LECTURE NOTES ON

ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS (ELC105B)

UNIT 1: DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS (Part B)

DR. UDOCHUKWU B. AKURU

YEAR 2025

Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment

Department of Electrical Engineering
 Learning Objectives
In this part of the lecture, students will learn to...
• Apply Ohm’s law to calculate unknown voltages
and currents in simple circuits.
• Apply Kirchhoff’s laws to simple electric circuits.
• Relate Kirchhoff’s laws to voltage and current
divider rules.
• Understand Wye-Delta transformations.
• Use meters for measuring voltage, current, and
resistivity.
 Charge, Current, and Voltage

Electric current.
• Rate at which charge passes through a
predetermined area.
• Unit is the ampere (A).
Arrow symbol indicates assumed direction
of current i.
Closed electrical path required for nonzero
current.

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 Voltage

Voltage: amount of work per charge.

• Units of volts (V).
• Also called potential difference.
• Direction (polarity) indicates whether energy
is gained or lost by the charge.

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Potential Difference and Ground Reference
Potential

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5
Resistance
• The resistance of any material depend on cross-sectional A
and length l, as shown below. The symbol of resistance is
R. ρ is the resistivity of the material in Ohm-meters.

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Resistance

Resistance leads to energy dissipation in

the form of heat.
• Can be desired (a toaster) or undesired
(residential wiring).
• Unit of resistance: ohms

Resistance of a cylindrical wire segment with

length and area A given by:
l l
R= =
A A
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Resistivity of Common Materials

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Ohm’s Law
• In a resistor, the voltage across a resistor is directly
proportional to the current flowing through it.
V = IR

• The resistance of an element is measured in

units of Ohms, , (V/A).

• The higher the resistance, the less current will flow

through for a given voltage.
• Ohm’s law requires conforming to the passive sign
convention.

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Short Circuit
• A connection with almost zero resistance is called
a short circuit.
• Ideally, any current may flow through the short.
• In practice this is a connecting wire.

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Open Circuit
• A connection with infinite resistance is
called an open circuit.
• Here no matter the voltage, no current
flows.

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Linearity
• Not all materials obey
Ohm’s Law.
• Resistors that do are
called linear resistors
because their current
voltage relationship is
always linearly
proportional.
• Diodes and light bulbs are
examples of non-linear
elements.
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Conductance
• The inverse of resistance.
• It is the ability of an element to conduct current. It has a unit
called mho (Ω-1) or siemens (S).

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Power Dissipation
• Running current through a resistor
dissipates power.
2
v
p = vi = i 2 R =
R

• The power dissipated is a non-linear function of

current or voltage.
• Power dissipated is always positive.
• A resistor can never generate power.
• Unit power is watts (W).
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 Computing the Power Associated with
Each Element
For passive elements:
• Power is positive and equal to vi.
• Examples: resistors, capacitors, electric motors.
For active elements:
• Power is usually negative and equal to −vi.
• Examples: batteries, generators, operational amplifiers
and diodes.
Positive power indicates energy is dissipated or
stored.
Negative power indicates energy is supplied or
released.
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 Resistance and Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s law.
• Empirical relationship given by v = iR.
• Linear relationship does not apply over large
ranges of voltage or current.
Short circuit and open circuit.
• Limiting cases of Ohm’s law as the resistance
approaches zero or infinity, respectively.
• Dielectric strength measures the maximum
electric field an insulating material can sustain.

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 Types of Resistors

Discrete resistors.
• Nominal values indicated by colored bands.
Variable resistors.
• Examples: photoresistor and thermistor.
Potentiometers.
• Three terminal device with one variable resistance
determined by position of a wiper.
Power dissipation in resistors is positive power.

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Types of Resistors
• Fixed
• Variable
• Potentiometer
• Rheostats

To know more about

resistors:
https://www.youtube.com/wa
tch?v=DYcLFHgVCn0
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 Problem 1

Determine whether each element in Figure P1.15

is supplying or dissipating power, and how
much.

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 Solution to Problem 1

Element A: P = -vi = -(-12V)( 25 A) = 300W (dissipating)

Element B: P = vi = ( 15V)( 25 A) = 375W (dissipating)
Element C: P = vi = ( 27V)( 25 A) = 675W (supplying)

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Nodes, Branches and Loops
• Circuit elements can be interconnected in multiple
ways.
• To understand this, we need to be familiar with
some network topology concepts.
• A branch represents a single element such as a
voltage source or a resistor.
• A node is the point of connection between two or
more branches.
• A loop is any closed path in a circuit.

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 Nodes
One or more ideal wires connected together.
Every point on a node has same electric potential.
Select a reference node.
• Node voltage is relative to the reference node.
Same symbol used for reference node as for earth
ground.

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Network Topology
• A loop is independent if it contains at least
one branch not shared by any other
independent loops.
• Two or more elements are in series if they
share a single node and thus carry the
same current.
• Two or more elements are in parallel if they
are connected to the same two nodes and
thus have the same voltage.

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Circuit with Four Meshes

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Illustrating Nodes and Supernodes in
Circuit Diagrams

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 Features of Networks and Circuits

Branch.
• Single electrical pathway.
• Consists of wires and elements.
• Elements of a branch said to be in series.
Loop.
• Any closed pathway, physical or conceptual.
Mesh.
• Closed electrical pathway not containing other closed
physical pathways.
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 Theory of Networks

A network with b branches, n nodes and l

independent loops will satisfy the equation:

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 Problem 2

How many branches and nodes does the circuit

below have? Identify the elements that are in
series and in parallel

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 Solution to Problem 2

Five branches and three nodes. 1 Ω and 2 Ω

resistors are in parallel. 4 Ω and 10 V source are
also in parallel.

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Kirchoff’s Laws
Ohm’s law is not sufficient for circuit analysis.
Kirchoff’s laws complete the needed tools.
There are two laws:
• Current law.
• Voltage law.

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KCL
• Kirchoff’s current law is based on
conservation of charge.
• It states that the algebraic sum of currents
entering a node (or a closed boundary) is
zero.
• It can be expressed as:
N

i
n =1
n =0

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 Kirchhoff’s Current Law

• Net sum of the currents crossing any closed

boundary (e.g., a node or supernode) must
equal zero.

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KVL
• Kirchoff’s voltage law is based on
conservation of energy.
• It states that the algebraic sum of currents
around a closed path (or loop) is zero.
• It can be expressed as:
M

v
m =1
m =0

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Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

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Series Resistors
• Two resistors are
considered in series if the
same current pass through
them.
• Take the circuit shown:
• Applying Ohm’s law to both
resistors.
v1 = iR1 v2 = iR2
• If we apply KVL to the loop we have:
−v + v1 + v2 = 0
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Series Resistors
• Combining the two equations:
v = v1 + v2 = i ( R1 + R2 )

• From this we can see there is an equivalent

resistance of the two resistors:
Req = R1 + R2
• For N resistors in series:
N
Req =  Rn
n =1
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Voltage Divider Rule
• The voltage drop across any one resistor
can be known.
• The current through all the resistors is the
same, so using Ohm’s law:
R1 R2
v1 = v v2 = v
R1 + R2 R1 + R2

• This is the principle of voltage division.

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Parallel Resistors
• When resistors are in parallel, the voltage drop
across them is the same.
v = i1 R1 = i2 R2
• By KCL, the current at node a is
i = i1 + i2
• The equivalent resistance is:
R1 R2
Req =
R1 + R2

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Current Divider Rule
• Given the current entering the node, the voltage
drop across the equivalent resistance will be the
same as that for the individual resistors.
iR1R2
v = iReq =
R1 + R2

• This can be used in combination with Ohm’s law

to get the current through each resistor:
iR2 iR1
i1 = i2 =
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
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 Problem 3

Solve for all branch currents and node voltages

in the figure.
• Given: i1 = 10mA, i2 = 50mA, R 1 = 1k:
R 2 = 2k = R 4 ;R 3 = 10k

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40
 Solution to Problem 3

• Choose node at bottom of circuit as

reference.
• Apply KCL at each node.
v1 − 0 v1 − v2 v1 − v2
i1 − − − = 0 node 1
R1 R2 R3
v1 − v2 v1 − v2 v2 − 0
+ − − i2 = 0 node 2
R2 R3 R4

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 Solution to Problem 3

• Rewrite equations as function of the node

voltages.
1 1 1   1 1 
 + +  1
v +  − −  v2 = i1 node 1
 R1 R2 R3   R2 R3 
 1 1   1 1 1 
 − −  1
v +  + +  v2 = − i2 node 2
 R2 R3   2
R R3 R4 

• Solve the system of equations using Cramer’s rule.

1.6v1 − 0.6v2 = 10
−0.6v1 + 1.1v2 = −50

v1 = −13.57 V
v2 = −52.86 V
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Cramer’s Rule
 Solution to Problem 3

Solve for each branch current.

• Positive result indicates assumed direction is correct.
• Negative result indicates direction is opposite.
v1 − v2
iR 3 = = 3.93 mA
10,000
v1
iR 1 = = −13.57 mA
1,000
iR 2 = 19.65 mA
iR 4 = −26.43 mA
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 Problem 4

The voltage divider network of Figure P1.50 is designed to

provide 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑣𝑆 Τ2. However, in practice, the resistors may not
be perfectly matched; that is, their tolerances are such that the
resistances unlikely to be identical. Assume 𝑣𝑆 = 10𝑉 and
nominal resistance values 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 5𝑘Ω.
a. If the resistors have ±10 percent tolerance, find the expected
range of possible output voltages.
b. Find the expected output voltage range for a tolerance of ±5
percent.

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 Solution to Problem 4

a) The largest range of output voltages for resistors with

10% tolerance is found by computing the output voltage
when R1 and R2 are at their extreme values while
maintaining R1 + R2 = 10K. One such case occurs when
R2 = 4500 , R1 = 5500 
𝑣𝑆
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑖𝑅2 = 𝑅2 = 4.5𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Another case occurs when
R2 = 5500 , R1 = 4500 
𝑣𝑆
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑖𝑅2 = 𝑅2 = 5.5𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Thus, the possible range is 5.0V ± 0.5V.

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 Solution to Problem 4

b) The largest range of output voltages for resistors with 5%

tolerance is found by computing the output voltage when R1
and R2 are at their extreme values while maintaining R1 + R2
= 10K. One such case occurs when
R2 = 4750 , R1 = 5250 
𝑣𝑆
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑖𝑅2 = 𝑅2 = 4.75𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Another case occurs when
R2 = 5250 , R1 = 4750 
𝑣𝑆
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑖𝑅2 = 𝑅2 = 5.25𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Thus, the possible range is 5.0V ± 0.25V.

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Wye-Delta Transformations
• There are cases
where resistors are
neither parallel nor
series.
• Consider the bridge
circuit shown here.
• This circuit can be
simplified to a three-
terminal equivalent.

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Wye-Delta Transformations II
Two topologies can
be interchanged:
• Wye (Y) or tee (T)
networks.
• Delta () or pi ( )
networks.
• Transforming between
these two topologies
often makes the solution
of a circuit easier.
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Wye-Delta Transformations III
• The superimposed
wye and delta
circuits shown here
will used for
reference.
• The delta consists of
the outer resistors,
labeled a,b, and c.
• The wye network are
the inside resistors,
labeled 1,2, and 3.
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Delta to Wye
• The conversion formula for a delta to wye
transformation are:
Rb Rc
R1 =
Ra + Rb + Rc
Rc Ra
R2 =
Ra + Rb + Rc
Ra Rb
R3 =
Ra + Rb + Rc

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Wye to Delta
• The conversion formula for a wye to delta
transformation are:
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Ra =
R1

R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Rb =
R2

R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Rc =
R3

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Problem 5

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 Solution to Problem 5

Step 1: Convert the low Delta to Star

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 Solution to Problem 5

Step 2: Combine parallel resistors (two series

resistors are now in parallel with another two
series resistors)

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 Solution to Problem 5

Step 3: Combine the resultant three series resistors.

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Design of DC Meters
• Resistors by their nature control current.
• This property may be used directly to control
voltages, as in the potentiometer.
• The voltage output is:
Rbc
Vout = Vbc = Vin
Rac

• Resistors can also be

used to make meters for
measuring voltage and
resistance.
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D’Arsonval Meter Movement 1

Here we will look at DC analog meters.

The operation of a digital meter is beyond the scope
of this chapter.
These are the meters where a needle deflection is
used to read the measured value.
All of these meters rely on the D’Arsenol meter
movement:
• This has a pivoting iron core coil.
• Current through this causes a deflection.

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D’Arsonval Meter Movement 2

• Below is an example of a D’Arsonval Meter

Movement.

59
Ammeter
• It should be clear that the basic meter movement
directly measured current.
• The needle deflection is proportional to the current
up to the rated maximum value.
• The coil also has an internal resistance.
• In order to measure a greater current, a resistor
(shunt) may be added in parallel to the meter.
• The new max value for the meter is:

60
Voltmeter
• Ohm’s law can be used to convert the meter
movement into a voltmeter.
• By adding a resistor in series with the movement,
the sum of the meter’s internal resistance and the
external resistor are combined.
• A voltage applied across this pair will result in a
specific current, which can be measured.
• The full scale voltage measured is:

61
Ohmmeter 1

• We know that resistance is

related the voltage and
current passing through a
circuit element.
• The meter movement is
already capable of
measuring current.
• What is needed is to add a
voltage source.
• By KVL:

E
Rx = − ( R + Rm )
Im
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Ohmmeter II
• The internal resistor is chosen such that when the
external resistor is zero, the meter is at full
deflection.
• This yields the following relationship between
measured current and resistance.
 I fs 
Rx =  − 1 ( R + Rm )
 Im 
• A consequence to measuring the current is that
the readout of the meter will be the inverse of the
resistance.
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 Home Work

1. Find the equivalent resistance Req for the

network below given that each resistor is 100Ω.

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 Home Work

2. Determine the currents and voltages in the

network below.

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 Extra Study
• Resistor coding
• Temperature coefficient of resistance
• π–T networks and transformation

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 Prescribed Text

• Electrical and Electronic Technology 11th

Edition, by Edward Hughes (Revised by John
Hiley, Keith Brown and Ian McKenzie Smith)
– Chapter 2: Introduction to Electrical Systems
– Chapter 3: Simple DC Circuits
– Chapter 4: Network Theorems
 Other References

• Fundamentals of Electric Circuits 7th Edition,

by Charles Alexander & Matthew N. O. Sadiku
• Principles and Applications of Electrical
Engineering 7th Edition, by Giorgio Rizzoni and
James Kearns
THANK YOU

Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment

Department of Electrical Engineering