FEEDS AND FEEDING

Feed is a material, which after ingestion by the animal is capable of being digested, absorbed
and utilized to satisfy metabolic needs i.e. being transformed into body elements of the animal.
The compounds of a fed that are capable of being transformed into body elements are known
as nutrients. The metabolic needs include:

(i) Maintenance – supply of energy for physiological processes whether new tissue or
products are formed.
(ii) Growth – this is a building process of the body. Growth may be defined as correlated
increase in mass of body indefinite intervals of time in a way characteristics of the
animal species. 28 There are two types of growth – Hyperplasia which is the increase in
number of cells. Hypertrophy – which refers to increase in size of cells.
(iii) Growth of hair and feathers
(iv) For work – muscle action. Energy is needed for work
(v) For reproduction – including egg production in poultry
(vi) For fattening – specialized production activities
(vii) Milk production – Lactation in milk producing animals, man, pigs, rabbits and pigeons
(viii) For synthesis of specialized products – synthesis of enzymes, hormones, haemoglobins,
etc
(ix) Catalysis – in stimulating and regulating body activities e.g. vitamins, hormones and
enzymes
(x) Sleeping, breathing are important activities requiring good nutrition.

TERMINOLOGIES AND DEFINITIONS

(i) Nutrition – the science involving various chemical and physiological activities, which
transform feed elements (nutrients) into body elements.
(ii) Feed – is a material, which after ingestion by the animal is capable of being digested,
absorbed and utilized i.e. before transformed into body elements of the animal. A feed
is merely the carrier of nutrients. No feed has been found that is nutritionally complete
for and balanced to the need of a given animal.
(iii) Feedstuff/Feed ingredients – a feeding stuff is any product, whether of natural origin or
artificially prepared that when properly used has nutritional value in the diet. It includes
natural feeds of animal origin, synthetic and other pure nutrients.
(iv) Nutrients – a nutrient is defined as any feed constituent or group of feed constituents of
the same general chemical composition or a pure chemical compound that aids in the
support of animal life. The constituents of a feed that are capable of being transformed
into body elements are known as nutrients.
(v) Ration or Diet – is a 24-hour allowance of feed or of mixture of the feedstuffs/feed
ingredients making up the diet.
(vi) Feeding – is a practical application of nutrition, i.e. consideration of management,
formulation, palatability, economics, etc.
(vii) Formulation – is the process of constructing a feed or diet formular.
(viii) Balanced diet – the food or feed that supplies all the essential nutrients in the proper
amounts required for optimum performance of the animal.
(ix) Complete feed – a balanced ration for the animal in a single form. It provides all the
nutritional requirements (except water) needed to maintain normal health or to
promote production.
(x) Basal (Energy) Feeds – nutritionally, basal feeds are mainly concentrated sources of
energy being especially rich in starches and sugars. They are grains and grain by-
products that contain not more than 16% protein and 18% crude fibre.
(xi) Supplement – is a feed or a feed mixture use with another feed to improve the nutritive
balance of the total ration or diet.
(xii) Concentrate – is usually described as feed or feed mixture which supplies primary
nutrients (protein, carbohydrates and fat). It is a commercially prepared supplement
which refers to a concentration of protein, minerals or of vitamins in excess of those
found in basal feeds. Have digestibility.
(xiii) Husks – is leave enveloping an ear of maize or outer covering of kernels or seeds
especially in the dry form.
(xiv) Ear of maize – entire fruiting head of Zea mays including only cob and grain.
(xv) Cob – the fibrous inner portion of the ear of maize from which the kernels have been
removed.
(xvi) Kernel – refers to a whole grain.
(xvii) Hulls – outer covering of grain or kernel.
(xviii) Forage or roughage – any material substance for feeding livestock, which contains more
than 18% crude fibre, materials making up the fodder.
(xix) Anorexia – loss of appetite in disease condition.
(xx) Appetite – is a desire or inclination for food. It is a conditioned reflex. It is related to
taste, smell and appearance of food. Well developed in man than in farm animals.
(xxi) Additive – a substance (or mixture of substances) added to the feed to meet a specific
purpose. An additive may enhance the nutritive value, sensory value or shelf life of the
feed. Additive is involved in the production, processing, packaging and/or storage of the
feed without being a major ingredient.
(xxii) GIT – gastro intestinal tract, responsible for the digestion, absorption and assimilation of
feed and nutrients.
(xxiii) Ration Formulation – this is the act of combination and recombination in specific ratios
of feed ingredients/feedstuffs to obtain feed for the nutrient requirement of farm
animals.
(xxiv) Feedmill – is an establishment/place where feeds/commercial feeds are provided using
specialized equipment according to the feed formulation.
(xxv) Feedmillers – owner of a feedmill, for commercial/personal use.
(xxvi) Proximate Analysis – this refers to the analysis of chemical constituents of feed, feed
ingredients using established standard methodologies/procedures AOAC (1995).
(xxvii) Nutrient Requirements – this refers to specific requirements for nutrients by farm
animals and this can be affected by a number of factors.
(xxviii) Antinutritional factors – these refers to chemical compounds/metabolites which
interfere with the normal process of digestion, absorption and assimilation of nutrients
from feedstuffs/feeds.
(xxix) Feed Microscopy – this is the science of identification, evaluation of feeds/feedstuffs by
visual appraisal using a microscope, hand lenses. Essentially it involves physical and
textural examinations.
(xxx) Nutrition evaluation – refers to the assessment of feed/feedstuff for its nutritional
adequacy. This can be physical, chemical, biological or microbiological in nature.

CHARACTERISTICS, CHEMISTRY AND NUTRITIVE VALUES OF COMMON FEEDSTUFFS USE IN

This refers to the characteristics of the feedstuffs. It depicts the amount of nutrients present in
a feed ingredients/feedstuffs which confers specificity on the feed ingredients. This
composition indicates is a pointer on the usefulness and for what purpose and level the
feedstuff can be incorporated or used in the nutrition/feeding of farm animals.

Most importantly, nutrient composition assists in the classification of the different feedstuffs.
The characteristics of the feedstuff is impacted by

(1) Processing method

(2) Season/climatic conditions

(3) Age/growth stage in forages

(4) Presence of antinutritional factors

(5) Storage
1. ENERGY SOURCES

This consists those grains and feed ingredients that contain less than 20% of protein in dry
state. Examples are cereals and some of their by-products, starchy roots, fats and oils, sugars
and syrups.

STARCHY ROOTS AND TUBER

Starchy roots (i.e. tubers and roots crops) most widely cultivated in tropical and sub-tropical
part of the world are cassava, yams, cocoyam’s and sweet potatoes in that order roots are also
eaten in small quantities in some tropical countries. In temperate countries, the most widely
cultivated root crop is irish potato. Irish potato is also grown in some tropical areas. Starchy
roots contain large quantities of starch and so are high in energy per hectare than most cereal.
They are however, generally low in protein (1 – 4%), minerals and vitamins. Starchy roots form
the major part of the diet of animal such ruminants, and monogastrics. For instance, cassava
and its products like cassava flour or fermented cassava meal and cassava peels may be used to
replace a large proportion or all of the grains in poultry and pig diets. In using cassava, care
must be taken to balance the diets for protein and amino acids, especially methionine. Also,
effort to reduce the cyanide content must be achieved.

Starch and root crops are relatively easy to grow with high yield even on poor soils. They
contain large quantities of starch and so are good energy source. They produce more energy
per hectare than most cereals but are generally low in protein (1- 4%), minerals and vitamins.
Starchy roots form the major part of the diets of man in many parts of the world. They are
sometimes used in the feeding of farm animals.

CASSAVA: It is a very popular tropical plants use in feeding man and all classes of livestock.
There are two main types. These are the varieties like types Manihot utilisima or Manihot
esculentus and the sweet types Manihot palmate. It is easy to propagate from stem cutting and
is one of the most productive root crops in the tropical areas. Its yield is between 10 and 20
tons per hectare. It is available all the year round. Cassava contains between 50 and 70 %
water. It is low in protein (1 – 3 %), oil, ash and crude fibre (up to 5% CP can be obtained from
some of the new variety). The protein content of cassava tuber is deficient in lysine,
methionine, tryptophan, tyrosine and phenylalanine but high in arginine. It is low in minerals
and most vitamins but it is high in energy content. The peels of cassava are richer in protein, oil
and ash than the peeled portion. On a dry basis, cassava leaves have protein content that range
between 14 and 69% DM. It is fair in lysine content marginal in tryptophan and isoleucine but
deficient in methionine. Cassava is able to serve as substitute to maize in livestock feeds at
levels between 5 and 50 %, well processed cassava leaves and peels are widely fed to cattle,
sheep and goats.

LIMITATIONS TO CASSAVA USE: Both the bitter and sweet varieties contain cyanide. The content
of cyanide in fresh tuber of bitter varieties contain less than 100mg/kg. The peels contain 3 –
10 times more cyanide than edible portion. Levels of cyanide less than 50mg/kg are considered
harmless, 50 – 80mg/kg slightly poisonous, 80 – 100mg/kg toxic and above 100mg/kg fatal.
Symptoms of eating raw or improperly processed cassava in man include feeding of sickness
nausea a, vomit by abdominal distention respiratory difficulty and collapse. Over a long period
of consumption, raw cassava may cause goiter, deformed and mental defective cretinism,
ataxia, neuropathy with mental retardation. Detoxification of cyanide is required. Cyanide is
detoxified into thiocyanide and thus involves the use of sulphur. Some of the sulphur are
obtained from sulphur containing amino acid. Cyanide also interferes with thyroid gland and
therefore interferes with iodine metabolism. However, much of the cyanide is removed during
processing of cassava. The processing method includes cooking, frying, boiling, washing,
grating, soaking, fermentation and sun drying and long period of storage.

Properly processed cassava products are virtually free of HCN. High levels of cassava in feed
make the feed to become dusty, hence molasses and oil may be added to reduce the level of
dustiness. The leaves and peels of cassava are widely fed to cattle, sheep and goats, although
with fatal consequences sometimes.

YAM: It is mainly cultivated for human consumption. There are different species of yam. The
most popular ones are:

1. Water yam Dioscorea alata

2. Aerial yam Dioscorea bulbifera

3. Yellow yam Dioscorea cayeneusis

4. Tritollate yam Dioscorea dumetorium

5. Chinese yam Dioscorea esculenta

6. White yam Dioscorea rotundata

Yam is high in water content, high in soluble carbohydrate, low in cp (1-4%), low in fibre and fair
in ash. The protein content is low in lysine, methionine, tryptophan but contain fair amount of
valine, arginine and isoleucine. It also contains fair amount of B Complex and minerals. Yam
peels are valuable as livestock feed especially in ruminant animals.

LIMITATION TO ITS USE: The major setback in the use of yam as livestock feed is the content of
its major antinutritional factor (alkaloid) which can reduce the level of intake with time. It also
has an itching effect on the palate. Some varieties contain tannin up to 0.4% and saponin. Most
of these antinutritional factors are destroyed during cooking and drying.

COCOYAM: Cocoyam can be fed to livestock. However, cocoyam should be cooked before being
fed to livestock particularly pigs since the acid (Ca – oxalate) or saptoxin contained in the
cocoyam is irritating to the digestive tract and may even be poisonous. The cormes and leaves
of cocoyam are valuable feed for ruminants (cattle, sheep and goats). There are two major
species and they are:

1. The yaro cocoyam, Colocasia esculenta (koko funfun)

2. The yannia cocoyam, Xanthosoma sagitt, folium (koko pupa).

Cocoyam produces cormes, a form of underground stem. The big central corm is surrounded by
smaller ones called cormels. The cormels are the commonly used as human food. Cocoyams
are fairly high in water and carbohydrate contents. The starch of cocoyam contains
predominantly amylose and small amount of amylopectin. It is low in fat (less than 0.5%) and
protein content. Proteins of cocoyam have fair amount of the essential amino acids but are low
in lysine and histidine. The peels are richer in oils than the inner content tuber. The leaves have
higher nutrient content than the corms. Limitations -Cocoyam should be cooked before fed to
livestock especially pig. The peels and leaves of cocoyam are valuable feed for ruminants
(cattle, goats and sheep) -Cocoyam contain some toxic factors. Cocoyams are irritating to the
body because of the presence of calcium oxalate in them. However, when boiled or roasted,
the irritation disappears. The corms of cocoyam contain a gastrogenic substance.

SWEET POTATO

It is cultivated in both tropical and temperate areas. The varieties are colour yellow or red.
Fresh potatoes contain 70-80% of water. It is low in crude fibre, fat and protein. However, the
protein content has high biological value and it is rich in essential amino acid. On dry basis over
90% of sweet potatoes tuber is made up of carbohydrate. The CHO is highly digestible when
cooked but low when raw. Much of the starch in sweet potatoes is converted to maltose during
cooking (i.e. heat, enzymatic hydrolysis and starch) and this is responsible for the sweet taste in
cooked sweet potatoes. Potato tuber is rich in carotene (especially yellow varieties), ascorbic
acid (especially yellow varieties) and B-vitamin. However, storage and cooking reduce the
content of vitamins. It has fair amount of ash and minerals e.g. phosphorus, calcium, sodium,
chloride and potassium. Its leaves are rich in protein, minerals and vitamins. Sweet potatoes
are good for all classes of livestock. The leaves and vines of potato are useful feed for
ruminants. Sweet potato has been used in diets of pigs and can be used in poultry diets along
with suitable protein supplements. The leaves and vines of potato are useful feed items for
cattle. Cooked Irish potato can be used effectively in the diets of pigs.
Other energy supplier feedstuffs include - Confectionary products - Bakery wastes - Cull fruits
and vegetables - Snack food waste, Kitchen/cafeteria/canteen waste

SUGARS AND SYRUPS SUGARS: sugars are cheap and easily digested forms of energy. Sugars are
obtained from sugar came and sugar beet. After extraction, the crude sugar is refined and
made into cubes (crystalline sugar). Raw sugar, obtained from chewing the cane directly,
contain small amounts of protein, minerals and vitamins. Refined sugars are however
essentially carbohydrates and lack every other nutrient. All white sugars i.e. crystalline table
sugar cube sugar, icing are practically 100% sucrose and are free of any toxic factors. Brown
sugar is less highly refined sucrose and contains traces of other sugars, minerals and colouring
matter.

Syrups: Syrups are highly concentrated solutions in which the sugar unable to crystallize out
because of the presence of small qualities of other substances. Some syrups, such as molasses
and golden syrup are by-products of the manufacture of crystallize cane sugar. The syrups
contain some amounts of protein (0.3%), Ca (0.03%) and Fe (1.5 mg/100g). They are devoid of
any other ingredients.

Molasses: Molasses are mainly by products of the manufacture of sugar from either sugar cane
or sugar beets. Their sugar content is about 50-60% and water content is between 22% (beet
molasses) and 27% (cane molasses). Beet molasses is higher in CP (7-11%) than cane molasses
(3-4%). Molasses has a mineral content of 8-10% composed mainly of Na and K salts. The Ca
and P content are 0.10 and 0.02% respectively (for beet molasses) and 0.8 and 0.8% (for cane
molasses). The thiamine and riboflavin contents are each 0.05 mg/100g while the means
content is about 1.5 mg/100g. The Fe content is between 0.01 and 0.02%.

The use of molasses in poultry diets is limited by its laxative effects when used at high levels.
Any level above 5% will precipitate laxative effect. Molasses may be used to prevent dustiness
in mixed feeds and in the treatment of poultry blue comb diseases because of its sugar content.
Molasses can be used at a rate of 3-5% in the diet of sows to help prevent constipation and
enhance feed intake. It is also used to ensile forage during silage production for ruminant
animals. The difficulties in obtaining the product limit the use of molasses in animal diets.
Molasses is increasingly being used by human beings. It is sometimes used in place of honey.
Honey: Honey is made by bees. Most honeys contain glucose and fructose known as the invert
sugars. Honey also contains some protein (0.4%), minute traces of Ca (0.005%), and small
amounts of Fe (0.4 mg/100g), thiamine 0.05 mg/100g, riboflavin 0.05 mg/100g and niacin 0.2
mg/100g. Honey is an attractive, pleasant and sweet food/feed.

Jams: Jams are prepared by boiling fresh fruit, or a pulp preserved with sulphurdioxide
(sulphite pulp), with sugar. Depending on the antinutritional factors present in the raw
materials, pectin may or may not be added. Jam is a general name for all such products.
Marmalade is synonymous to Jam in some parts of the world. Most jams contain about 65-70%
sugar, 0.5% protein. It also has Ca (0.02 – 0.04%), iron (1.2 mg), Vitamin A (2-10 mg/100g) and
Vitamin C 10-45 mg/100g. Jams are pleasant, attractive and sweet foods.

CEREALS

Cereals which are mostly used in the tropical countries are maize, rice and guinea corn and to a
less extent millet and wheat. In temperate or dry climate, wheat, barley, oat and rye may be
available for use in the diets of farm animals and human beings. Cereals are high in starches
that are readily digested by animals. They are relatively low in protein content. Cereal energy
constitutes below 45 - 70% of the energy in poultry, swine and rabbit diets. Cereals contain fair
amount of Ca, P and Fe, although the absorption of these minerals is not really guaranteed.
Whole cereals contain useful amounts of B vitamins although most of these B vitamins are lost
in the milling process to which the grains are subjected in the preparation of various foods from
them. They are however totally devoid of vitamin B12 and ascorbic acid. Vitamin A activity in
cereals is low except for yellow maize. Cereals are also deficient in the amino acid such as lysine
and tryptophan.

MAIZE (Zea mays): It is grown extensively in the country for human food as well as livestock
feed. It is used for all classes of livestock. Essentially, maize supply energy which is as high as
14.2 MJ/kg. It is low in protein (8-10%) depend on the variety. Its protein content is low in
lysine and tryptophan. The fat content is about 4% and high in linoleic acid, an essential fatty
acid (about 50%). Yellow maize contains Xanthophyll, which gives yellow colouration to the
shank, skin, egg yolk of birds and carcass of pig fed diet containing yellow maize. Yellow maize
contains carotenoids which have pro vitamin A activity 100 – 800 mlg/100g. White maize is low
in xanthophylls and lacking in vitamin A activity. Green leaves, palm oil or synthetic colourant
can be added to white maize. Niacin in maize is in bound folin and is not easily available.
However, treatment with home water makes the niacin more available. Maize is used up to
60% in livestock feed. It is sometimes difficult to do 100% replacement of maize.

SORGHUM (GUINEA CORN): Sorghum guiness is widely grown in several parts of the world. In
Nigeria, it is grown in the Northern part. Sorghum can be grown successfully on poorer soils
and in drier conditions than maize. Its energy content is comparable to that from maize up to
13.79MJ/kg. Its protein content is slightly higher than that of maize. It contains low levels of
xanthophylls, linoleic acid, lysine, methionine, tryptophan and fibre. It is also low in calcium but
high in phosphorus. It is used to substitute maize to a reasonable extent in livestock feeding. It
is also used in human food in various forms especially in the Northern part of the country. The
use of sorghum in livestock feeding is limited by its content of tannin. Although, low tannin
sorghum has been bred to improve its utilization in poultry.
Tannins are a group of compounds that bind proteins, thus impairing protein digestion. Tannins
also reduce palatability. Guinea corn leaves are used as feed for ruminant animals. However, it
must be noted that young sorghum contains cyanogenic. The glycoside occurs in the
germinated plant and its contents increases as the plant matures and disappears completely
when grain appears. Glycoside hydrolysis yields hydrocyanic acid (HCN).

RICE (Oryza sativa): Rice is grown locally but principally as human food, though it is useful in
livestock feeding. By products obtainable from rice includes rice husk, rice bran, broken rice,
rice polishing and rice mill by products. Rice bran consists of the pericarp or bran layer and
germ. The fat and linoleic acid contents of rice bran are relatively high. The protein content is
between 12 and 13%. Rice polishing is obtained in the operation of brushing the grain to polish
the rice. The protein content and linoleic content of rice polishing are higher than those of
maize. The crude fibre content is low (4.1%). Its energy value is higher than rice bran. Rice mill
by-products consist of rice husk, rice bran, rice polishing and broken rice grains. Its CF may be
higher than 32%. Its CP is low and 50 fat content 5 – 6 %. Its high CF and low ME values
discourage its use in poultry and swine diets.

Cereal grain By-products: Cereals grain by- products are obtained during the processing of
grains into food and drinks for human. The by-products are used mostly for feeding livestock.
Some are now processed into human foods e.g. oat bran breakfast cereals. Examples of cereal
by-products include:

 Wheat Bran

 Wheat Shorts

 Wheat middling

 Wheat mill run

 Rice Bran

 Rice Polishings

 Rice mill by - products

 maize Gluten meal

 Maize gluten feed

 Maize Distillers Dried grains

 Hominy feed.

 Brewer's dried grains

 Breweries dried yeast

 Torula dried yeast

 Dried Bakery products

1. Wheat Bran: wheat bran consists of the coarse outer covering of the wheat in the usual
process of commercial milling of wheat. Although of low energy value, wheat bran is useful
when low calorie diets are required. It is also cheap. The crude fibre level is above 9.5%

2. Wheat Shorts: Wheat shorts consist of fine particles of wheat bran, wheat germs. Wheat
flour and the offal from the tail of the mill, in the usual process of milling wheat. Because of the
endosperm fraction, wheat shorts contain more energy and less crude fibre than wheat bran. It
has not more than 7% Crude fibre.

3. Wheat Middling: wheat middling is essentially similar to wheat shorts except for the
differences in crude fibre content. Wheat middling consists of fine particles of wheat bran,
wheat shorts wheat germ, wheat flour and some of the offal from the tail of the mill. Has not
more than 9.5% crude fibre.

4. Wheat mill Run: This consists of coarse wheat bran, fine particles of wheat bran, wheat flour
and the offal from. The tail of the mill. The chemical content of wheat mill run are similar to
those to those of wheat shorts. Not more than 9.5% crude fibre. Wheat mill run and the other
wheat by-products are ingredients 52 that can be used but in restricted amount in poultry and
swine diets.

5. Rice bran: Rice bran is the by-product of the milling of rice to produce edible rice. Rice bran
consists of the pericarp or bran layer and germ of the rice, along with small quantities of hull
fragments, and some chipped, broken rice and perharps CaCO 3 as is unavoidable in the rice
milling process but which should usually not exceed 5%. The fat and linoleic acid contents of
rice bran are relatively high. The oil gram rice bran is used largely in human diets. Rice bran is
relatively high. The protein content is below 12 – 13%. The oil grain rice bran is used largely in
human diets. Rice bran can be used successfully to replace some part of the grain portion of
some poultry and swine diets. As much as possible, rice bran should be avoided in the diets of
younger poultry and pigs.

6. Rice Polishing: this is a by – product of rice obtained in the milling operation of brushing the
grain to polish the rice. The protein content and linoleic acid content of rice polishing are higher
than those of maize. The product is characterized by relatively low crude fibre content 4.1%. Its
energy value is higher than rice brain.
7. There are no special limitations to the use of rice polishing in poultry and swine diets. It is
however not as available as rice 53 brain.

8. Rice mill by – product: this consist of rice hulls, rice polishing, and broken rice grains. Rice
mill by-product is in actual fact the total offal obtained in the milling of rice. Its crude fibre
content should normally not exceed 32%. Its protein content is low, with fat content of 5.6%.

Maize gluten meal: Maize gluten meal is the dried residue from maize after the removal of the
larger part of the starch and germ, and the separation of the bran by the process employed in
the wet willing manufacture of corn starch or syrup or by enzymatic treatment of the
endosperm it may contain fermented corn extractive and/or maize germ meal. The energy
amino acid contents of maize gluten meal are much content of maize gluten meal are much
higher than those of maize gluten feed. Like maize the maize by-products are deficient in lysine
and tryptophan.

Maize Gluten feed: This is that part of the commercial shelled maize that remains after
extraction of the larger portion of the starch, gluten and germ by the processes employed in
the wet milling manufacture of maize starch or syrup it may or may not contain fermented
Maize extractives and or maize. Contain about 21 – 23% crude protein and 9 -10% crude fibre.

Maize Distillers Dried Grains: These are derived from the fermentation industry particularly the
alcohol industry. There are 2 types of maize distillers dried grains, with soluble and maize
distiller’s dried grains, both containing 27% Crude protein. The crude fibre (12%) is high and
energy value relatively. Generally, the distillers dried Grains and the distiller dried soluble are
by-products obtained after removal of ethyl alcohol by distillation from the yeast fermentation
of grains and the distillers dried soluble are by products obtained after removal of ethyl alcohol
by distillation from the yeast fermentation of a grain or grain mixture.

Homing feed: this is a mixture of maize bran, maize germ and part of the starchy portion of the
maize grain as produced in the manufacture. There have at least 5% Crude fat (ether extract).
The fat of homing feed is high in lionoleic acid (3.2%) and the energy content is fairly high.

Brewers dried grains: this is the dried extracted residue of barley alone or in mixture with other
cereal grain or grain products resulting from manufacture of beer and may contain pulverized
dried spent hops in an amount not exceeding 3% evenly distributed. Because of its low energy
content and high fiber content (over 18%). BDG is more suitable as cattle feed. It is also used
extensively in swine production.

Other cereal by products includes sorghum distiller grain, brewers dried yeast, torula dried
yeast and dried bakery by product.
FATS AND OILS: The term fat general, referred to a group of food or feed ingredients including
animal fats, vegetable oils and related compounds. Technically, fats refer to those that are Solid
at room temperature e.g. butter, fallow and land while oil is the term used to describe fats that
exist as liquid at room temperature e.g. groundnut oil, corn oil etc. Fats and oils are
concentrated sources of linoleic acid and linolenic acid (two essential fatty acids). Fats and oils
may be a source of fat-soluble vitamins. Most vegetable oils contain significant amounts of
vitamin E. Red palm oil is a rich source of beta carotene and hence a good source of vitamin A.

Corn oil contains small amounts of carotene. Fish liver oils, milk fat (and thus butter and milk)
and animal fats generally contain vitamins A, and D. Most vegetable oils do not contain
vitamins A and D. Fat commonly included in livestock feeds (for poultry and pigs) can be divided
into 6 general groups

1. Animal fats: - these are rendered fats from beef or pork byproducts.

2. Blended feed grains animal fats: these may include mixtures of beef, tallow, pork lard,
poultry grease and possibly restaurant grease

3. Poultry fat or grease: This is rendered fat from poultry offal.

4. Vegetable oil: these are oils derived from vegetable materials e.g groundnut, soybean, palm
nut etc.

5. Blended animal and vegetable fats: these may include proportions of animal and plant fats

6. Soapstocks: This is also used in the manufacture of soap: these contain products not wanted
in oil meant for human consumption including free fatty acids. The use fats and oils in poultry
and pig diets would depend on their price and availability relative to other energy source. Fats
should be used in diets where higher energy levels are required such as those for broiler
chickens and turkey poults, weaning pigs, fast growing market hogs and lactating sows.

It is not economical to add any fat at levels above 5% in poultry and swine diets. It is however
possible to use levels between 5-8% if prices are favourable. Animal tallow and restaurant
greases are the most used animal fat. All fat supplements used in animal diet should contain an
anti-oxidant to prevent rancidity. Contain raw oil seeds such as groundnut and soybean may
deteriorate under certain circumstances. It is wise to use artificial antioxidants to preserve
butylated hydroxyl toluence (BHT), butylated hydroxyl anisole (BHA), ethoxyquin, propyl galate
and octylgallate. ANIMAL PROTEIN SOURCE It is made from dried ground, whole fish, or fish
cuts, offals with or without oil extraction. There are various brands of fish meal but the
commonest are those with high oil including herring, menhaden, salmon and low white fish.

FISH MEAL: It is a very common animal protein feed ingredient in use. It is a byproduct of fish
industry. It is usually made from whole fish. However, fish offals of high quality could also be
used. Local fish meal is lower in its protein content than the imported fish meal. Crude protein
content of fish meal may vary from 55 and 77% depending on the fish type use and extent of oil
extraction. Calcium (3-6%) and phosphorus (1.5 – 3%) contents and micro mineral are in high
content are high (i.e. 3-6% and 1.5 – 3%) respectively. Fish meal is low in fat soluble vitamin
because they are extracted along with the oil. It is however, high in vitamin B complex vitamins
especially vitamin B12. Its biological value is very high and usually varies from 60-80%. It is a
good source of sulphur amino acid i.e. methionine is about 1.8%. Its lysine content is about
4.5%. Fish meal must be properly stored because of its residual oil causing rancidity.

Limitation of fish meal

1. It is usually used at a level between 0 – 5% for economic reasons.

2. High levels of inclusion may make animal go off feed.

3. Fish meal flavor may also be imparted to the carcass at higher level of inclusion.

4. Fish meal must be properly stored because of its residual oil.

BLOOD MEAL: It is a slaughter’s house by products. It is prepared from fresh and clean animal
blood free of all extraneous materials such as stomach content, hair and urine. The water in the
blood is usually removed by parboiling. It is parboiled or mechanically dewatered the resulted
semi solid blood mass is rapidly dried and ground to obtain meal. It is high in protein (80-88%).
It is an excellent source of lysine if properly prepared. It is also rich in leucine but is low in
isoleucine, ash calcium and phosphorous. It can partly replace fish meal in starter diets for
broiler chicks and turkey but can replace all the fish meal in broiler finisher. Limitation

1. Badly processed blood meal may expose animal to the attack of salmonella organisms create
problems of flies.

2. Its amino acid content is not well balanced. It is low in sulphur containing amino acids. Its
biological value is low (i.e. about 19%.

3. It is not usually utilized beyond 5% level. Higher levels make animal go off feed.

4. Overheating reduces lysine availability of protein is less digestible.

MEAT AND BONE MEAL: It is the rendered product from animal (especially mammal) tissues
including bone. It excludes blood hair, hoof horn, hide trimmings, manure, stomach and rumen
content. It contains about 50% CP and it is high in fat and ash. The protein quality is variable
depending on the quality of meat and amount of extraneous material. It is a good source of
lysine, calcium and phosphorous but it is deficient in methionine, cystine and tryptophan.
Limitations -Excessive processing temperature may reduce lysine availability. -Too high levels of
inclusion may result in undesirably high levels of calcium and phosphorous.
MEAT AND BONE MEAL TANKAGE: It is similar to meat and some meal except that it may
contain blood or blood meal.

MEAT MEAL (MEAT SCRAP): It is the rendered products from animal (especially mammal)
tissue. It excludes bone, blood, hair, hoof, horn, hide trimmings, manure stomach and rumen
content. It is similar to meat and bone meal except that it is low by calcium and phosphorous
unit than 4.4%, it is classified as meat and bone meal. It is used at about 7-10 % dietary
inclusion level. Meat meal is virtually nonexistent in Nigerian as virtually all parts of the animals
are consumed

MEAT MAEL TANKAGE: It is similar to meat meal except that it contains blood or blood meal.
POULTRY BY-PRODUCT MEAL: It consists of the ground, dried, rendered parts of the carcass of
slaughtered poultry such as heads, feet offals, undeveloped eggs and intestine. Feathers are
not included. It is an excellent source of protein (i.e. 55% CP). It is rich in lysine tryptophan,
calcium and phosphorous. The level of inclusion is as discussed for meat and bone meal.

FEATHER AND HAIR MEALS: Feather and hair are not digestible commercially available feather
and hair meals are often referred to as hydrolyzed feather and hair meal. This is obtained by
pressure streaming undecomposed clean feathers from slaughtered poultry. Excessive heat
may destroy cysteine and lysine. They are about 75% digestible. Hydrolyzed feather meal is high
in cystine and threonine but deficient in lysine, methionine, histidine and tryptophan.

DRIED POULTRY MANURE: It is dried poultry excreta. Its chemical contents may vary depending
on the source and age of the birds from which manure is obtained. The protein content is
between 25 and 29%%, fat content 1.5 – 2.5% and fibre 14 – 20%. Lysine content 0.3 – 0.5%,
methionine 0.10 and 0.15%. Dried poultry manure is used in ruminant and monogastric animal
feeding.

MISCELLANEOUS SOURCES OF PROTEIN LEAF PROTEIN: Plant protein contains fair amounts of
protein. The protein can be concentrated by crushing and disintegrating the leaves or by
precipitating protein concentrate from the leaf juice with the aid of heat or acid. The
concentrate so formed may contain up to 60% protein.

SINGLE CELL PROTEIN: refers to bacteria, yeast, fungi and algae are microorganisms. Biomass
containing up to 50% or more can be produced from each of these microorganisms are termed
single cell protein. (SCP). Hatching waste: It is a mixture of egg shells, infertile and unhatched
eggs called chicken that are cooked, dried and ground prior to use.

INSECT MEALS: They include larva of insects, whole insects and earthworm. They can replace
plant protein or parts of the fish used in the diet.
Milk and milk by product: they include skimmed milk, condensed butter milk, dried whole milk.
They are excellent source of protein but are usually too expensive to be included in the feed.
PROCESSING OF FEEDS There are several ways of processing feed stuffs. This can be classified
into dry and wet processing or cold and hot processing.

COLD PROCESSING METHODS GRINDING: The particles may be finely, moderately or coarsely
ground. However, fine ground may lead to wind loss, tends to form ball in the GIT when mixed
with saliva, reduces palatability in cattle, and reduces digestibility and absorption due to faster
rate of passage in GIT. May cause ulcer in pig, feed bloat in cattle. Moderately ground is good
for pig and poultry. Grinding of grains for cattle may probably not necessary but sorghum has to
be crushed coarsely because its waxy coats may prevent digestions. Fine ground grains for diary
cattle will result in low butter, fats and milk.

ROLLERMILL GRINDING: Roller mills act on grain by compressing it between two corrugated
rolls that can be screwed together to produce smaller and smaller particles. Roller mills are not
used with roughages.

HAMMERMILLS: A hammermill processes feed with the aid of rotating metal bars (hammers)
that blow the ground product through a metal screen. The size of the product is controlled by
changing the screen size. These mills will grind anything from coarse roughage to any type of
grain. The products size will vary from particles similar to cracked grain to a fine powder.

SOAKED GRAIN: Grain is soaked for 12-24 hours. The soaking, sometimes with heat, softens the
grain which swells during the process making a palatable product that should be rolled before
using in finishing rations.

RECONSTITUTION: It is similar to soaking and involves adding water to mature dry grain to raise
the moisture content to 25-30. It is stored in oxygen, limiting silo for 14-21days prior to feeding.
This procedure works well with sorghum.

HIGH MOISTURE GRAIN: Grain is harvested at a high moisture content of (25-35%) and stored
in a silo or treated with chemical to avoid spoilage. It may be ground before ensiling or ground
or rolled before feeding. This is an important method when weather conditions do not allow
sun drying.

ACID PRESERVATION OF HIGH MOISTURE GRAINS: Thorough mixing of 1.1.5% propionic acid,
mixture of acetic propionic acids or formic and propionic acids into high moisture (20- 30%)
whole corn or other cereal grains retards molding and spoilage. HOT PROCESSIGN METHODS
Most of these methods are associated with high cost and maintenance problem of equipment.

STEAM ROLLING: The steaming is accomplished by passing steam through a tower above the
roller mill. The grains are subjected to steam for only a short time (3-5minutes) prior to rolling.
Most results had only little or no improvement on animal performance as compared to dry
rolling but use of steam does allow production of larger particles and fewer fines. STEAM
FLAKING Grain is subjected to high moisture steam for a sufficient time to raise the water
content to 18-20%, and the grain then rolled to produce a flat flake. This process is beneficial in
term of weight gain efficiency.

PELLETING: Pelleting is accomplished by grinding the feed and then forcing it through a thick
die. Feedstuffs are usually but not always steamed to some extent prior to pelleting. Pellets can
be made in different diameters, lengths and hardnesses and are commercially available. It is
good for pig and poultry. ADVANTAGES 1. It reduces dustiness 2. It reduces loss in the fine
particle ingredients during transportation. 3. It reduces feed wastage particularly in fish, pig,
poultry 4. Bulking reduction 5. It increases the utilization of fibrous feed component of the
ration 6. Partial cooking of starch results in making it more susceptible to enzymatic action and
improves digestibility of starch DISADVANTAGES 1. It increases cost of production 2. Improper
pelleting procedure may cause feed spoilage 3. Ration high in fat are not good in pelleting

ROASTING: Maize is usually the target. The maize is passed through a roaster. The moisture
constant will be reduced to about 5% but the bulkiness is increased by 15%. Results of livestock
feeding trials with roasted maize used for pigs consistently shown an improvement in the rate
of grain to about 8- 12% and improvement in feed efficiency to about 9-10%.

COOKING: It is usually done for two reasons: 1. To destroy the antinutritional factors in feed
stuffs 2. To increase the utilization of starch granules present.