In their elemental, solid forms at room temperature, both iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni) are
ferromagnetic, not merely paramagnetic. Here’s why:
Electron configuration and unpaired electrons
o Fe: [Ar] 3d⁶ 4s² → four unpaired 3d electrons
o Ni: [Ar] 3d⁸ 4s² → two unpaired 3d electrons
Unpaired d-electrons give each atom a net magnetic moment, which is a
prerequisite for both paramagnetism and ferromagnetism.
Paramagnetism vs. ferromagnetism
o Paramagnetic materials have unpaired electrons and align weakly with an
external magnetic field, but they do not retain magnetization once the field is
removed.
o Ferromagnetic materials not only align strongly but also exhibit spontaneous
magnetization (domains of aligned moments) below a critical temperature.
Behavior of Fe and Ni
o Iron (Fe)
Curie temperature (T₍C₎): ~770 °C
Below 770 °C: ferromagnetic (strong, permanent domains)
Above 770 °C: thermal agitation overcomes domain alignment →
becomes paramagnetic
o Nickel (Ni)
Curie temperature: ~358 °C
Below 358 °C: ferromagnetic
Above 358 °C: paramagnetic
So at room temperature (≈25 °C), both Fe and Ni are deep in their ferromagnetic regimes—not
paramagnetic. Only when heated above their respective Curie points do they transition into a
paramagnetic state.
4o
You said:
Curie temperature
ChatGPT said:
The Curie temperature (or Curie point) is the critical temperature at which a ferromagnetic (or
ferrimagnetic) material loses its spontaneous magnetization and becomes paramagnetic. Above
this temperature, thermal agitation overcomes the magnetic ordering of atomic moments, so the
material can only align weakly and temporarily with an external field (i.e., behaves
paramagnetically).
Key Points
Below T<sub>C</sub>
– Magnetic domains are aligned → ferromagnetic (or ferrimagnetic) behavior, with a
permanent net magnetization possible.
At T<sub>C</sub>
– A second-order phase transition occurs: magnetic susceptibility peaks and diverges.
Above T<sub>C</sub>
– Thermal energy randomizes domain orientations → paramagnetic behavior.
Examples of Curie Temperatures
Material Curie Temperature (T<sub>C</sub>)
Iron (Fe) ≈ 770 °C (1 043 K)
Nickel (Ni) ≈ 358 °C (631 K)
Cobalt (Co) ≈ 1 115 °C (1 388 K)
Gadolinium (Gd) ≈ 20 °C (293 K)
Magnetite (Fe₃O₄) ≈ 580 °C (853 K)
Temperatures in parentheses are in kelvins (K):
\vphantom{[}^{;}T,(K) = T,(°C) + 273.15
Physical Significance
Magnetic Susceptibility (χ) follows the Curie–Weiss law just above T<sub>C</sub>:
χ=CT−Θ \chi = \frac{C}{T - \Theta}χ=T−ΘC
where C is the Curie constant and Θ (Weiss constant) is approximately equal to
T<sub>C</sub> for ferromagnets.
Applications hinge on operating below T<sub>C</sub> for permanent magnets. For
example, NdFeB magnets (rare-earth magnets) have Curie temperatures typically
between 310 °C and 400 °C, limiting their high-temperature performance.
Understanding the Curie temperature is crucial for designing magnetic materials for electric
motors, transformers, data storage media, and sensors, ensuring they maintain their magnetic
properties under operating conditions.
You said:
Ferromagnetic vs paramagnetic vs diamagnetic
ChatGPT said:
Here’s a concise comparison of the three main types of magnetic behavior in materials:
Property Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic
Has unpaired electrons
Has unpaired
All electrons are paired; no and strong exchange
Origin electrons; net atomic
net moment coupling between
moments
moments
Weakly attracted Strongly attracted;
Response to an Weakly repelled (induced
(induced moments domains align even after
external field moments oppose H)
align with H) H is removed
Magnetic Small positive (χ > 0), Large positive;
susceptibility Negative (χ < 0) follows Curie or non-linear, exhibits
(χ) Curie–Weiss law hysteresis
T < T<sub>C</sub>:
χ ∝ 1/T (Curie law) or
Temperature Nearly ferromagnetic; T ≥
χ ∝ 1/(T–Θ) (Curie–
dependence temperature-independent T<sub>C</sub>:
Weiss law)
becomes paramagnetic
Bi, Cu, Au, H₂O, organic Fe, Ni, Co, Gd, ferrites
Examples Al, Pt, Ti, O₂ gas
compounds (e.g., Fe₃O₄)
No permanent
No permanent moments; Permanent magnetization;
magnetization;
Key features induced currents oppose magnetic domains with
moments randomize
change hysteresis loops
when H removed
Quick Definitions
Diamagnetism
All electrons paired → tiny induced magnetic moments oppose an applied field (Lenz’s
law). Never retains magnetization.
Paramagnetism
Some unpaired electrons → weak attraction to a field. Thermal motion randomizes
moments once the field is off, so no remanence.
Ferromagnetism
Unpaired electrons and positive exchange interactions → spontaneous alignment in
domains. Exhibits strong attraction, remanence, and coercivity (hysteresis).
When They Matter
Diamagnetic materials are used in high-precision measurements (e.g., magnetic
levitation of pyrolytic graphite).
Paramagnetic salts (e.g., Gd³⁺ complexes) appear in MRI contrast agents, exploiting
their T₁-shortening effects.
Ferromagnetic alloys are the backbone of permanent magnets, transformer cores, and
magnetic data storage.
