Research Work

Topic 1

A Brief History of ELT.

1) How are Krashen and Vygotsky similar in their perceptions on SLA? (500
words)

There are two independent systems of second language performance – The

Acquired system and The Learned system.
The Acquired system or acquisition is the product of a subconscious process. It
requires meaningful interaction in the target language-natural communication-
in which speakers are concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in
the communicative act.
The learned system or learning is the product of formal instruction and it
comprises a conscious process which results in conscious knowledge about the
language, for example knowledge of grammar rules.
According to Krashen, learning is less important than acquisition.

The Monitor Hypothesis

The monitor acts in planning, editing and correcting function when three
specific conditions are met: that is, the second language learner has sufficient
time at his/her disposal, he/she focuses on form or thinks about correctness
and he/she knows the rule. There is individual variation among language
learners with regard to monitor use. He distinguishes those learners that use
the monitor all the time (over-users), those learners who have not learned or
who prefer not to use their conscious knowledge (under-users); and those
learners that use the monitor appropriately (optimal users). Usually extroverts
are under-users, while introverts and perfectionists are over-users.

The Natural Order Hypothesis

The acquisition of grammatical structures follows a natural order which is
predictable according to Krashen. For a given language, some grammatical
structures tend to be acquired early while others late. This order seemed to be
independent of the learner's age, L1 background, and conditions of exposure
and although the agreement between individual acquirers was not always
100% in the studies, there were statistically significant similarities that
reinforced the existence of a Natural Order of language acquisition.

The Input Hypothesis

Explains how the learner acquires a second language. It is only concerned with
acquisition and not learning. The learner improves and progresses along the
natural order when he/she receives second language input that is one step
beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence. For instance, if a
learner is at a stage 'I' then acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed to
comprehensible input that belongs to level 'I + 1'. Since not all of the learners
can be at the same level of linguistic competence at the same time, Krashen
suggests that natural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus,
ensuring in this way that each learner will receive some 'I + 1' input that is
appropriate for his/her current stage of linguistic competence.

According to Vygotsky, all fundamental cognitive activities take shape in a

matrix of social history and form the products of socio-historical development.
That is, cognitive skills and patterns of thinking are not primarily determined by
innate factors, but are the products of the activities practiced in the social
institutions of the culture in which the individual grows up.

Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the
social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (inter
psychological) and then inside the child (intra psychological). This applies
equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of
concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between
individuals.
Thus both codes are used simultaneously, and are equally important.

2) How did Noam Chomsky’s theories revolutionize language teaching?

Noam Chomsky is a famous linguist, philosopher, and cognitive scientist. He is

known with his contribution to the generative-transformational school of
linguistics. He was a rationalist and a nativist. Some people called him “The
Father of Modern Linguistics”. In his theory in the rational approach, he went
beyond the descriptive influence; he was interested in what and why, reasons,
environmental factors, genetic factors, and circumstances that affect or control
an event. It is imminent to study and analyse Chomsky’s theories and points of
view, and its relation to education.
Chomsky thinks that there is a “Little Black Box” inside the brain of the
child. He referred to it as LAD, Language Acquisition Device theory, a
component of the nativist theory. It is an innate mental capacity, which
encodes the major principles and the grammatical structures of language. He
thinks that language never develops but the capacity of language develops.
Therefore, using this encoding system facilitates and accelerates learning. This
theory evolved to be later the UG theory.
Chomsky has worked on the controversial theory of [UG] Universal
Grammar. He believes that children do not need a stimulus to learn a
language. Language comes naturally if parents are speaking around their
children. The child will produce a language on his own accordingly. He had
remarkably observed and concluded that even if children are corrected, they
will keep using their own production i.e. repeating their errors. Consequently,
with the publishing of Chomsky’s Generative Transformational Grammar,
traditional methods of teaching were questioned by linguists who saw the
need to focus on communicative proficiency rather than on mastery of
structures in language teaching solely. He opened the gates to the
communicative approach of teaching.
 According to Chomsky, theory of language should be known as theory of
competence.
 Competence refers to one’s knowledge of language system. It could be
evaluated by measuring the performance of the person.
 Performance cannot be without competence, and competence is
unobservable.
 Chomsky also believes that when the language competence develops,
other cognitive abilities and performance will be integrated.
 This supports methods of evaluation that teachers need because if a
teacher wants to evaluate student’s competence, he can observe and
test learner’s performance e.g. writing, speaking.

Noam Chomsky’s theories revolutionized language teaching. He placed the

cornerstone of the communicative approach of teaching. He guided us to
analyse errors produced by children and to categorize them. He also showed
us how to evaluate language competence of the child systematically. It is
remarkable to know that Noam Chomsky is still alive and it would be a great
chance to meet this genius to learn from his profound knowledge.
 3) Observe an ESL class and gauge how closely the lesson approximates
Communicative Language Teaching. Send in your observations and
analysis.

Communicative language teaching (CLT) is promoted in teacher education

programmes around the world, although the appropriateness of this
methodology in contexts outside the English-speaking West has been
questioned, often from a theoretical perspective. In fact, very little empirical
research has been conducted into the practical knowledge of CLT of non-native
speaker teachers of English, and there is a lack of such research investigating
growth longitudinally in this area.
Using observations, interviews, and reflective writing, this study charts the
practical knowledge growth in CLT of a lower secondary teacher in the Middle
East while she was studying part-time on an in-service BA (TESOL) programme
run by the University of Leeds in conjunction with the Ministry of Education in
the Sultanate of Oman.
i. Qualitative data suggests that the teacher’s practical knowledge of CLT
developed considerably during the course. Further research into the
influence of teacher education programmes in TESOL on practical
knowledge is called for.
ii. For students who are learning ESL in an English-medium school, English
is both a target and a medium of education: They are not only learning
English as a subject but are learning through it as well.
iii. In these content-based classrooms, the construction of curriculum
knowledge needs to progress hand-in-hand with the development of
English.
This observation focuses on how this process occurred for 8- and 9-year-old
students in two mainstream science classrooms, where for more than 90%
of the students English was a second (or subsequent) language (i.e., the
teaching and learning of language took place in the context of the regular
school curriculum, not in a separate ESL classroom).
The analysis explores in particular the way teacher-student interactions can
enable L2 learning in the context of subject teaching and the role of the
teacher and learners in this process.
The texts show language learning as a socially mediated process whereby
both teachers and learners are active participants in the co-construction of
language and curriculum knowledge. The article draws on the constructs of
mediation and mode continuum to provide a way of conceptualising how
this process is played out of the classroom.
Mediation is central to the study of collaborative interactions. Vygotsky (1981)
argues that human activities and mental functioning are mediated and
facilitated by tools, cultural practices, and artefacts, the most extensive tool
being language. Mediation is a familiar concept in many social contexts: A
lawyer, for example, mediates between a client’s account of an event and the
language principles and categories of the legal world of the court (Maley,
Candlin, Crichton, & Koster, 1995). Mediation of this kind can broadly be
described as occurring in situations characterised by difference, difficulty, or
social distance (Baynham, 1993). Such characteristics are inherent in most
teacher student relationships because in the great majority of school
classrooms there is considerable linguistic and conceptual distance between
teacher and students, especially when they do not share the same language,
assumptions, and life experiences.

Topic 2

Methodologies

1) What is the role of the teacher in CLT?

According to Savignon (1971), Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) theory

heavily relies upon proper educational setting, which requires a reasonable
arrangement of several variables –
 experience and knowledge of teachers
 students’ needs and
 attitudes, and classroom.
In other words, the classroom in CLT is considered as a social context for
communicative language to perform and the teacher and students are key
players, thus the role of teachers and players is a crucial for communicative
language teaching performance.

The CLT class focus on creating a student-centred environment rather than

teacher-centred environment, thus it requires the role of teachers to shift to
class-supporter instead of class-dominator like in the past. This theory is also
supported by Lopez (1984) and Nunan (1989), they stated that every students
has their own needs, interests and cognitive styles, hence the teacher is
demanded to be more flexible and more creative in using teaching methods
and techniques to produce effective teaching performance.
In addition, Richards and Lockhart (1994) stated that in a CLT class room, the
teachers roles might varies flexibility from manager, facilitator, planner,
motivator to group organizer to support their students’ learning. The
teacher has to apply text-based, task-based and other methods, it might
require them to play a role as analyst, counsellor and process manager.
Applying Communicative Language Teaching in classroom include activities
such as
 role playing
 story-telling
 information gap
 other simulation games, which need the flexible changing of students’
roles
For example: in simulation activities, the teachers sometime is asked to be a
player to support their students’ performance, or in some group discussion
activities, the teachers even have to be communicational partner of student,
meanwhile also be a manager to control and direct the class activity.
Furthermore, since the CLT activities and syllabus contents
needs designing based on the “real world” information to help student
develop their practical and socially- accepted communicative language (Clarke
and Silberstein 1977), the teachers also have to be a researcher and leaner to
regularly update real data for their syllabus content.
In overall, CLT class demands a highly cooperative and interactive role of both
teachers and students, every teaching and learning methods or activities are
about how to increase the interaction among students & students and
teachers & students. Moreover, the various teaching & learning methods
requires the appropriate variation of teachers and students’ roles; it is the
necessary for teachers and students to comprehend their role in order to build
a supportive and effective learning environment.
 2) How is the role of a student in CLT different from that in the Audio-
lingual method?

The Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and Audio-lingual Method (ALM)

both have importance in learning second language or foreign language around
the world to develop communication skill. But they differ from each other in
different aspect. One deals with language communication and the other deals
with language structures and rules.

The Communicative language teaching:

The communicative language teaching is an approach towards second and
foreign languages that emphasizes on communication of a language. The CLT
was often used by educators and linguists who were dissatisfied with the
earlier Grammar Translation and Audio Lingual Methods, where students were
not learning enough. Through this the CLT method was introduced.

The Audio Lingual Method:

The audio lingual method or the Army method is the mode of language
instruction based on behavioural ideology. This method emphasizes the
structure, form and rules of a language. The learner learns this method by
imitating. There is no explicit grammar instruction and everything is simply
memorized in form. The teacher would then continue by presenting new
words for the students to sample in the same structure.

Contrast between CLT and ALM

Communicative Language Training The Audio Lingual Method

Meaning is paramount. Structure and Form are more
important than meaning.
Contextualization is a basic Language items are not necessarily
foundation. contextualized.
Language learning is learning to Language learning is learning
communicate. structures , sounds and words.
Effective communication is required. Mastery of overlearning is required.
Attempts to communicate from the Communicative activities come after
very beginning. a long process.
Native language is accepted. Native language is forbidden.
Translation allow from the Translation is forbidden at early
beginning. levels.
Reading and writing can start from Reading and writing cannot start
 the first day. from the first day.
The target linguistic system can be The Target linguistic system will be
learned very easily through the learned through the overt teaching.
process of communication.
The teacher cannot know exactly The teacher knows exactly what
what language the learners will use. language the learners will use.
Teachers help learners by giving The teacher prevents and controls
motivation to work with the the learners from doing anything
language. that conflict with the theory.
Fluency is the primary goal. Accuracy is the primary goal.
Language is created by individuals Language is habit so error must be
through trial and error. prevented at all costs.
Communicative competence is the Linguistic competence is the desired
desired goal. goal.

3) Which methodology would you prefer to adopt to teach communicative

skills to a group of teenagers in an EFL class? Why?

Many English teachers would probably agree that teenagers are the most
difficult age group to teach. Sometimes our teenage students do not want to
be in class in the first place and often their minds can be on other things when
we are giving an English lesson.

However, teen classes can also be fun and very rewarding for both the teacher
and students. The materials that we use in the classrooms are crucial in
deciding if it is successful or not.

I would prefer to adopt Communicative Language Teaching methodology to

teach communicative skills to a group of teens in a class.
The reason to teach this method is that
 it is class oriented.
 student centred language teaching practice.
 engages students with realistic communication to reach success in the
use of English.
 the use of communication in the real life, students do not feel what they
are learning is useless.
  Also using realistic scenarios to teach enables students to guess the
meaning of the message communicated, even if they do not understand
the language completely.
 This encourages new learners and teens who can lose concentration and
interest easily to try to listen, stay focused and participate during the
CLT class.
 In the case of teens who are a group who can get distracted easily, CLT is
a great method as it does not stress on too much information about the
language but the language itself.
 The materials used in CLT emphasize on role plays, discussion and so on
enabling the teacher to get the students interested and involved the
process of learning.
 CLT also emphasizes on being able to communicate rather than
accuracy; it stimulates students to improve their communicative ability
of using English by themselves.
CLT is teacher friendly because,
 allows the teacher to use any device which helps the learner learn,
giving the teacher the freedom to customize the devices and practices
used to teach the language.
 This freedom allows the teacher to use devices such as games and
topics which will develop interest to facilitate learning.
CLT is a method which not only focuses on the languages form,
grammatical accuracy, more the appropriateness of language use,
feasibility, communication skills, but also helps in training students in
communicative activities and problem solving ability.