technologies (e.g., in-space assembly, space robotics, and solar
conversion efficiencies). It is imperative for the U.S. to include SBSP in future operations
planning because the military applications would be monumental to the warfighter, with
the reduction in logistics, fuel, and safety risks associated within, complementing the DOD
energy architecture, and promoting the use of autonomous systems in place of troops on
the ground in high-threat environments. Without further research into this topic, the DOD
stands to lose its competitive edge in the energy space, surrendering its superiority as other
countries like China accelerate their understanding. There are known risks in space
superiority, warfighting capability, and even diplomacy for not leading in this space that
would propagate a negative impact to U.S. interests.

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would be remiss to not acknowledge the dedication of precious time from

Dr. Bonnie Johnson and Dr. Mike Green. Both have been endlessly patient and gracious,
allowing me the freedom I need to stretch my wings and see how far I can really fly. I
gained my assurance to continue pressing onwards because of their guidance. The
humility they granted really took my confidence to new heights and their avails have not
gone unnoticed.

Also, to my beautiful and awe-inspiring wife, Masami, with whom I would not have
been able to succeed due to her unwavering support and cooperation. Whilst my children
slept, I could steal away into the night or early mornings to further conduct my research
with full confidence knowing my family is in safe hands with her at the helm. She
revitalized my hollow husk during my deepest and darkest moments, escorting me through
the valleys and pushing me up the mountains of hardship. She is an absolute saint, and the
embodiment of resplendence.

Lastly, but not least, to my pulchritudinous children, Leon and Louis. Their humor
and boundless curiosity have kept me engaged and reminded me for whom I comported all
my industrious efforts. They have afforded me the full spectrum of temperaments, giving
me incredible experience in forbearance and unconditional love. May they continue
showering their lessons upon me and ameliorate my shortcomings. I love them so much!

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 I. INTRODUCTION

There is an ever-present need for the Department of Defense (DOD) to continue

leading the edge in space dominance and thusly, space innovation. Their priorities for the
space domain were laid bare when the United States established the U.S. Space Force
(USSF) in December of 2019 as a new military service. Did they even consider the
architects of the Pentagon? Was there any thought in how thrusting the “Hexagon”
namesake upon such a favored building would be accepted? I digress.

The White House communicated these new investments with a published

framework that highlight foreseeable benefits, some of which touch on new frontiers in
clean air technology and addressing the climate crisis. It goes on further to underpin
national security with the ambition to remain the global leader in space science and
engineering (The White House 2021, 3–4). To stay true to this pioneering spirit, there is no
technology more ripe for dividends that fulfills the advertised framework than space-based
solar power (SBSP) technology.

Furthermore, it is evident that the use of finite fossil fuels like coal, crude oil,
natural gas, or derivatives thereof is simply not sustainable for any long-term horizon and
the DOD recognizes them to be used as a bridge to more sustainable alternatives (Jaffe
2019, 7). It also becomes problematic as the DOD conducts forward-basing operations to
further national interests. Energy consumption is mandatory for forwardly deployed
warfighters to succeed, and some of these missions may be devoid of existing power
infrastructure or reliable energy resources.

SBSP aligns directly with the U.S.’s intent to prevail as the global space leader and
address the continual increase in military power systems’ requirements for persistent,
reliable energy.

A. OVERVIEW

SBSP is the wireless transmission of power from space to Earth’s surface. This
game-changing technology is not an entirely new concept, with several authors on the
subject demonstrating its possibility as well as communicating aspects of its feasibility.
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Therein lies the challenge of engineering a SBSP system, which is known to be possible,
but with an end-to-end efficiency satisfactory to the DOD. SBSP provides power to the
warfighter with no temporal limitations and anywhere on Earth’s surface. The warfighter
today is heavily dependent on reliable power. As their electrical energy demand continues
its uptrend, there are only a few large-scale energy generation options poised to meet that
need (Barnhard and Potter 2018) and be the paradigm shift that the DOD yearns for to
revolutionize operations-related energy generation and consumption.

B. RESEARCH OBJECTIVE

The objective of this thesis is to develop a conceptual SBSP system architecture

based on projected user needs and expected capabilities. The research will explore the
potential capabilities of SBSP based on literature review and will identify military
applications that would benefit from the future innovative capability that has yet to be
implemented to scale by any organization within or external to the DOD.

C. SCOPE AND RESEARCH APPROACH

The scope is limited to the beginning stages of understanding the SPSP system,
applying the systems engineering rigor most beneficial to technologies before they
perforate their emergent status into ubiquity. This includes an analysis on DOD energy
requirements and feasible system architectures that would best apply to DOD use cases.

The thesis will follow a systems analysis approach according to the following steps:

• Literature review to understand potential SBSP capabilities

• Identification of possible military applications

• Stakeholder needs analysis and system requirements analysis

• Development of a conceptual SBSP system design and architecture

• Concept of operations analysis for SBSP system applied to

identified military applications

• Assessment of SBSP benefits and challenges

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D. THESIS ORGANIZATION

The thesis is organized logically into five chapters. Chapter I introduces the thesis
and provides the research objective and approach. Chapter II contains the literature review
which describes the potential capabilities of SBSP as an innovative technology.
Chapter III contains the system analysis, including the stakeholder needs, system
requirements, conceptual designs and architecture, and Concept of Operations (CONOPS)
analysis. Chapter IV presents the results of an assessment of the SBSP system’s potential
benefits and challenges. Finally, Chapter V concludes the thesis, summarizing the research
and providing recommendations for future work.

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 II. LITERATURE REVIEW

This literature review presents an overview of the SBSP system and some of its
earlier concepts from subject matter experts (SMEs). It will touch on the needs documented
by the DOD and how the SBSP system addresses these needs directly, affording the DOD
a more capable warfighter with significant long-term savings.

A. SPACE-BASED SOLAR POWER

The SBSP system collects solar radiation to convert it into radio frequency (RF)
signals that can be transmitted from space down to Earth’s surface for receipt and
conversion to alternating current / direct current (AC/DC) power. The innovative aspect of
this technology is the wireless transmission of electrical energy at a much larger scale than
what we have today. Transmission through free space is highly desirable over great
distances (>100 km) because it is far more efficient than contemporary solutions like
copper or fiber optic cables. The system consists of two parts: the space segment, or Solar
Power Satellite (SPS), where the solar radiation collection and power beam transmission
takes place, and the ground segment, or Receiving Station, that accepts the beam and
converts the RF signal to DC power.

The SBSP system is a concept that can be traced back to Nikola Tesla’s early patent
of wireless electrical transmission, US645576, whereby electrical energy can be
propagated through the Earth and air strata to be received at a distant point (U.S. Patent
Office 1900). Figure 1 is an illustration of Tesla’s contemplations showing the left
apparatus transmitting power from D at a sufficient elevation for power transmission to D’,
powering lamps L and motors M at the receiving station on the right. Though it did not
amount to anything useful immediately after, this set the stage for all the conveniences of
wireless transmission that we enjoy today, like RF identification (RFID) and near-field
communications (NFC). These technologies generate magnetic fields that can induce
electrical currents without the use of wires much like we find in hotel or parking garage
key cards.

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 Figure 1. Patent US645576, System of Transmission of Electrical Energy by
Nikola Tesla. Source: U.S. Patent Office (1900).

Fast forward to 1973 when Dr. Peter Glaser took Tesla’s concept further and
patented electrical transmission using microwave energy from solar collection in space
(Glaser 1973). Figure 2 shows this early concept and the patent illustratively outlines the
solar array estimating to be 25 square miles and the phased-array planar antenna to be 0.5
square kilometers. Even the earliest concept recognizes the sheer magnitude of physical
dimensions that dictates every aspect of the system, so far as mentioning a 36 square mile
receiving zone. These spatial requirements alone can obscure the practicality of such a
system, but SMEs expand upon this patented idea and quickly find some merit.

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 Figure 2. Patent US3781647, Method and Apparatus for Converting Solar
Radiation to Electrical Power. Source: Glaser (1973).

Spatial dimensions aside, numerous concepts and architectures from Naval

Research Laboratory (NRL), Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL), DOD National
Security Space Office (NSSO), and National Aerospace and Aeronautics Association
(NASA) elucidated Dr. Glaser’s concepts and elaborated more upon underlying
components. Technological advancements over time have removed some of the barriers
that stand in the way of full-scale SBSP investments, like reusable and less costly launches
and solar cell efficiency, but there are still others working against the feasibility of a
realized SBSP system.

B. TECHNOLOGY TO DATE

Though the U.S. “was a pioneer [on] this [front], its small and sporadic projects
could become overshadowed by increasing international efforts” (Jones and Vedda 2020,
307). Unfortunately for the U.S., their deceleration of investment into SBSP technologies
is noticeable on the global stage. Other nations are putting serious resources into advancing
this capability to their own ends. There is obvious value in SBSP from within and outside
of U.S. interests and some of the major efforts from all parties involved include the
following.

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 a. Research and Studies

NASA began their research on the topic dating back almost 50 years ago, when
they evaluated over 30 kW of DC power using microwave transmission over a distance of
1.54 km (Dickinson 1975). They essentially showed that a highly efficient receiving
mechanization for a microwave transmission link was possible.

NASA also partnered with the Energy Research & Development Administration
(ERDA), now known as the Department of Energy (DoE), to include a SPS as part of their
alternative energy studies in the 1970s (Jones and Vedda 2020, 308). In 1995–1996, NASA
reviewed their past research on the topic and updated their findings in their “A Fresh Look
at Space Solar Power” report, which examined the space segment of a SBSP system as a
viable alternative to terrestrial electrical power from a holistic perspective, covering
positions like economic, environmental, and safety (Mankins 1997).

Another notable report was about an analytical design dubbed “Solar Power
Satellite Arbitrarily Large Phased Array” (SPS-ALPHA), which included a holistic
approach to analyzing technology readiness and economic viability using thin-film mirrors
at Geostationary Equatorial Orbit (GEO). Figure 3 shows a version of this concept that
illustrates its complexity, with the eye-catching thin-film mirrors arranged to act as a very
large sunlight-intercepting reflector system. The main goal of this project was to advance
“the SPS-ALPHA concept to an early [Technology Readiness Level] (TRL) 3—analytical
proof-of-concept—and to provide a framework for further study and technology
development” (Mankins 2012, 6). The report concluded that the SPS-ALPHA would be
capable of delivering $0.09/kWh electricity and fulfilling a promise of full-scale viability
for an SBSP system with no needed technological breakthroughs at the time.

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 Figure 3. Version 1 of the SPS-ALPHA Concept. Source: Mankins (2012).

b. Demonstrations

The NRL has been involved in a variety of different projects that have taken
incremental steps in showing the feasibility of SPS functionalities. They conducted a
successful demonstration known as Power TRansmitted Over Laser (PTROL), which used
an infrared laser to transmit power across the Earth’s surface in 2019. They also conducted
an experiment, Lectenna, at the International Space Station (ISS), which used a light-
emitting rectifying antenna (rectenna) to convert a wireless network signal into electric
power in 2020. In that same year, NRL also helped launch the first orbital SBSP-related
experiment on the X-37B space plane to test a sub-system module, Photovoltaic RF
Antenna Module (PRAM), “by converting sunlight to microwaves outside the atmosphere
and analyzing the energy conversion process and resulting thermal performance” (Jones
and Vedda 2020, 308).

AFRL has a series of incremental demonstrations dubbed their Space Solar Power
Incremental Demonstrations and Research Project (SSPIDR). Their main aim is to prove
and mature essential technologies for a prototype SBSP transmission system capable of
powering a Forward Operating Base (FOB) (AFRL 2021). FOBs are one of the best use
cases for SBSP because they are nestled in strategic and remote locations with reliance on

9
power and logistical support, all of which can be serviced by SBSP. AFRL has broken out
the series of demonstrations into six critical technologies to help validate both the
technology concepts and models for integration into a full SBSP system. The technologies
touch on thermal challenges, energy generation and RF beaming, and deployable structures
technology, all of which are key to enabling SBSP. Figure 4 shows an artist’s rendition of
Arachne, SSPIDR’s keystone flight experiment that is expected to launch in 2025.

Figure 4. Artist’s Image of Arachne, an Experimental Solar Power Satellite.

Source: AFRL (2021).

c. International Innovations

The Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) have made steady research
investments in SPS since the late 1990s, developing two conceptual designs: the SPS2000,
which focuses on a Low Earth Orbit (LEO) constellation, and SPS2004, which is a GEO-
based SPS with rotating solar collection mirrors (Jones and Vedda 2020, 309). The
roadmap they developed in 2014 advertised a clear path in improving conversion
efficiencies, reducing size and weight of electronic modules, and enhancing microwave

10
beam-pointing control, all with the purpose to provide a combined capacity of 1 GW by
2030.

Figure 5 shows the JAXA Space Solar Power System (SSPS) in action, impervious
to cloud cover and rain, all the while offering a stable supply of power for a city below. A
major innovation contributing to a fully functional SBSP system are glass-resin laminates
resulting in ultra-thin lightweight mirrors. This is key for the SSPS because its mirrors will
stretch 3.5 km across space, so lightweight cargo is necessary for reducing launch
requirements (Nippon Electric Glass 2022). JAXA incorporated these mirrors in a 2011
prototype in preparation for their 2030 vision.

Figure 5. JAXA’s SSPS’s Operational View. Source: Nippon Electric Glass

(2022).

Xidian University in China, assumed to be heavily associated with their

government, has also recently announced a successful test of SBSP “technologies such as
high-efficiency light concentrating and photoelectric conversion, microwave conversion,
microwave emission and waveform optimization, microwave beam pointing measurement
and control, microwave reception and rectification, and smart mechanical structure design”

11
(Proctor 2022, Introduction). This advanced test of the end-to-end process from tracking
the sun to microwave reception and rectification is the most recent developments for SBSP
at the time of this writing. The research team has advertised as early as 2028 to have a solar
power plant in space, accelerating their previous timeline from 2030. China’s aggressive
efforts will most certainly have a dual use case for military and civil applications.

C. ELECTRICAL POWER FOR MILITARY OPERATIONS

Electrical power is a commodity and essential for modern military operations. In

its absence, all operations, ranging from peacetime to conflict, are severely impacted and
crucial systems are rendered disabled. In this day and age, all manner of systems at the
tactical edge are reliant on dependable electrical power and range from command and
control (C2) functions to hot water heaters. Figure 6 shows the total energy consumption
for the DOD in 2021 by fuel type, with the reliance on jet fuel, among other fossil fuels,
on full display. The DOD powers a majority of its operations using Jet Propellant 8 (JP-8)
because of its ability “to operate at relevant environmental extremes, all the while
providing excellent power quality and high reliability” (Jaffe et al. 2019, 23).

Figure 6. DOD Total Energy Consumption by Fuel Type (Trillion BTU).

Source: Department of Energy (2022).

12
 When considering the needs of FOBs, there is a spectrum of power generation,
distribution, and transformation that covers tactical power, prime power, and utility power
(Department of the Army [DA], 2018, 1–3). Table 1lists the differences in categories, and
SBSP could fulfill the roles of each one. However, when considering the practicalities of
receiving station requirements such as the area required, maximization of SPS utility, and
mission power demands, prime power will be the sort applied in this thesis.

Table 1. Electrical Power Source Levels. Source: DA (2018, 1–3).

Tactical
Power Level (including Prime Power Utility
individual)
Source output ≤ 500 kilowatts > 500 kilowatts Nation-dependent

Up to 230,000 volts
Up to 600 volts 601 volts – 69,000 volts
Distribution (low- to high-
(low-voltage) (medium-voltage)
voltage)

Initial (including Temporary or

Expected
organic) (up to 6 Semipermanent (up to 10 Enduring
Duration
months) years)
249th Engineer Battalion,
U.S. Navy Mobile Utilities
United States Army
Support Equipment, Prime
Responsibility Unit Corps of Engineers
Base Expeditionary
contract
Engineering Force,
Contract
Note: Voltage here is measured in volts alternating current, or VAC.

The “delineating characteristic between tactical and prime power [for planners] is
the level of voltage produced” (DA 2018, 2–1), but when considering the potential for
power beaming, the typical demand of FOBs measured in kilowatts produced by a SPS fits
more within the realm of prime power. “Prime power sources [also] use transformers to
step down medium voltage to lower voltage for equipment usage” (DA, 2018, 2–1); tactical
power does not. With a directional beam, the as-needed basis for power beaming really

13
fills in the gap between tactical and utility power, fulfilling prime power’s general
definition. SBSP’s potential utility is most at home here due to its versatility.

Situational changes may arise whereby a military operation transitions to a longer-

term solution. When transitioning from tactical power generation to SBSP or co-mingling
hybrid solutions, cost savings and improved fuel use efficiency naturally occurs. To ensure
continuous sources of prime power, receiving stations would need to have a form of
redundancy and resiliency so that maintenance on one or components of a receiving station
could be conducted with minimal impact to operations.

14
 III. SPACE-BASED SOLAR POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

This chapter presents the results of the SBSP systems analysis conducted in this
thesis research. The chapter begins with the identification of potential military applications
of SBSP. The next section identifies stakeholders and describes their needs relating to a
future SBSP system. Next, the chapter presents SBSP system requirements based on the
FOB, which has the highest potential for SBSP utility. Following requirements, the next
section presents the SBSP conceptual design and architecture. The last section introduces
three concepts of operation for a future SBSP system.

A. MILITARY APPLICATIONS

Identifying the expected sets of operational scenarios and associated capabilities,

behaviors, and responses of the SBSP system across its life cycle helps identify
requirements that may be overlooked [International Council of Systems Engineering
(INCOSE) 2015, 54]. This thesis will explore how a SBSP system could simplify the
logistical complications associated with fuel resupplies for forward-deployed forces,
expand the energy architecture available to the DOD, and encourage the use of autonomous
systems.

Some initial analyses were previously done that puts into perspective the variety of
military operations scenarios listed in Table 2, clearly showing that even in 2010 there is
value proposition of a SBSP system, though some estimates will need to be updated to
account for technology advances and increased global interest since then.

15
 Table 2. Military Operations Scenarios Summary. Source: Jaffe (2010,
587).

Notes Earliest Rough

Military Feasibility Operational Magnitude
Rationale for
Operations Technical Economic Capability Cost
SBSP
Scenarios

Forward Probably best

Reduce fuel
Operating Possible Possible SBSP defense >5 years $10B+
convoys
Base power app

Provide Almost
power to a certainly
ship or other Refuel from requires
Possible Possible >5 years $10B+
large space lasers and
seaborne high power
platform densities

Bistatic
Improve Feasible but
radar Possible Possible >5 years $10B+
imaging expensive
illuminator

Provide Requires
power to a transportation
remote Reduce architecture
Possible Possible >5 years $10B+
location for infrastructure that
synthfuel consumes
production synthfuel
Power
inefficient,
Power to
Reduce severe beam
individual Unlikely Unlikely >10 years ?
battery mass control &
end users
safety
challenges
Power for
distributed Cover large Power
Possible Unlikely >5 years $10B+
sensor area inefficient
networks
Space solar power to non-terrestrial targets
Significant
Satellite to
technical
satellite Fractionate
Possible Possible issues, >2 years $50M+
power spacecraft
questionable
transmission
utility
Space to *if used in
UAV for Prolong dwell conjunction
Possible Possible >5 years $10B+
dwell times with FOB
extension power

16
 Terrestrial wireless power beaming applications apart from SBSP
Attractive
Ship to defense
Increase
shore power Possible Possible application, >1 year $10M+
flexibility
beaming requires more
study
May be
Ground to
unnecessary
UAV for Prolong dwell Demonstr
Possible in light of >1 year $10M+
dwell times ated
recent UAV
extension
tech advances

FOBs are identified as one of the best DOD applications for SBSP due to their
existential nature of supporting “50 to 5,000 personnel for military power projection ahead
of primary forces” (Jaffe 2010, 586). Assuming the SPS can be redirected for all sorts of
missions and is capable of megawatt power beaming, the SBSP system can accommodate
increases in FOB power demands by scaling up the area of the receiving station.

The consideration for individual end-users benefiting from an SBSP system is not
a novel one but appears to be impractical given the fractional utility of the available power
if transmitted everywhere (Jaffe 2010). This is a departure from powering FOBs because
the full power beam would be fractionally utilized by comparison, possibly leaving
adversaries aware of such a power beam to take advantage of a U.S. asset. The main
attraction for this operational scenario stems from eliminating the need for batteries and
the logistical challenges associated with its mass, explosive potential, and degradation from
extreme environmental factors. That is not to say that there would not be specific mission
sets where SBSP would dramatically improve individual end-users’ probability of success,
but this will not be explored in this thesis.

B. STAKEHOLDER NEEDS

Defined stakeholders and their needs serve as a reference target for the SBSP
system. The needs must be feasible, otherwise a solution cannot be devised. Table 3 takes
the data listed in Table 2 and focuses on the FOB as the main stakeholder that stands to
benefit from a SBSP system and will be expanded upon from the military applications
explored further in this thesis.

17
 Table 3. Stakeholder Needs.

Relevant Military
Stakeholder Role Energy Needs
Application
Forward • Resupply
• Consistent energy
Operating User • Architecture
• High power
Bases • Autonomy
• Precision pointing
• Compact receivers
• Resupply
Mobile • High reliability
User • Architecture
Forces • Low power
• Autonomy
• Safe

• Consistent energy
Sensor • Architecture
User • Wide coverage
Stations • Autonomy
• Low power
• Consistent energy
Drone • Precision pointing • Architecture
User
Swarms • Low power • Autonomy

Satellite • Hardened comms

Operations Operator • Autonomous • Autonomy
Center

Even the most rudimentary vision of a SBSP system is poised to satisfy FOB needs.
By their very nature, FOBs tend to be remote with the mission “to support a small number
of reconnaissance and surveillance teams” (Jaffe 2010, 586). Their power requirements are
the highest relative to the other identified stakeholders, but the other potential users would
be utilizing only a fraction of the capable power output offered by SBSP. In light of this,
FOBs will be the primary stakeholder discussed in this section.

FOBs have unspecified power demands due to their ever-changing number of

soldiers, support personnel, visitors, and joint or coalition forces—to include their own
revolving door of support. This implies the power demand is not only limited to the
additional users, but for the land and air vehicles associated with moving personnel in,
around, and out of the area. No matter the number of personnel, basic food, supplies, and
ammunition will still need to be delivered without which FOBs would be unsustainable or
18
ineffective. The transportation of these goods is a major consumption of fuel. It is clear
that energy for FOBs is a commodity that must be reliable and resilient to enable FOBs to
operate to their maximum potential.

FOBs are typically in remote or relatively inaccessible areas where power

infrastructure is either non-existent or insufficient to meet its needs. Fuel resupply missions
then become necessary and generally require tradeoff studies between armed convoys or
air resupply (Jaffe 2010, 586). Therein lies a host of issues related to safety, reliability, and
costs. The more treacherous the terrain or more present an operational threat, the more risk
involved for loss of life or resupply failure. “Operationally, demands for liquid fuel pull
personnel away from the fight to provide convoy protection and assist with distribution”
(Bulanow, Charchan, and Tabler 2011, 1). This is a recognized problem that FOBs evaluate
to continue their mission.

The additional constraint of limited FOB real estate indicates the need for energy
sources to be structurally integrated to optimize their footprint. Generators are the standard
energy solution and their relatively small dimensions play a part in their tactical utility.
One study team from the U.S. Marine Corps (USMC) Expeditionary Energy Office in 2011
calculated the need for 17,046 solar panels spread amongst 12 systems to equal the same
amount of energy generated from generator-powered environmental control units, a
significant consumer of energy that provides “heating and cooling to deployed Marine
forces and facilities” (Bulanow, Charchan, and Tabler 2011, iii). That many solar panels is
simply impractical if dedicated to its own area. Hence, structurally integrated energy
solutions are essential.

To aggravate the FOB energy problem further, energy efficiency is not the general
mindset of base planners, so the go-to solution is to increase supply to meet increasing
demand (Vavrin 2010). This corresponds to additional generators and fuel. Alternative
energy solutions like solar have been studied to help, and it has been shown to offset
problem with innovative energy storage solutions that increase renewable integration
capacity of a system, but the sentiment of throwing more money at the problem still
prevails. There has been nothing to supplant the convenience and reliability of generators,

19
and with basic assumptions of 1–3 kW/person at the FOB, generator usage can grow
rapidly (Jaffe 2010, 587).

C. REQUIREMENTS ANALYSIS

INCOSE best describes the objective of requirements analysis for a system’s initial
foray from conceptualization as a means to “provide an understanding of the interactions
between the various functions and to obtain a balanced set of requirements based on user
objectives” (2015, 60). The SBSP system’s goal is to deliver wireless energy to the
warfighter reliably and on demand. Though the warfighter encompasses any aspect of the
DOD in support of a mission, a thorough examination of user needs at the tactical edge
illustrates the efficacy of SBSP and its transformative utility. The initial analysis focuses
on energy demands and their fluctuation across the spectrum of military operations.

1. Energy Demand Requirements

When planning “power and energy requirements for the operations and support of
deployed base camps” (Vavrin 2010, 3), it is important that one assesses the baseline
planning factors that occur at the tactical and operational level. Most of the U.S. tactical
units in Afghanistan and Iraq during recent conflicts there would have been prime
candidates for real-world information about power demands and production for FOBs in
that theater. Unfortunately, yet understandably, the Defense Science Board notes that
“power data collection was not seen as a significant mission and as a result, power
efficiency was not taken as a measure of importance.” (2016). This leaves planners to rely
on only a few tactical commands’ data to analyze, if any at all.

In order for accurate requirements to be identified, there are some gaps in the
available power data that must be mitigated (Paul Tabler et al. 2011, 10). If we categorize
FOBs as the most demanding warfighter concept, then all other conceptual and stakeholder
needs can be met.

A sample of demand requirements that are commonly used for planning by the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers is summarized in Table 4. What is notable is how varied the
demand estimation is. It is important to understand that the reference numbers are based

20
on the number of soldiers for the operation. Some other factors that wildly affect the
demand requirement are high-power systems like anti-terrorism / force protection (AT/FP)
equipment, hot water heaters, soldier support systems to include dining facilities, and even
support personnel that exceeds the Soldier population (e.g., contractors, coalition service
members, local vendors, Morale, Welfare, and Recreation (MWR) programs, and other
Government agencies).

Table 4. Power Planning Factor. Source: Vavrin (2010, 4).

kW per Company Battalion Brigade

Referencea
Person (150)(kW) (600)(kW) (3,500)(kW)
CENTCOM Sand Book, 2008 0.7 105 420 420

Not stated by kW/person: Detailed Load Analysis

USAREUR Red Book
Required
FM 3-34, 2008 0.7 105 420 2,450
249th ENGR BN Interviews 3.7 kVA 555 2,220 12,950
Air Force Expeditionary (3,300)
1.36 - (550) 750
Airfield 4,500
“Base in a Box”b 1.8 270 1,080 6,300
a
Does not include field hospitals.
b
10 tents (4-ton ECU’s) and 2 latrine/shower/sink trailers + pumps; for 100 soldiers

2. Requirement Focus Areas for SBSP System

Many variables are involved in the electric power planning of any military
operation (Department of the Army 2018, 5–1). This section identifies and discusses four
focus areas that are relevant to developing SBSP system requirements. These four variables
help define the requirements and environment for the system, and ultimately “provide the
capabilities needed by users and other [DOD] stakeholders” (INCOSE 2015, 52). The best
way to ensure success of a SBSP system is to meet those needs and requirements.

21
a. Energy User Missions

The mission of any operation must be thoroughly understood, along with

its anticipated duration. These two factors for mission variability help
focus the power planning process, and establish some baseline
requirements that dictate power specifications and demand. Shorter
mission durations may most effectively be served by tactical power
generation, but SBSP may become an option in the trades analysis. If base
construction or base occupancy are required for a particular mission, then
SBSP becomes a top contender that has benefits outweighing resource
investments. It is plain to see that humanitarian assistance or disaster relief
missions are longer-term, and requirements can be driven by such
characteristics.

b. System Vulnerability to Threats

Given how critical power systems and their distribution networks are to
C2, communications, and key weapon systems, understanding the enemy
and their capabilities to disrupt any part of the power delivery chain is
vital. The DOD should expect enemies to utilize a variety of ground and
aerial systems to combat SBSP in a given region. Moreover, the power
beam acts as a natural energy resource that could just as well be used by
adversaries for similar purposes, reducing advantages gained from SBSP
implementation. There are natural threats that could also cause damage to
the SBSP system. These include adverse weather to affect the ground-
based receivers, natural wear and tear of components, and space debris
collisions with the SBSP space subsystem. It is in the recognition of
vulnerabilities that base planners can develop mitigation strategies or
contingency plans to effectively implement defensive measures for power
beaming assets. There are limitations to some mitigations however (i.e.,
cover, concealment, or shielding), due to the nature of receiving stations.

22
 Nonetheless, it is imperative that requirements recognizing the threat
prioritize redundancy and resiliency within the system.

c. Terrain Effects

The power output of generators “decreases by 3.5% per 1,000 feet above
4,000 feet” (DA 2018, 5–1), which can be negated by SBSP. This
effectively allows receiving stations to be indifferent to altitude effects on
power beaming, aside from inefficiencies of carrying away waste heat
with thinner air which could impact operating temperatures. For SBSP to
be flexible for a broad mission area, there would need to be an overarching
requirement for the power beam to maintain its power link unhindered by
coverage with the possibility of clearing or leveling an area before
installation.

d. Terrestrial Weather Effects

Terrestrial weather and atmospheric conditions may affect the receiving

station equipment that can disrupt the power link. Regions in the tropics or
near coastal lines require additional requirement considerations to
“prevent corrosion from humidity and salt spray,” (DA 2018, 5–1) and
other heat-extreme regions like the desert would need to consider heat and
dust. There are several published articles that detail operations in climatic
conditions applicable to the receiving station equipment.

When considering the power link to the SPS, there will be significant
degradation to a laser power transmission than a microwave power
transmission by the atmosphere and its conditions. It is imperative that the
system requirements address the needs of the stakeholder’s terrestrial
weather and environment.

23
 3. SBSP System Requirements

The core requirements of the SBSP system are listed in Table 5. The requirements
must be validated to ensure they align with stakeholder expectations. Each stakeholder
need may have more than one corresponding requirement that satisfies it. This traceability
ensures the SBSP system is in fact useful and is designed to meet those needs.

Table 5. SBSP Core Requirements.

Functional Requirements

1 The SBSP system shall collect solar energy from space

2 The SBSP system shall convert solar DC current into microwaves
3 The SBSP system shall transmit power from space to terrestrial receiving stations
4 The SBSP system shall maneuver power beams to different locations as needed
5 The SBSP system shall be controlled and operated from a centralized authority
The SBSP system shall utilize temporary power storage to mitigate interruptions/
6
disruptions
Performance Requirements
1 The SPS shall achieve >80% power conversion efficiency in space
2 The power transmission shall be at least 5 MW to satisfy typical FOB requirements
3 The maximum beam intensity shall be limited to 240 W/m2 for safety
The SPS shall have a power to mass ratio of at least 1.0 kW/kg for economy of
4
scale
5 The SBSP system shall provide continuous coverage over a given location
6 The SBSP system shall provide 100% baseload for intended users
7 The SPS shall have a service life of at least 30 years
8 The SBSP system shall be serviceable with replaceable parts
The SBSP system shall provide enough power to satisfy monthly baseload demand
9
for remote installations

The functional requirements will provide the operational capability the DOD would
need to support their military operations at the tactical edge. They are closely aligned with
the needs of FOBs and expeditionary forces deployed at remote locations. The performance
requirements are measured in such a way as to elaborate how a function is executed. These
24
are detailed further in the following sections. It is the culmination of these requirements
that make a compelling case for SBSP development and adoption in military operations
scenarios.

When considering the application of a SBSP system, it is analogous to any primary

source of power. As more enduring bases are established, higher level organizations within
the DOD are in position to develop and analyze data that would help further studies on
SBSP and efficient power distribution in general. The requirements definition done here
helped set up a complete and unambiguous baseline that the SBSP architecture can be
framed around.

D. CONCEPTUAL SYSTEM DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE

As discussed, there have been concepts proposed to illustrate the technology since
the SELENE project in 1991. With a pool of diverse options originating over the past three
decades, a refined high-level structure of systems can be described to best frame the
warfighter’s needs at the tactical edge.

1. Reference Architecture

A solid reference architecture weighs the insights gained from requirements

analysis and frames them around a design-agnostic structure to provide the flexibility in a
follow-on design phase. The reference architecture chosen herein uses the conceptualized
perspectives of military operations at the tactical edge to guide its development.

Figure 7 is an inputs, controls, outputs, and mechanisms (ICOM) diagram that

shows the fundamental relationships between inputs/outputs, functions, and assets. The
ICOM sections are identified by the side of the root box, starting with the inputs from the
left going into the SPBS system block, clockwise around with controls coming in from the
top, outputs going out from the right, and mechanisms coming in from the bottom.

25
 Figure 7. SBSP Input/Output Diagram

The sole input is solar radiation, which is the clean power source from the sun,
which effectively acts as an unlimited energy supply for the entire lifetime of the system.
To reduce complications, the reference architecture bounds its solar collection in space to
avoid terrestrial unpredictability, like diurnal cycles, atmospheric attenuations, and weather
effects (Jaffe 2013, 1). A SPS is key to maximizing efficiency.

Terrestrial effects do act as a control factor for the actual power transmission and
receiving station due to the nature of an earthbound tactical edge environment. Space
weather is a control factor for the SPS as well, with significant effects on the receiving
station (and end-user equipment) in a devastating but low-probability solar storm. Safety
policies also dictate the type of power transmission and associated controls therein to
ensure safety for humans, equipment, and the environment.

AC/DC power is the key output that will be distributed to meet the energy demands
at the tactical edge. Waste heat is generated from solar collection and the rectenna and is a
natural byproduct of the system. Repurposing this waste heat may be achievable in the
future, but will not be explored in this thesis.

26
 The mechanisms taken into account for the system are the physical entities affecting
the system in a deliberate way. User equipment varies and can be supplied either directly
or indirectly through a power distribution system. Autonomous systems interact with the
system on their own accord via their rectennas and can directly benefit from the power
delivery. Operators control the system by steering an individual SPS or full constellation
to support mission requirements.

With these considerations in mind, the reference architecture decomposes the SBPS
system into two parts: the SPS and the Receiving Station. These components fulfill the
activities listed in the functional hierarchy diagram shown in Figure 8 below. The activities
stemming directly from the metafunction are the minimum functions needed to complete
the SBSP system.

Figure 8. Functional Hierarchy Diagram

27
 2. Solar Power Satellite

There are two basic architectures proposed in the past that encompass the main
functions of solar “collection, DC to RF conversion, and power transmission” to Earth
(National Security Space Office 2007, 7): a SPS in Earth orbit or a lunar-based system on
the surface of the Moon. It has been demonstrated to be feasible to assemble, integrate, and
implement a space-based solar power system than a lunar-based one at component or sub-
component levels. The International Space Station (ISS) is the most obvious success story.
Conversely, no lunar-based demonstrations have been conducted to promote any sort of
SBSP feasibility.

When considering an architecture for a space-based SPS, launch costs and

frequency both coupled with space structure assembly are significant hurdles to overcome.
The technologies associated with these are maturing operationally or still in their nascent
stages. One of the earliest SPS concepts was done by the Solar High Study Group by
designing a 5.8 GHz derivative of the original 1978 DOE/NASA SPS reference system
(Jaffe 2013, 8). Figure 9 shows this SPS concept doing two disparate functions with their
respective parts: solar collection by the photovoltaic (PV) panels and power transmission
by the transmit antenna. The sheer surface area of the PV panels alone complicates the
launch requirements, and that disregards the 800 m transmit antenna.

28
 Figure 9. Solar High Study Group’s DOE/NASA Reference System. Source:
Jaffe (2013).

A limiting factor for the mass of a single SPS can be summarized best by the NRL’s
assessment which constrains the mass to 555 metric tons (NRL 2019, 14). The motivation
in this figure is to limit the funding costs in launch to 25% of the estimated $10B for initial
implementation, but now equates to ~70% using updated costs from current launch vehicle
pricing; a $24B budget would be needed to maintain a launch cost of 25%. Fortunately,
with the advent of reusable rockets like SpaceX’s Falcon Heavy and upcoming Blue
Origin’s New Glenn, launch costs can be expected to be reduced over time. Since Falcon
Heavy is operational, we can base our launch costs to geostationary transfer orbit (GTO)
around its specifications with reusability in 2022: $97M per 8 metric tons per launch. That
gives us a figure hovering around 70 launches totaling $6.7B. This figure can only be
further improved by SpaceX’s successor launch vehicle, Starship, which is planning to
have a larger thrust and therefore a larger payload capability.
29
 In addition to the SPS’s overall size and mass exceeding our current launch
capability, there is another enabling technology needed to realize the SPSB system in
development by NASA as in-space assembly (iSA). The SPS must be designed into
modules so its delivery into space can be done over a series of launches, and ultimately
built by using robots or astronauts via iSA. This lends itself to abnormally large physical
space requirements to maximize solar collection. Though this allows for the design and
manufacturing of more complex parts while structural trusses or panels undergo iSA, this
does contribute to the overall implementation timeline.

Shown in Figure 10 is another concept that takes the “Reference System” by

bringing the PV panels closer to the transmit antenna but introduces concentrating mirrors
to focus the sunlight. This results into a more complex structure that requires more moving
parts to keep the mirrors pointed, muddling an already exhaustive iSA.

Figure 10. SPS Concept Using Concentrating Mirrors. Source: Torrey (2009).

30
 There are some considerations for the SPS design if placed in the LEO
environment. This would require a constellation to provide sufficient coverage of target
areas and a significant cost increase associated with the manufacturing, launch, and iSA of
multiple SPS’s. Another notable factor is the durability for each SPS to function in the face
of LEO environmental threats like micrometeoroids, space debris, and massive thermal
cycling. This entire constellation will be further stressed because each orbit around the
Earth at LEO is approximately 90 minutes (de Groh, Banks, and Smith 1995, 6). The high
heat from the sunlight followed by cooling in the Earth’s shadow are considerable
temperature fluctuations that must be accounted for in the materials used; otherwise,
microcracking and delamination of coatings could lead to a host of issues like ultraviolet
radiation, atomic oxygen, and contamination. If one SPS malfunctions, is rendered
disabled, or produces debris in LEO, then it leaves a gap in functionality for a target
receiving station as well as compromising the rest of the constellation.

Once the SPS is in its desired orbit, there are some different designs that meet the
referenced architecture that have been proposed in the past. Figure 11 illustrates a historical
concept that show a physically separated solar collection and power transmission
components connected by a truss. More recent developments like the demonstrations
underwent by NRL in their PRAM module consolidate the solar collection, DC-to-RF
conversion, and microwave transmission functions into a single tile module, allowing for
a more compact design that may simplify the iSA and serviceability. This could lead to a
more compelling SPS that is modular, uniform, and more resilient to part failures.

31
 Figure 11. Modular Symmetric Concentrator Concept. Source: NSSO (2007,
8).

3. Receiving Station

The Receiving Station must be able to accept the power transmission from the SPS
and distribute it to the end-user based on demands. The Receiving Station architecture will
be composed of rectifying antennas, AKA rectennas, whereby RF signals are received and
converted into DC power. The energy distribution thereafter can utilize batteries for storage
or feed directly into the needs of the end-users, which are technologies and processes
relatively well understood and will not be a focus for this thesis.

Figure 12 shows a thin-film etched-circuit rectenna that was designed and evaluated
for its power handling capability with its intended application to microwave-powered high-
altitude aircraft (Brown and Triner 1984). Because of its thoughtful design for atmospheric
platforms and power transmission in space, it must be carefully considered for military
purposes whereby terrestrial energy needed measures in the GW. Dependent on power
level densities, these rectennas can achieve an overall RF-to-DC conversion efficiency of
up to 91%, which would be a boon for power-hungry requirements. However, to account
for the IEEE safety limit for controlled areas from 3 GHz to 300 GHz, which averages to

32
a power density of 100 W/m2, a thin-film etched-circuit rectenna would be approximately
120 m and weigh about 250 kg (NRL 2019, 17). That is about the size of a football field.

Figure 12. Thin-Film Etched-Circuit Rectenna. Source: Brown and Triner

(1982).

The type of flexibility demonstrated by Brown and Triner allows for

unconventional transportation methods for these receivers to accommodate a wide array of
missions. They could be packed for mobility via shipping containers by sea, standard pallet
system by existing aircraft, or even by trucks or trailers. There also are a number of
deployment solutions for traditional PV solar panels today that can be utilized for thin film
rectennas. Figure 13 shows a rapid deployment solution by a trailer that rapidly unrolls the
panels without the need for solar engineers on-site (IMPO-RF 2022). Alternative solutions
can range from airlift by heavy-lift helicopters, shipping containers, or even autonomous
deployment by robots. Additionally, the array of rectennas could be installed upon or
integrated with buildings, tents, or other structures for further flexibility and rigidity (NRL
2019, 18).

33
 Figure 13. Existing Mobile Deployment Solution for Solar Panels, AKA
Rapid Roll “T” by RenovaGen. Source: IMPO-RF (2022).

Much like traditional terrestrial solar arrays, the Receiving Station would need to
share similar prerequisites to establish an efficient power beaming link. A level surface or
terrain would help in not only the deployment but also to minimize any coverage affecting
the rectenna’s efficiency. If that is not feasible, supporting structures would need to be
considered. The nature of thin materials that comprise the proposed rectennas has
challenges associated with its deployment and overall management. Wind, foliage, ice,
dust, and other materials that tend to attenuate microwave signals must be avoided or
obviated to maximize the power beaming link’s potential. However, it has been confirmed
that wave attenuation is negligible for frequencies below 30 GHz and even for storms with
more visibility more than 0.02 km (Chen and Ku 2012). This should be studied further
when devising a comprehensive solution.

4. Command and Control

C2 is considered a critical part for operations and maintenance for all satellite
systems and the SBSP system is no exception. It must be a two-way communication link
with centralized management rooted at a Satellite Operations Center (SOC). It is from here
where commands for specific tasks are uplinked, with the chief among them providing
coordinates to point the beam in the desired location. Ancillary commands would
encompass those for satellite control related to maintenance, collision avoidance (if not
34
automated), and pause in operations or decommissioning. The basic C2 architecture for the
SPS also requires uninterrupted status updates of Telemetry, Tracking, and Commanding
(TT&C) for health monitoring, and the C2 signal paths can be seen in Figure 14

The “two basic approaches [for] C2 links [either uses] direct ground access [or]
relays. In the relay operation, [an uplink] an uplink signal is sent from a ground station to
a relay satellite, which then transmits a forward link to either another relay, or to the
destination satellite. The return link from the destination is received by the relay, which
then transmits the signal to the ground station via the downlink” (Butler 2018, 1).
Whichever pathway the signals take, the initiator and TT&C consumer is always the SOC.

Figure 14. SBSP SPS C2 Architecture. Adapted from Butler (2018).

This architecture is standard and considered old, basic technology as of 2018 in

terms of satellite C2 capability. If the SBSP system were to support both a direct link and
relay modes of operation, Butler rightly infers there would be redundancy in the multiple
access methods (2018) to reach the SPS. There has been research in utilizing rectenna
control stations coupled with a SOC to build a decentralized communication architecture,
but was determined as a low priority effort that could be delayed at a later time without
impact to SPS development (Raytheon Company 1979, 5–7). This same research also
35
proposed a manned SPS where up to 50 personnel could help operate and maintain the
power beams. In light of research and advancements in autonomous systems, the functions
of an SPS can be achieved autonomously negating the need for complex C2 and other
superfluous communications systems that would accommodate resident staff.

A decoupled link from the SOC is the pilot beam, which is the primary C2 link
from the rectenna to the SPS. The purpose of the pilot beam would be to orient the SPS
microwave power beam currently to the receiving site. JAXA Researchers have proposed
a system in which spread-spectrum pilot signals are used with phase-detection circuits so
that a single antenna on the SPS can be used for power transmission and pilot-signal
reception (Hashimoto et al. 2004, 31). This effectively utilizes a single frequency for SBSP
operation, eliminating the need for another frequency spectrum and the difficulties
associated with obtaining spectrum allocation approval. Figure 15 shows the pilot signal
being transmitted from the rectenna’s center allowing for accurate beam control and
reducing the reliance on mechanical attitude control.

Figure 15. Rectenna’s Pilot Beam Transmission. Source: Caldeira and Hoffert
(2004).

36
 5. System Security

Satellites were once considered relatively safe from adversarial intervention in the
past, however vulnerabilities seem to manifest with every couple years as there are
increasingly displays of “intent and means to compromise and cripple space capabilities”
(Butler 2018, 1). Some recognized vulnerabilities for the SBSP system arise from anti-
satellite (ASAT) weapons and C2 link exploitation, to include passive and active methods.

Direct ascent ASAT (DA-ASAT) capabilities involve ground-, air-, or sea-

launched rockets on a ballistic trajectory up into space to target space-based assets. The
proposed SBSP system would be positioned in deep space at GEO, but there are design
options for a LEO constellation. LEO DA-ASAT weapons are likely mature and potentially
operationally fielded on mobile launchers. This is a major international concern because
the destruction of any one satellite passing overhead could create debris for any LEO-based
asset, and create further problems for future launches. GEO DA-ASAT are actively being
pursued by China as a counterspace measures, but likely in the experimental or
development phase (Weedan 2021).

There are no known ASAT countermeasures at this time, but detection has been
“estimated to be about 5–15 minutes for LEO and several hours for GEO” (Weedan 2021,
3). This threat must be followed closely to develop mitigation strategies aboard the SPS or
external to the system, but SBSP is not unique in this vulnerability. It should be noted that
a moratorium on DA-ASAT missile tests was issued by the U.S. in April 2022 in an attempt
to “prevent an arms race in outer space” (Panda and Silverstein 2022), but it remains to be
seen in how countries like Russia and China will respond. Whatever the case, ASAT
capabilities could disable the SBSP system.

Another attack vector for the SBSP system is not from the power beam itself, but
rather the C2 link. It is standard practice to encrypt data streams to provide “secrecy and
some degree of authentication, [but] waveforms themselves do not in any way hide the
traffic flow” (Butler 2018, 2). This allows for signals to be easily identifiable when
examined, allowing external observers to infer things about the SBSP system. Standard
cryptography can waylay any unauthorized commanding of the SPS, but because

37
frequencies and modulation are not difficult to reverse-engineer from years of observation,
bogus signals could be produced to prevent legitimate commanding from the SOC. This
interference, AKA jamming, would prevent beam control and more egregiously, system
failure. This susceptibility to interference can be mitigated by implementing spread
spectrum techniques that also enhance covertness, which decreases legitimate signal
detection. Butler, in his conference paper to enhance satellite resiliency, outlines frequency
hopping, direct sequencing, or some combination of those techniques to implement spread
spectrum and effectively harden the C2 link. These measures are typically applied to
general communications, but not normally to C2 links. The SBSP system should build upon
the concepts and principles therein for increased system security.

E. CONCEPT OF OPERATIONS ANALYSIS

There are SBSP use cases from which the DOD would benefit greatly to help reduce
costs, increase safety, and offer extensibility for a variety of missions. The military use
cases that are most apparent in reaping the benefits of the SBSP system are shown in
Figure 16, which is an operational view of the three applications discussed in this thesis:
(1) to drastically reduce risks associated with generator fuel resupply, (2) to provide a
comparable complementary or alternative power solution, and (3) to progenerate concepts
and plans for more autonomous aspects in future operations.

38
 Figure 16. Operational View of a SBSP System

1. Reduction of Energy Logistics

The delivery of energy to FOBs usually entails the delivery of generator fuel. There
was field data collected from 2009 related to a USMC Afghanistan study that showed “for
every gallon of generator fuel used, it took seven gallons to transport it” (Vavrin 2010, 8).
Therein lies the implication that overall operational costs can be reduced by also reducing
the need for transporting fuel to a site. Furthermore, when data suggests that “fuel
consumption for the typical plant ranges from 40 to 220 gallons per hour” (Vavrin 2010,
15), then it is apparent that the energy required in logistics alone is something that would
benefit FOB costs if abated.

39
 Organizations studying the logistics of resupply state that “beyond the high dollar
cost of delivering fuel to the battlefield, it is important to [also] measure the operational
drawbacks associated with dedicating manpower and equipment assets to resupply,
including [the] receiving and [storage] materials, and the associated risks which include
injuries and loss of life” (Defense Science Board 2016, 8). Reduction in logistical activity
related to energy resupply can improve the overall force protection for the warfighter, and
additionally free up their time and assets to improve warfighting capabilities. There is the
issue of problematic terrain (e.g., desert, jungle, mountain, arctic, etc.), or terrain features
(e.g., cliffs, ridges, depressions, etc.), for remote installations or FOBs that may not be
conducive to effortless energy resupply. These types of complications pose significant risks
to the logistical team and their assets, and may affect the resupply mission altogether. The
worse case scenario is the loss of life and equipment, with a resulting failed resupply.

SBSP does not require any sort of refueling and overcomes all risks associated with
resupply by fully negating it.

2. Increase of Energy Architecture Flexibility

The 2009 Afghanistan study mentioned by Vavrin also determined that due to the
high operation tempo (OPTEMPO), which summarizes the rate of a unit’s activity,
renewable energy in that type of environment and in the near-term would “only provide a
fraction of the total energy required” (2010, 9). This study is over a decade old, and
technological advances and recent demonstrations showcase otherwise, and that the
incorporation of renewable energy at the tactical edge has some merit.

The inclusion of a SBSP system to the pool of energy architectures for DOD
investment increases the flexibility of power planning at the tactical edge. Mature
alternatives to fossil fuels shift the paradigm in how operations power the warfighter. Any
displacement of the proliferated incumbent technologies requires compelling motivation
and sufficiently developed replacements (NRL 2019, 29), so the dividends from advancing
a SBSP system are credibly significant. Sophisticated trade studies may show that a SBSP
system would be constrained by missions with relatively small energy demands or areas

40
with little to no space for receivers, but essential otherwise. Even hybrid power solutions
that make use of a SBSP system will find savings and a much favorable outcome.

3. Ushering of Autonomous Systems

As the warfighter evolves and explores the use of uncrewed autonomous assets, the
SBSP power beaming link further compels the mission designers at the tactical edge to
consider not only staffed users, but autonomous users as well. “Although a traditional
[FOB] has needs besides energy, including water, food, and ammunition, a prospective
future installation or group of autonomous systems might not have such needs” (Jaffe et al.
2019, 8). The transition to autonomous systems gives rise to even more dependence on
reliable and constant energy delivery.

A SBSP system can provide the reliability and consistency sought after by power-
hungry operations. Consider scenarios in the future in which an installation, mobile group,
or expeditionary force heavily dependent upon autonomous assets that relies on electricity
for all aspects of their operation, to include mobility, on-board processing, and
communications; advancements may also incorporate directed energy weaponry into these
assets whereby the electrical load for each asset would be even higher. This scope can be
expanded further to a decentralized system or fleet of autonomous vehicles. SBSP could
then present a near-total means of resupply that exceeds today’s limitations of available
energy in a given operational environment. The space-based powering of autonomous
systems is a net positive for the DOD.

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42
 IV. ASSESSMENT OF SPACE-BASED SOLAR POWER
BENEFITS AND CHALLENGES

There are significant SBSP benefits and challenges that are worthy of further
investigation. Though SBSP could serve as the paradigm shift that enhances DOD
operations and provides more capability, there are challenges that must be overcome to
fully reap the benefits.

A. ANALYSIS OF BENEFITS

Some analyses portray the SBSP system as a competing technology, but the
maximum benefit in the short-term can be realized when it is viewed as a complimentary
system to the available options that enable the warfighter at the tactical edge. When viewed
as a long-term solution, SBSP does fill in gaps for longevity and reliability that is not
sustainable with traditional fossil fuels. The main appeal is moving energy from where it
is cheap and accessible to places where it is difficult to come by.

1. Net Zero

Net Zero, though international, is most certainly a U.S. goal for mitigating global
warming by 2050 and was born from the understanding of climate change as concerns
about its impacts swell. The U.S. is partnering with countries around the world to accelerate
global energy system decarbonization by increasing the speed and scale of transitions to
net zero energy systems (National Renewable Energy Laboratory 2022). This commitment
holds little water if the U.S. fails to peer inwards at its own energy usage and rein in the
elephant in the room. Figure 17 shows the DOD owning the lion’s share of energy
consumption making it patently clear how intense their demand should be for a new energy
solution.

43
 Figure 17. Energy Use of DOD in Trillion BTUs. Source: Department of
Energy (2022).

An SBSP system is carbon-neutral—from the solar collection to the power

distribution—and avoids the creation of new environmental concerns during operation.
Though the initial efforts to design, build, and execute will require manufacturing, rocket
launches, installation, and other ancillary efforts detracting from Net Zero, this technology
ultimately meets the intent and could accelerate the goal on a global scale, all the while
drastically reducing the largest contributing agencies’ dependence on fossil fuels.

Energy technology is of profound importance for the DOD—and to a broader

extent, human civilization—in order to further U.S. interests across nations and expand
U.S. presence beyond.

2. Synergy with Terrestrial Energy

The natural precursor to the SBSP system is terrestrial solar power. It has become
increasingly prevalent to supplement fuel-consuming generators with solar arrays and
44
batteries to reduce fuel demand, so it stands to reason that SBSP can share this load. Any
SBSP requirements like low cost, high efficiency, and high production of solar arrays
would naturally improve terrestrial solar power and attract its adoption in both civilian and
military markets. It is imperative that technology maturation in terrestrial solar power
continues to move forward and exponentially so, such that SBSP may be realized sooner.

Terrestrial solar power has shown promise with “successful demonstrations in

remote Marine Corps outposts, on dismounted soldiers, for sensors, and on UAVs”
(Defense Science Board 2016, 26). There are gaps in its utility that when coupled with
SBSP, enhances the capability of solar power overall. The variability of terrestrial solar
energy on a global scale is subject location, season, weather, and time of day. The
placement of the SPS “at the Earth-sun L2 Lagrange point [would have] a constant view
of the night side of the Earth” (Landis 2000), and a power beam link at or below 3GHz
would remove those limiting factors altogether. This effectively upgrades terrestrial solar
power’s availability to be 24/7, changing solar power’s intermittent status to constant.

Furthermore, SBSP receiving stations comprise of rectennas and would need to take
up a sizeable portion of land. It is recommended that an analysis of SBSP designs consider
how it compliments the terrestrial solar infrastructure that will be “developing [at] a faster
scale than the space infrastructure” (Landis 2004, 10). There are enough functional
similarities between the terrestrial solar array and rectenna array, such as their receipt of
energy from space and conversion into electricity, that an upgrade to rectennas would be
relatively trivial to a new installation. There would be no need to allocate or pay for a new
site, the distribution infrastructure would already be in place, and with enough technical
advances, a solar array can be designed with integral rectennas built in (Landis 2004, 17).

3. Leadership in Power Beaming Technologies

There is an opportunity in which the U.S. can establish its leadership in relevant
technology areas, offering prospective benefits beyond defense, “but also for diplomacy,
development, and domestic economic growth” (Jaffe 2019, 27). For example, alliances can
be strengthened by providing humanitarian aid to those countries that undergo natural
disasters. The U.S. can maximize the use of its own land by providing energy to places that

45
have been traditionally difficult to extend power to. A new option in the domestic energy
sector can shift markets and provide more opportunities for businesses to grow.

Without more U.S. investment, countries that have heavily invested in developing
and maturing SBSP will reap the benefits of relevant technologies. China proposed a SBSP
development roadmap to “building a MW-level demonstration by 2030,” (Li 2022, 1)
which describes a continuous 1 MW power beam transmitted from space to the ground,
and then building up to a commercial SBSP by 2050 (Li 2022, 1). Additionally, a team in
China expects to have an initial SBSP system by 2028 as part of their Orb-Shape Membrane
Energy Gathering Array (OMEGA) that was proposed in 2014, advancing their timeline
by 2 years from 2030 (Proctor 2022). If U.S. were to lag behind, there may be dependencies
on this technology that would be counter to U.S. interests. The Chinese perspective could
be best summarized by Wang Xiji, a Chinese space technology pioneer: “Whoever obtains
the technology first could occupy the future energy market. So it’s of great strategic
importance.” (Jaffe 2019, 29).

The next decade will be influential and perhaps monumental for SBSP as key
enabling capabilities advance, technological breakthroughs occur, and cutting-edge
research presses on. Leaders will emerge that could shape the battlefield as well as global
markets, and the U.S. must invest decisively and proactively to maintain its leadership in
space science, of which SBSP falls under.

B. ANALYSIS OF CHALLENGES

It is important to note that SBSP is not a staple in operational considerations

because it has many challenges that must be addressed.

1. Technological

There are some specific technological challenges spread across the breadth of
technology areas that play pivotal parts in realizing a SBSP system.

46
 a. Mass to Power Ratio

The most important metric for the SPS is the specific power or watts per kilogram.
The efficiency of the SPS hardware directly improves the specific power and intuitively,
the weight of the SPS indirectly improves the specific power. This optimization is key not
only for the utility of the power transmission, but for the economic viability in terms of
launch costs.

The SBSP system depends on launch vehicles to transport SPS modules and/or
components from Earth. Due to the SPS’s sheer size, multiple launches will be required.
“Relevant hardware prototypes have demonstrated transmitted power less than 10 W/kg,
which is at least an order of magnitude lower than what is likely to be required” (Jaffe
2019, 27). The launch into space and subsequent orbit is a prominent cost driver in the
system, so therein lies the incentive to increase the wattage per kilogram. To exacerbate
this challenge, 10 W/kg only accounts for the demonstrated transmission hardware, so there
must be a reckoning with the supporting structure, inter-cabling, and PV arrays.

NRL’s ongoing PRAM experiment is laying the foundation for how the conversion
process from solar to RF plays out in a space-like environment. The data will inform
development in this function, but there is more to do to improve the mass-to-power ratio
problem. There may be differences between this conversion process on the ground than in
space that begs for more investigation so that specific power can be designed for optimality.

b. Unprecedented Area-to-Mass Ratio in Space

Due to the sheer amount of area required for solar collection to reach megawatt
levels of power transmission, the SPS requires significant advances in space robotics and
iSA. This categorizes space robotics and iSA as key enabling technologies. It has been
noted that though mass be kept as minimal “as possible for cost reasons, [this would still]
likely result in unprecedented area-to-mass ratio structures” (Jaffe 2019, 28). The largest
structure to have been built in space is the ISS, and that required international cooperation
and ingenuity over more than two decades-worth of effort—that equated to 40 assembly
flights. Trade studies must be undertaken to analyze the necessary modular designs, which

47
consequently results in other challenges like in-space servicing of a bad module,
replacement costs, and even thermal control challenges posed on modularity.

The large area-to-mass ratio boasts further challenges in pointing and station-
keeping. These ancillary “challenges arise from the influence of the solar wind and from
material rigidity and strength limits” (Jaffe 2019, 28). Because the SBSP system must
establish a power beaming link for operation, pointing and station-keeping is essential to
gain the DOD’s confidence in reliability.

The astronomical community have spurred workshops that pursue detailed

engineering assessments of iSA to steer the future direction of space robotic systems
development (Thronson et al. 2018), but telescope complexity has been their focus. It is
imperative that SBSP inserts itself in future conversations to include large structural
requirements. The White House officially released the In-Space Servicing, Assembly, and
Manufacturing National Strategy in April 2022 that highlights iSA as it relates to space
industrialization. It is great that the U.S. recognizes the need for advancement in this field
and influencing this sector could very well quicken the SBSP timeline.

2. Economical

The initial investment to realize a SBSP system may not be less than billions of
dollars because costs are “driven primarily by the number of launches, in-space
transportation into orbit, hardware production, and research and development (Jaffe 2019.
28). This is a hard pill to swallow when mission requirements are currently being met with
existing technology. Though simplification of different modules within the SPS may
reduce the production and operating costs, as well as shrinking the dimensions and mass
of various parts, there is a hefty price tag associated with that research with a timeline that
is still not within the near-term horizon.

Furthermore, there is still too much uncertainty in how much the cost of SBSP
energy will be compared to alternatives, especially with the current pace of progression.
Expeditionary forces typically have high energy cost scenarios that is difficult to forecast,
and most of the energy consumption comes from fossil-fuel dependent aircraft and ground
vehicles. The shift to electric vehicles may help the fuel reduction, but other factors like
48
battery recharge rates and range could further complicate logistical planning. An
implementation of a SBSP system would result in a much more manageable logistical
burden related to fuel convoys and a reduction in non-base camp fuel consumption, but no
comprehensive analyses could be found that clearly show these results. Ultimately, energy
delivered must be generated and transmitted efficiently for economic viability.

3. Political

Electromagnetic spectrum allocation for the DOD is the regulatory responsibility

of the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA). NTIA
recognizes the prospects of space solar power being part of the “the next gold rush,” (NTIA
2021, 52), but the half sentence related to SBSP is reduced to a mere mention in their most
recent report designed to inform policymakers and the public regarding the key roles of
U.S. space-based operations. The lack of attention on this technology is certainly a
challenge that will require more benefactors to overcome. Without enough proponents, the
frequencies likely to be involved with an SBSP system (5.8 GHz, 35 GHz, 94 GHz) may
be relegated solely to existing users at military airfields, further complicating a SBSP
system designed for remote installations (Jaffe 2019, 29).

There is a single International Telecommunications Union (ITU) report on wireless

power transmission (WPT) that was updated in 2021, and it distinguishes the WPT
technology as a game-changer. It lists the many global efforts undergone to explore use
cases in a wide range of applications via different radio waves, to include wireless charging
for electric vehicles, moving/flying targets, buildings, robots, and more. The report touches
on SPS microwave frequencies spanning 1–10 GHz, with emphasis on 2.45 GHz and 5.8
GHz (Radiocommunication Sector 2021, 27). SBSP spectrum requirements and candidate
frequencies are on the radar of regulatory bodies, but no formal allocation for SBSP has
been assigned to an ITU service. This process could take many years so early actions on
this front are just as important as the underlying technological R&D.

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50
 V. CONCLUSION

A. SUMMARY OF THESIS RESEARCH

This thesis concludes that the DOD should invest in the underlying technologies of
SBSP and take meaningful steps to advance capabilities and realize the SBSP system. It
deserves concerted development because the military applications are vast and benefits to
military operations at the tactical edge could save money, time, and lives.

Major stakeholders of the DOD were identified to be the military personnel

supporting operations from FOBs and expeditionary troops conducting operations at the
tip of the spear. Their needs were formed into requirement categories affected by the
mission, vulnerability of threats, terrain, and terrestrial weather. The requirements analysis
process afforded this thesis an opportunity to review proposed SBSP system architectures
in the past and define a government reference architecture that can be used to maximize
the solution space. The main functions of the architecture were decomposed to help
simplify the focus of the power beaming technology, dividing the segments into space,
transport, and ground.

Concepts of operations were explored further to illustrate the vast utility of SBSP.
The reduction of energy logistics would mitigate risks for logistics teams and equipment
and cut costs for these types of logistical operations. SBSP would broaden the energy
architecture of the DOD and allow flexibility in operations planning. Lastly, the availability
and improved reliability of energy that SBSP provides would help usher in autonomous
systems for the warfighter, reducing the need for troops on the ground.

An assessment of benefits and challenges was conducted. The benefits are meant
to inform decisions related to SBSP utility and SBSP’s part in fulfilling the U.S.’s
obligations to space superiority and carbon neutrality. Numerous challenges were
discussed that spanned technological, economical, and political to set the stage on what
system architects and developers should look forward to so our understanding of SBSP can
continue to evolve.

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B. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE WORK

Ultimately, the research herein is meant to serve as a baseline for future work.
Though SBSP’s potential to change the warfighter’s landscape is decades away at the
current funding levels associated with SBSP development, there are known efforts today
that could be undertaken to advance capabilities and keep the U.S. in the running for
untapping SBSP technology. There is no doubt that the advent of an SBSP system could
be jumpstarted even sooner with accelerated efforts. The messaging of this thesis is to
emphasize U.S. sponsorship of SBSP technology development with attention on DOD-
specific opportunities.

1. Space Segment

The bulk of required advancements are in the space segment of the SBSP system,
which is encompassed by the SPS. Many aspects of a SPS would be trailblazing due to the
technology involved in its design, assembly, and implementation. These reasons warrant
expanded efforts for the DOD to invest and support the maturation of power beaming
technology.

Jaffe et al.’s report in 2019 specifically recommends the leadership to fall under the
Under Secretary of Research and Engineering, through the Operational Energy Capability
Improvement Fund (OECIF), with engagement from the ONR, the Directed Energy
Directorate of AFRL, DARPA’s Tactical Technologies Office, NASA, and similar entities.
There is significant attention from these organizations and most of the existing research
was born from these organizations. The major proving ground in power beaming lies in its
distance, efficiency, and power level. If DOD becomes a major player in this technological
area, they will surpass parity with foreign developments and be the first to realize an
operational SBSP system.

An additional recommendation of this thesis for the space segment is to manage

and follow advancements of the space robotics and iSA technologies. There is no existing
or foreseeable launch vehicle with the required thrust or fairing size to accommodate the
size and mass of a SPS, so a modular SPS design is most likely to be designed. It is certain
that complex operations for the hardware and software of space robotics and iSA would be
52
required to unify these modular pieces, with lots of work left to be done. There is ongoing
development in this area, with the James Webb Space Telescope’s recent successful launch
that demonstrated remote self-deployment to solve the limit of fairing size. This capability
is still in need of major breakthroughs that already has attention from NASA and the
astronomical community in its significance.

2. Ground Segment

The ground segment needs to be well understood to accommodate missions at the

tactical edge. It is recommended that, whatever the surface area that is required, resources
be put towards research in compact or foldable rectenna arrays for ease of packing,
transport, and storage. It is difficult for the DOD to adopt a new energy solution if it is
more burdensome and time-consuming to get to the warfighter.

Additionally, it is recommended to focus on researching the deployment and

serviceability of the receiving station. SBSP cannot be a viable solution if its effectiveness
relies on the need of a solar power engineer’s presence. A tactical receiving station is a
paradigm shift that would completely transform the manner in which DOD conducts
missions for expeditionary forces. This could improve the warfighter’s capability by
allowing more power-hungry devices to be employed.

3. Spectrum Requirements

It is not enough to develop a functional SBSP system. The regulatory hurdle of

frequency allocation is a process that is required for all space assets performing signal
transmissions. It is highly recommended to begin this paperwork and commence the
processes to earmark candidate frequencies. This gives power beaming the benefit of
formal documentation and recognition by the NTIA as a potential capability, giving it more
weight to provision frequencies when the necessary studies are carried through. The
obvious benefits are the prevention of major interference and chaos, otherwise rendering
the system useless. The DOD must act on this first so the foundation of SBSP operation is
cleared and gains acceptance amongst the international regulatory bodies.

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