INTERIOR SERVICES LECTURE NOTES JAN 02 2024

FIRE AND SAFETY

INTRODUCTION
FIRE SAFETY
• Fire safety is the set of practices intended to reduce the destruction
caused by fire.
• Fire safety measures include those that are intended to prevent ignition of
an uncontrolled fire, and those that are used to limit the development
and effects of a fire after it starts.
• Fire safety measures include those that are planned during the
construction of a building or implemented in structures that are already
standing, and those that are taught to occupants of the building.
FIRE HAZARD
• Threats to fire safety are commonly referred to as fire hazards.
• A fire hazard may include a situation that increases the likelihood of a fire
or may impede escape in the event a fire occurs.
• Fire safety is often a component of building safety.
DEFINITION OF FIRE
• A fire is a chemical reaction.
• There are many variables that can affect a fire.
• A fire is self-sustained oxidation of a fuel that emits heat and light.
• A fire requires three variables to initiate: a fuel, oxygen, and heat.
• The fire triangle is a well-known representation of the three variables
needed to initiate a fire.
FIRE TETRAHEDRON
• Fire prevention is the concept of preventing the variables of the fire
triangle from encountering each other to initiate a fire.
• Once a fire begins, it requires four variables to sustain the combustion
reaction. The four variables required to sustain a fire are fuel, oxygen,
heat, and chemical chain reactions represent the fire tetrahedron.
• Once a fire begins and is self-sustaining, the goal is to control and
extinguish the fire.
• Fire extinguishment is done by eliminating one of the variables of the fire
tetrahedron.
• The concept of fire protection assumes fires will occur and focuses on
controlling fires by eliminating or otherwise controlling the variables of the
fire tetrahedron. The concept of fire prevention differs from fire protection

Ar Esra Ghalib | RUZIVO INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

 because fire prevention attempts to control the variables of the fire
triangle before a fire occurs.

Figure 1 FIRE TETRAHEDRON

FUEL:
• A fuel is a combustible solid, liquid, or gas. Like in any chemical reaction, a
source of energy is needed to sustain the heat required
• solid fuels are wood, paper, cloth, coal.

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 • Flammable and combustible liquids include gasoline, fuel oil, paint,
kerosene.
• Propane, acetylene, and natural gas are some examples of gases that
are flammable.
• From a fire safety standpoint, the safety manager should be aware of the
different types of fuels located in the workplace.
OXYGEN:
• During combustion, the oxygen necessary for oxidation is sufficiently
provided from the surrounding air.
• When the oxygen content of the atmosphere falls below 15%, a free-
burning fire will begin to smolder.
• When the oxygen content of the atmosphere falls below 8%, a
smoldering fire will stop burning (Bryan, 1982).
• The safety manager should be aware of these oxidizers in the
workplace and segregate them from any fuels.
HEAT:
The safety manager should be concerned with sources of heat commonly
found in the workplace.
Open flames such as from cutting and welding torches
• Cigarettes
• Sparks such as from electrical equipment, brazing, or grinding
• Hot surfaces such as electrical motors, wires, and process pipes
• Radiated heat from boilers or portable heaters
• Lightning
• Static discharges such as during the transfer of flammable liquids

FOUR FIRE EXTINGUISHING PRINCIPLES

1. Control the fuel— Controlling the fuel is accomplished by two methods.
First, the fuel can be physically removed or separated from the fire.
2. Control the oxygen— Controlling the oxygen requires that the oxygen be
inhibited, displaced, or the concentration of oxygen be reduced below
15% by volume. Smoldering fires should be diluted to an oxygen
concentration below 8% by volume. The oxygen supply to a fire can be
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 inhibited by smothering the fire. Smothering a fire places a barrier
between the flame and the atmosphere. This can be accomplished with
a blanket or applying a layer of foam to form a vapor barrier.
3. Control the heat— Controlling the heat requires that the heat be
absorbed. Water is the most common extinguishing agent. Water is also
the most efficient extinguishing agent because it has the capability to
absorb immense amounts of heat.
4. Inhibit the chemical chain reactions— Inhibiting the chemical chain
reactions requires that a chemical agent be introduced into the fire.
Certain chemical agents can interfere with the sequence of reactions by
absorbing free radicals from one sequence that are needed to complete
the next sequence. Dry chemical extinguishing agents commonly used in
portable fire extinguishers have this ability.

CLASSES OF FIRE
Each class is based on the type of fuel and the agents used in
extinguishment.
• Class A— Class A fires involve ordinary combustibles such as wood,
paper, cloth, rubber, and some plastics. Water is usually the best
extinguishing agent because it can penetrate fuels and absorb heat.
Dry chemicals used to interrupt the chemical chain reactions are also
effective on Class A fires.
• Class B— Class B fires involve flammable and combustible liquids and
gases such as gasoline, alcohols, and propane. Extinguishing agents
that smother the fire or reduce the oxygen concentration available to
the burning zone are most effective. Common extinguishing agents
include foam, carbon dioxide, and dry chemicals.
• Class C— Class C fires involve energized electrical equipment. Non-
conductive extinguishing agents are necessary to extinguish Class C
fires. Dry chemicals and inert gases are the most effective agents. If it
can be done safely, personnel should isolate the power to electrical
equipment before attempting to extinguish a fire. Once electrical
equipment is de-energized, it is considered a Class A fire.
• Class D— Class D fires involve combustible metals such as magnesium,
sodium, titanium, powdered aluminum, potassium, and zirconium.
Class D fires require special extinguishing agents that are usually
produced for the specific metal.

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 • Class K— Class K fires most often occur where cooking media (fats, oils,
and greases) are used, and most of the time are found in commercial
cooking operations. Class K fire extinguishers are required in any
location that cooks oils, grease, or animal fat. Any location that fries
must have a Class K fire extinguisher. Every commercial kitchen should
have a Class K extinguisher located in it to supplement the suppression
system.
STAGES OF FIRE
1. THE INCIPIENT STAGE:
beginning stage of a fire. In this stage, combustion has begun. This stage is
identified by an ample supply of fuel and oxygen. The products of combustion
that are released during this stage normally include water vapor, carbon
dioxide, and carbon monoxide. Temperatures at the seat of the fire may have
reached 1000°F, but room temperatures are still close to normal.
2. FREE-BURNING STAGE:
The free-burning stage follows the incipient stage. At this point, the self-sustained
chemical reaction is intensifying. Greater amounts of heat are emitted and the
fuel and oxygen supply is rapidly consumed. Room temperatures can rise to
over 1300°F. In an enclosed compartment, the free-burning stage can become
dangerous. Because of the heat intensity, the contents within a compartment
are heated. At some point, if the compartment is not well ventilated,
compartment contents will reach their ignition temperature. A flashover occurs
when the contents within a compartment simultaneously reach their ignition
temperature and become involved in flames. It is not uncommon for room
temperatures to exceed 2000°F following a flashover. Human survival, even for
properly protected fire fighters, is difficult if not impossible for a few seconds
within a compartment following a flashover.
3. SMOLDERING STAGE:
The smoldering stage follows the free-burning stage. As a free-burning fire
continues to burn, the chemical reaction will eventually consume the available
oxygen within the compartment and ultimately convert it into carbon monoxide
and carbon dioxide. Human survival, even of properly protected fire fighters, is
usually not possible.

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 FIRE PREVENTION & PROTECTION:
FIRE PREVENTION
Fire prevention requires segregating the three elements of the fire triangle. A fire
needs three elements - heat, oxygen and fuel. Without heat, oxygen and fuel a
fire will not start or spread. A key strategy to prevent fire is to remove one or
more of heat, oxygen or fuel.

Figure 2 FIRE PREVENTION

Key factors affecting how fires spread

Several elements influence how a fire spreads, including the heat transfer
mechanisms, available oxygen, and the type of combustible materials present.
Each of these factors can either accelerate or decelerate fire spread and
understanding them is essential for fire safety measures.
1. Heat transfer mechanisms in fire spread
Fire spreads primarily through the transfer of heat from a burning source to
nearby combustible materials. This heat transfer can occur in three ways:
• Conduction: Fire spreading through solid materials
Conduction fires occur when heat is transferred through solid materials, such as
walls, floors, or metal objects. High temperatures cause particles in solid
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materials to vibrate, transferring heat to adjacent areas. This type of heat
transfer is common in buildings where fire resistive materials are inadequate or
absent.
• Convection: Heat transfer through gases and liquids
When fire spreads by convection, heat moves through hot air or liquid. As the
warm air rises, it can cause nearby objects to catch fire. This type of fire is
commonly observed in buildings with high ceilings or in open spaces, where the
heat can travel upwards and ignite materials above.
• Radiation: Heat transfer without direct contact
In the case of fire spreading by radiation, heat is transferred through
electromagnetic waves, which don’t require direct contact. During large-scale
fires, radiation can cause nearby objects to heat up and ignite, even without
touching the flames.
2. Oxygen levels and their Impact on fire growth
Fire requires oxygen to sustain itself, and the availability of this element greatly
influences how a fire progress. In enclosed spaces, the supply of oxygen can
diminish rapidly, which may slow the fire’s growth. On the other hand,
environments with ample oxygen can fuel the blaze, accelerating its spread.
3. The role of fuel type in fire spread
The type of fuel present can significantly influence how quickly and intensely a
fire spread. Some materials, such as wood and paper, are highly flammable and
burn easily. Others, like metal and stone, are non-combustible and do not
support fire.
The properties of the fuel being burned significantly impact fire behaviour. Key
factors include:
• Flammability: This refers to a substance’s ease of ignition. Highly
flammable materials, such as petrol or natural gas, have low ignition
temperatures.
• Combustibility: This is a measure of the amount of heat released
when a material burn. Materials with high heat release rates
contribute to more intense fires.
• Fuel load: The quantity of combustible material present in each
area influences the intensity and duration of a fire.
4. Environmental factors: Wind, humidity, and terrain
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Environmental factors can significantly influence fire spread. Key considerations
include:
• Wind: It can rapidly spread fires by carrying embers and hot gases
to new areas. Wind direction and speed play a crucial role in
determining the direction and rate of fire spread.
• Humidity: High humidity levels can slow down fire spread by
reducing the availability of oxygen and by absorbing heat.
• Terrain: The topography of the land can affect fire behavior. Steep
slopes can accelerate fire spread due to the rapid movement of
hot gases and embers.

Figure 3 FACTORS AFFECTING FIRE BEHAVIOUR

Phases of fire growth and propagation

Fires typically follow a progression from ignition to full development, with each
phase influenced by the factors mentioned above:
• Ignition: The fire starts when a heat source meets a flammable material
and oxygen.
• Growth: As the fire consumes more fuel and spreads to other materials, it
grows.

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 • Fully developed: At this point, the fire is at its peak, and the heat transfer
mechanisms (conduction, convection, radiation) are working at full force.
• Decay: After the fire has exhausted its fuel supply, it begins to slow down
and eventually extinguishes.
How long does it take for a fire to spread?
The time it takes for a fire to spread depends on a variety of factors, including
the type of fuel, the availability of oxygen, and environmental conditions. In
some cases, a fire can spread rapidly, while in others, it may take longer to
develop.

Key factors influencing fire spread:

How to prevent fire from spreading

To prevent the spread of fire, it is essential to implement effective fire prevention
measures. Here are some key strategies:
Fire barriers and compartmentalization
Fire barriers, such as fire doors and fire-resistant walls, are designed to
compartmentalize a building. These structures can limit the fire’s ability to spread

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from one area to another, giving occupants more time to evacuate and
minimizing damage.
Fire suppression systems and their effectiveness
Fire suppression systems (including fire alarms, fire extinguishers, and sprinkler
systems) are critical in preventing the rapid spread of fire. These systems can
either alert occupants to the presence of a fire or actively work to contain or
extinguish it before it grows.
Conclusion: Understanding fire propagation to improve safety measures
Understanding how fire spreads is essential for enhancing fire safety in buildings
and public spaces. By considering factors such as heat transfer mechanisms,
fuel types, and environmental conditions, businesses can implement more
effective fire prevention and suppression systems. With proper planning and fire
safety equipment, it’s possible to significantly reduce the risk of fire spreading
and protect both people and property
Types Of Fire Fighting System
There are multiple firefighting equipment must be use in Residential building that
used in fire protection plan.
In Commercial building fire sprinkler are necessary fire extinguishing method
Fire Suppression system
Fire Suppression system can connects to different fire fighting system as fire
detector, fire alarm and control panel. The control panel of fire suppression
system can also send notification through mobile SMS, fire alarm sound and
provide information to local fire safety authorities. The fire suppression system
work on latest technologies that identifies fire which activates the fire
suppression system.
Major types of fire suppression system major types of fire suppression system :-
• Fire suppression system for electrical panels.
• tube based fire suppression system.
• automatic modular fire suppression system.
• clean agent fire suppression system.
• automatic fire suppression system.
• co2 fire suppression system.
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 • fm 200 fire suppression system.
• Kitchen Fire Suppression System.

Figure 4 FIRE SUPPRESION SYSTEM

Fire Sprinkler System

The Fire Sprinkler Systems performs various function which control or extinguish
fire. Fire sprinkler system are most effective way which control fire and reduces
the loss of life, goods, and property. This fire sprinkler system is the key
component of firefighting protection system that extinguish fire. These fire
sprinklers respond to all type of fire while it is small or Major fire.
Major Types of fire sprinkler system are: -
• Wet sprinkler system.
• Dry sprinkler system.
• Deluge sprinkler system.
• Pre-action sprinkler system.
• Water Mist sprinkler system.
Major Types of fire sprinkler are:-
• Upright Fire Sprinkler.
• Sidewall fire sprinkler.
• Pendent fire sprinkler.

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 Figure 5 SPRINKLER SYSTEM

Fire Alarm system

Fire Alarm system help us for emergency evacuation through fire notification.
The Fire alarm system require deferent fire detector.
Types of Fire Alarm System: -
• Wireless Fire Alarm system.
• Manual fire alarm system.
• Automatic fire alarm system.
• Addressable fire alarm system.
• Conventional fire alarm system.

Figure 6 ALARM SYSTEM

Fire hydrant system

The Fire hydrant system is network piping system which is installed in building. Fire
Hydrant system can be installed underground or overhead with different fire
hydrant stand post.
List Of Various component use in fire hydrant system are:-
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 • pumps (jockey pump, electrical pump, diesel pump).
• heavy or medium grade (ms or gi pipes).
• hydrant valves.
• hose boxes.
• hoses.
• nozzles & branch pipes.
• fire brigade inlet.
• isolation valves.
• air release valve.
• Fire monitor system.

Figure 7 FIRE HYDRANT SYSTEM

Fire hose Reel system

Hose Reel system is used to carry pressure of water through hose pipe. The fire
Hoses are attaches to fire hydrant which are placed to outdoor of building. Fire
hose reel system allows water to flow which is connected to water pump.
Major types of fire hose reel system are: -
• Suction Hose System (partially embedded, fully embedded).
• Delivery Hose System (percolating, non-percolating).

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 • Hose Reel Hose System.

Figure 8 HOSE REEL SYSTEM

Fire Detection system

Fire detection system system provides notification of fire through different
Audible, Visual, Textual, Tactile functions. The fire detection system sense heat,
smoke and fire in all stages which helps us to take further action to fire.
List of various types of fire detection system: -
• Heat detector.
• Smoke detector.
• Flame detector.
• Multi-sensor detector.
• Infrared (I.R) detector.
• Carbon Monoxide (CO) detector

Figure 9 FIRE DETECTION

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Smoke Detection system
Smoke Detection System is a set of devices which sense smoke and provide
indication of fire. The Smoke detection system automatically detects fire.
Types of Smoke Detection System:-
• Ionization Smoke Detection System.
• Photoelectric Smoke Detection System.

Figure 10 SMOKE DETECTOR

FOAM FIRE EXTINGUISHING SYSTEM

Foam Fire Extinguishing System is divided broadly into two categories

according to the chemical involved,
• Air Foam Fire Extinguishing System
Air Foam Fire Extinguishing System is installed at agencies, producers and
storage site of explosives and combustibles. The system comprises Water
Source, Fire Pump, Air Foam Concentrate, Proportioner, Foam Maker,
Foam Dischange Outlet Control Panel, Pipe, Electric Wire, etc.

• Chemical Foam Fire Extinguishing system.

Chemical Foam Fire Extinguishing System is considered obsolete and has
generally been replaced by Air Foam Fire Extinguishing System. A variety
of Foam Discharge Outlet is provided to meet any shape of Hazard,
conditions of location, etc.

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The system is divided into the following types.
・Air Foam Chamber
・Air Foam Nozzle
・Air Foam Spray Head
・Subsurface Foam Injection
・Air Foam-Water Monitor Nozzle
・High Expansion Foam Generators

Air Foam Concentrate is made into a fixed ratio of Air Foam Solution by mixing
with water flowing through Feed Pipe and is mechanically stirred by Foam
Maker which sucks air and generates great deal of Air Foam to extinguish a fire
involving flammable liquids with smothering and cooling effect.
Air Foam Concentrate makes fine foams with excellent stability and thermal
resistance, and freely flows and develops on liquid surface such as petroleum to
promptly extinguish a fire. It also sticks firm to a solid surface, level or vertical, to
prevent the fire from spreading.
Of the Fixed Air Foam Fire Extinguishing System, Air Foam Chamber and
Subsurface Foam Injection are intended mainly for extinguishing a fire set on
Exterior Storage Tanks, and Air Foam Spray Head for Flammable Liquid Hazards.
Air Foam Nozzle is used as Supplemental Air Foam Hydrant for Exterior Storage
Tanks or as Air Foam Hydrant for Flammable Liquid Hazard. Air Foam Monitor
Nozzle is provided near the inlet port of Exterior Storage Tanks and particularly on
a quay or a pier for extinguishing a fire set on oily outflow on the sea.

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 Figure 11 STRUCTURE

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