UNIT I: WORKING IN THE BOOKKEEPING business growth rather than on their company's

INDUSTRY financial status.

Lesson 1: Overview of Bookkeeping
Introduction History of Bookkeeping
The process of recording and organizing a
company’s financial transactions depend on The origin of bookkeeping dates back to a
certain individuals who are tasked to ensure that few centuries in the past. Although it is a relatively
the organization remains responsible in making old process, the accounting industry continuously
informed decisions and compliant with the laws develops regulations to ensure a more updated and
and regulations revolving around the business. modern approach to the process.
To ensure this goal, companies hire
bookkeepers or accounting clerks who meticulously  7000 BC (First Practice of Financial Record
track all their financial records. As professionals in Keeping
the field, you will provide the baseline organization  The first practice of financial record
for income and sales targets, as well as all keeping has been found in Assyria, Sumer,
financial data needed for strategic decision- Babylon, and Mesopotamia way back in
making. To do this, it is crucial to develop your 7000 BC showing archives of records of
skills to maintain the accuracy and reliability of accounts of a farm produce business in
financial records and manage cash flows, aiding in Ancient Greece as well as from the Roman
the prevention of fraudulent transactions. Empire.
 1458 (Of Commerce and the Perfect Merchant)
TOPIC 1: WHAT IS BOOKKEEPING?  Some believe that modern bookkeeping
vegan with Benedetto Cotrugli pioneering
Bookkeeping involves the systematic the double-entry system, through his book
recording and categorizing of all financial “ Of Commerce and the Perfect
transactions undertaken by a business (or an Merchant.”
individual). It involves documenting and  1494 (Review of Arithmetic, Geometry, Ratio,
monitoring by compiling this data into reports to and Proportion)
show the company's financial performance. If  Some believe that it began with Luca
arithmetic is the fundamental aspect of Pacioli, an Italian mathematician and
mathematics, bookkeeping is a fundamental part of Franciscan monk, known as the "Father of
accounting. Bookkeeping," pioneering the double-
A bookkeeper (or book-keeper), also called entry system, through his book "Review of
an accounting clerk, refers to a person who keeps Arithmetic, Geometry, Ratio, and
the books of an organization of the business. For Proportion." It provided the first popular
a large company with substantial assets, revenues, description of the double-entry system and
and a large workforce, hiring a bookkeeper is tools like journals and ledgers, which have
essential for organizing the company's financial been used for teaching bookkeeping and
records. This ensures that big companies can make accounting for years.
business decisions easily and produce financial  1800s (Professional Recognition)
statements for all stakeholders, knowing that they  Bookkeeping as a profession was
comply with company policies and legal recognized during the 1800s in the UK
regulations. and US as trade and exploration efforts
For a small company, bookkeepers are also greatly emerged in the economy. Because
crucial for its smooth operation. Owners hire of the early capitalization and rise of the
bookkeepers to organize, store, and analyze their stock exchange, different businesses
company's financial information, thereby reducing started to consider the importance of the
their workload. They benefit from having a role of bookkeepers and hired people who
bookkeeper who ensures accurate financial records, knew how to record financial transactions.
enabling informed decision-making and financial  20th Century (Technology Integration)
planning. Bookkeepers in small businesses handle  As technology rose during the 20th
tasks such as invoicing, payroll, and tax century the job of bookkeepers changed
preparation. Their expertise helps owners stay from manual recording to the
compliant with financial regulations, avoiding application of worksheets and advanced
penalties and allowing them to focus more on calculators which greatly helped
 bookkeepers to do their jobs more various accounting software options available
efficiently and less time-consuming. online.
Bookkeepers are record keepers, however,
Laws and Regulations their role goes beyond simple recording, they are
essential for maintaining and organizing a
In every generation, business mirrors the company's financial transactions. Although
growth of the economic development and bookkeeping is a process under the field of
innovations, the use of technology is recommended accounting, bookkeepers and accountants differ in
when organizing financial transactions for easier their fields of expertise.
recording.
To protect the data of every user the Data Job Duties and Responsibilities
Security and the Data Protection Act 1998 was  Maintain a record of financial transactions.
implemented.  Organize and maintain the general ledger.
As a bookkeeper you should familiarize the  Compare records and entries into the
following legal obligations and regulations. accounting system.
Although there are several laws and regulations that  Record debit and credit.
govern the profession, below are some of that each  Organize and maintain the trial balance.
bookkeeper must take note of:  Compare balances in the general ledger.
 Maintain accuracy of transactions.
Revenue Regulations No. V-1: The Bookkeeping  Apply knowledge in laws and legislative in
Regulations (As Amended) work requirements.
Section 24. Penalty for making False
Entries for Writing false or Fictitious Names in Core Competencies
Book or Records  Journalize Transactions
 Anyone who makes false entries or uses  Post Transactions
fake names in their books or records, or  Prepare the Trial Balance
helps others do so, can be punished under  Prepare the Financial Reports
section 355 of the National Internal  Review the Internal Control System
Revenue Code. Penalties include a fine
between P500 and P5,000, imprisonment Bookkeepers versus Accountants
from six months to five years, or both.
 Anyone who fails to keep their books or Although bookkeeping is a process under
records in a native language, English, or the field of accounting, bookkeepers and
Spanish, or doesn't accurately translate accountants differ in their fields of expertise, as
them into one of these languages, will be well as in their tasks. While a bookkeeper is in
fined between P2,000 and P10,000 or charge of recording transactions, an accountant is
imprisoned for two to six years, or both. involved in analyzing and documenting financial
data with a need for analytical skills and subject
Revenue Regulations No. 5-2014: Section 25 expertise. They analyze the company's financial
Section 25. Penalty for Violation of Other situation and provide necessary information to the
Provision of These Regulations appropriate stakeholders.
 Anyone who violates these regulations
without a specific penalty in the National Bookkeeper
Internal Revenue Code or other laws will  Primarily deals with organizing financial
be fined up to P300, imprisoned for up to statements and administrative tasks within
six months, or both, according to section accounting.
352 of the Code.  Aims to record all financial transactions in an
organized way in the journal and ledgers.
TOPIC 2: ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES  The process of documenting and summarizing
OF A BOOKEEPER financial transactions.
 Ledgers and journals are the essential tools
Bookkeepers gather the essential materials used in this role.
for financial statements by meticulously recording  Manage the day-to-day financial transactions of
data into the accounting system. This can be done a business.
manually, using worksheets, or by leveraging
Creating and examining financial statements for Customer - they are concerned about the
accuracy and compliance with generally accepted company being stable and expanding rather than
accounting principles. bankrupting.
Government - they are concerned about the
Accountants taxes that the business must pay.
 Involves analyzing and documenting financial Management - this field focuses with the economic
data with a need for analytical skills and information whether financial or non-financial
subject expertise. information to assist the management in performing
 Aims to analyze the company’s financial its functions effectively. It involves the internal
situation and provide necessary information to parties within the company.
the appropriate individuals. Cost - this field highly focuses on identifying,
 Employs balance sheets, cash flow statements, measuring, and communicating information about
and profit and loss accounts as its key the costs. It provides information about the costs. It
resources. provides information about the cost of rendering a
 They analyze data, compile reports, prepare particular service, buying and selling a product, as
financial statements, and handle tax matters. well as producing the product. The role of cost
 Produce financial reports that offer insights into accounting in the organization is to identify the
a company’s financial health, aiding prices that can be spent for a transaction.
management in strategic decisions. Government - this focuses on the generated
revenues and incurred expenses of the government.
TOPIC 3: THE ACCOUNTING FIELD Its general objective is to know if the funds are
properly allocated and if it is spent wisely and
Accounting is considered as the process accurately.
that involves the recording of various financial
transactions involving varying entities. It is Bookkeeping in an Organization
identified as a rapidly growing field focused on
preparing, reviewing, and analyzing various Bookkeeping falls under the large scope of
financial information for individuals, businesses, the accounting field. It is an accounting process
and organizations. that ensures all financial records and transactions of
In this field, bookkeepers play a critical role a business are organized. Typically, bookkeepers
in a company, as every transaction, income and are hired to take on this responsibility in a company
expenses recorded, provides the foundation to or a firm.
create critical analysis. By ensuring accurate and Usually, bookkeepers are under the
complete data, bookkeepers/accounting clerks can supervision of the accounting manager, or the
directly support informed business decisions and senior bookkeeper itself. Below is an example of
success in a competitive market. an organizational chart of an accounting firm:
To equip you with the knowledge need to
keep up in its sector here are the following fields of
accounting:
Fields of Accounting
Tax - this involves identifying, measuring, and
communicating an entity’s information for tax
purposes.
Financial - this field focuses on all financial
transactions that are related to a business for
external parties’ use. The field of financial
accounting involves individuals or organizations CFO - They are responsible in providing strategic
who can be influenced by the company such as the financial leadership, managing financial planning
following: and analysis, and ensuring the organization’s
Suppliers - they are the person concerned if financial health and compliance with regulations.
the company can pay for their debt for the Sometimes small businesses do not have a CFO but
product/supplies ordered. rather a Controller as the head of finance.
Lender- they are the banks who are Controller - They oversee the entire accounting
concerned if the company can pay for their debt and operations, ensuring the accuracy and integrity of
its interest.
financial records, and preparing comprehensive
financial reports for management. Methods of Communication
Internal Auditor - They objectively evaluate the
financial and operational activities of a company. Verbal Communication - This method uses speech
Accounting Manager - They are responsible for and language to convey messages. It occurs when
supervising bookkeepers/accounting clerks, you speak to others in the form of calling or
ensuring accurate record-keeping, and managing physical interaction. Verbal communication can be
day-to-day accounting operations. formal and informal. However, in face-to-face
Accounts Receivable Clerk - They prepare and interactions, verbal and non-verbal communication
send invoices to customers, track payments, and occur simultaneously.
manage collections. Example:
Accounts Payable Clerk - They manage and Person 1: Hi Juan! How are you today?
process vendor invoices, reconcile statements, and Person 2: I’m great, what about you?
prepare payments. Person 1: I feel great too because I’ve already
Senior Bookkeeper - They oversees the work of finished our annual financial reports.
junior bookkeepers, handles complex transactions, Person 2: That’s awesome! Keep up the good work!
and ensures the accuracy of financial records. Non-verbal Communication - This method is
Payroll Clerk - They process employees payroll, expressed through body language, facial
maintain payroll records, and ensure compliance expressions, eye contact, appearance, and sign
with tax regulations. language. Non-verbal communication complements
Inventory Clerk- They ensures the tracking of verbal communication and also helps when words
supplies and materials acquired in a company. don’t help. It is an important type of
Bookkeeper - They gather and record financial communication in interviews and discussions as
transactions, summarize them regularly, and they value it a lot.
prepare financial statements and accounts as Example:
needed. Smiling when talking to colleagues may
show that you are happy talking to them.
Lesson 2: Collaboration and Communication in Frowning when talking to colleagues may
the Workplace show that you are not in the mood to converse.
Face-to-Face Communication - This method
Introduction involves direct interaction between individuals
Collaboration among bookkeepers where they can see each other's facial expressions,
enhances teamwork by fostering idea-sharing, body language, and hear each other's tone of voice.
mutual support, and accuracy. It also promotes skill Example:
improvement and keeps professionals updated, A business meeting where colleagues gather
contributing to organizational success. in a conference room to discuss project updates and
Leadership in bookkeeping is essential for share ideas. During the meeting, you can observe
effective team management, confident decision- each other's reactions, ask questions, and engage in
making, and adaptation to industry changes. Strong real-time discussion, which enhances understanding
leadership skills open doors to career advancement and collaboration.
and recognition, enabling impactful contributions to Two-Way Radio - This method uses a portable
the field. communication device that allows users to transmit
and receive audio messages over short distances
TOPIC 1: METHODS OF COMMUNICATION using radio waves. It's important in bookkeeping,
particularly for businesses with teams working in
Effective communication is vital in every different locations or environments where
industry, particularly in your job where daily traditional communication methods like phones or
interaction with clients and colleagues is common. emails may not be feasible.
Clear communication is essential for managing Example:
crucial business aspects like accounts, fostering If the company you work for owns a
strong client relationships, and avoiding warehouse, and your responsibilities as a
misunderstandings. bookkeeper include inventory management, having
two-way radios would allow you to communicate
Here are the methods of communication that with colleagues to update inventory levels swiftly,
can help you achieve effective communication: address discrepancies, or coordinate shipments.
This real-time communication capability enhancing productivity and effectiveness in
significantly enhances productivity and accuracy in managing financial information.
bookkeeping operations. Example:
Speaking to Groups - It's important for One example of internet-based
bookkeepers to speak to groups to effectively communication in bookkeeping is email
communicate financial information, policies, or correspondence. Bookkeepers often use email to
procedures to a wider audience within the send invoices to clients, exchange financial
organization. This method helps align team documents with colleagues or vendors, and
members toward common financial goals and communicate important updates or reminders
promotes informed decision-making across regarding financial matters.
departments.
Example: TOPIC 2: DEMONSTRATING EFFECTIVE
You may need to present a financial report LEADERSHIP DUTRING WORKPLACE
or budget overview to department heads during a DISCUSSIONS
monthly meeting. By speaking to the group, the
bookkeeper ensures that everyone understands the Workplace discussions in bookkeeping are
financial status of the company, addresses any crucial for clarifying complex financial concepts
questions or concerns, and fosters transparency and and collaborative problem-solving.
accountability in financial management. Engaging with colleagues helps
Using Telephone - Using the telephone in bookkeepers enhance their skills, stay updated on
bookkeeping is important for quick communication industry trends, and ensure quality assurance
with clients, vendors, or colleagues to address through peer review and constructive feedback.
urgent financial matters or resolve inquiries These discussions cultivate a dynamic environment
efficiently. Additionally, telephone communication that promotes learning, innovation, and team
allows for verbal confirmation of important cohesion which is essential for success in
financial details, ensuring accuracy and clarity in bookkeeping.
bookkeeping records. Before learning about the different effective
Example: ways to communicate, the different etiquettes
You might need to call a client to clarify a essential to take note of when having a meeting,
transaction or discuss outstanding invoices. By sending any communication materials, or even
using the telephone, the bookkeeper can provide during negotiations with customers, you must first
immediate assistance, answer questions in real time, familiarize with the different examples of a
and maintain a strong client relationship. workplace discussion below:
Written Communication - This method involves
the use of written language to convey information
and messages. This form of communication
includes emails, memos, texts, and social media
posts. Although written communication is effective
in expressing thoughts and ideas, it may not always
effectively convey the intended emotions.
Example:
As bookkeepers some of the great examples
of written communication are the receipts, invoices, Innovation Meetings - Information-sharing
bank statements, and financial reports that are meetings are crucial in business communication,
somehow communicating to you through the data using activities like panel debates and seminars to
that you need to record. convey specific issues or important information.
Internet - This method plays a crucial role in Actively engaging attendees, especially with
communication in bookkeeping due to its external speakers, is vital for success while
efficiency, speed, and accessibility. Additionally, gathering feedback afterward improves future
online platforms and software applications enable meetings' effectiveness and engagement.
bookkeepers to collaborate with clients or team Information Sharing Meetings - Sharing
members remotely, share files securely, and important information through activities like panel
conduct virtual meetings to discuss financial reports debates and seminars is crucial in business
or strategies. Overall, the Internet facilitates communication. Engaging attendees, especially
seamless communication in bookkeeping, when external speakers are involved, is essential for
success. Gathering feedback after each session it is also important to know more about the
improves future meetings, increasing their common etiquette followed when facilitating a
effectiveness and engagement. meeting.
Sales and Conference Meetings - This type of In the video below, you will learn about the
discussion is common in companies with many different meeting etiquette that can be practiced in
sales agents. These meetings are held regularly, and the workplace.
as a bookkeeper, you may be a presenter or
participant. When meeting someone for the first time, it is
Staff Meeting - This type of discussion is essential important to arrive on time.
for addressing relevant company changes, Maintain eye contact and genuinely smile as
discussing current departmental issues, and sharing people.
administration announcements. This is usually Give a gentle but firm handshake.
organized by managers and supervisors. Dress professionally.
Team Building Meetings - This type of discussion Treats everybody equally and professionally.
is specifically designed to strengthen relationships Maintains a professional demeanour in the
and corporate culture. Activities like kick-off workplace but still approachable and fun to talk to.
meetings, all-hands meetings, corporate events, and Learns people’s names.
outings are organized, aiming to make participants
feel integral to their team and company, thus Arrive on time.
boosting performance and satisfaction. Do not judge people.
Listen well.
Effective Ways to Lead a Workplace Discussion Express your opinios politely.

Below are various ways and reminders that will Sending Emails
help you in facilitating an effective workplace
discussion: Effective communication does not only
Be mindful of how you say or deliver tour revolve around workplace discussions and
message. Avoid spitting when talking to your meetings. It also includes communication materials
colleagues. that are commonly used in the office, including
Balance being personal and professional. Avoid emails.
oversharing information, especially the company’s Below are steps on how to properly and
financial details. professionally send emails to your colleagues:
Example: Person 1: Hi Glenda! How was the sales Step 1: Identify the recipients of the email.
meeting yesterday? Encode the emails of to whom you will be
Person 2: It was fine, the boss was happy with the sending your emails.
meeting. Example: type [email protected] in the
Take note: Glenda made good interaction with a recipient box.
colleague but her responses are in general and Step 2: Write a subject.
formal. Example: Request for Invoice Follow-Up.
Clarify messages/instructions from superiors. Do Step 3: Compose the body of the message.
not believe in fake news, if information may seem Example: Dear Mr. Juan Dela Cruz: Regarding the
unclear to your understanding, ask permission from invoice received from your office yesterday, dated
the managers of lead bookkeepers for clarifications. May 15, there seems to be an error. The correct date
Take note, as bookkeepers you must ensure that all should be April 15. Attached to this mail is the
instructions and transactions are justified to avoid original invoice with the incorrect date. Kindly
misconception and misunderstanding when dealing amend the date and resend the invoice, and we will
with the company's financial transactions. promptly process the payment by the end of the
Learn people’s names. Putting effort into day. Thank you.
remembering all your colleagues’ names may help Step 4: Include the necessary attachments
to better build connections and interact with them. Example: Click the paper clip icon and attach the
scanned copy of the invoice you received.
Meeting Etiquette Step 5: Double check the email then send
- Verify first if the gmail of the recipient is correct.
Aside from practicing various ways to - Double-check if the subject is related to the
facilitate effective communication in the workplace, content of the email.
- Double-check, if the spelling and grammar of the For example: Good day! This is Glenda from the
compose mail are correct. finance department. I’m calling about…
- Double-check if the attached file is correct. Step 4: Ask for the Name of the Person you are
- Hit send once complete. Calling
For example: May I ask who I am speaking with?
Answering Calls Step 5: State the reason for your call
State the reason for your call and be mindful of the
Another way of facilitating effective other person’s time so ensure that all messages to
communication and workplace discussions is be discussed are relevant and necessary.
through phone calls. Phone calls are also common Step 6: Summarize the call
ways to transfer information from one source to Summarize the agreements within the call before
another. With this, it is important to take note of the ending.
guidelines that will make you an effective Step 7: End the call properly
communicator when answering inquiries through End the call with a greeting and wait for the person
calls. to respond before hanging up.
Below are the steps on how to properly
answer calls in the workplace: Negotiating with customers
Step 1: Answer the Call
Ensure to try and answer calls within 2-3 rings. Bookkeepers need to be precise to ensure
Step 2: Greet the person on the Other end accurate financial records and avoid errors.
For example: Good morning! This is the finance Understanding how to negotiate helps them
office. I’m Glenda. How may I help you? communicate effectively with clients and vendors,
Step 3: Ensure to Speak Properly preventing misunderstandings. Good negotiation
Try to smile while speaking and speak pleasantly to skills enable you to manage costs and secure better
the other person on the line. deals for the business. To do this, planning and
Step 4: Ask for the Caller’s Name participating in negotiations is the key for effective
For example: May I know who’s on the line? interaction. Here are some strategies you can
Step 5: Ask for the Purpose of the Call consider when planning and participating in
For example: May I know what this call is about? negotiations:
Step 6: Put the Call on Hold when Needed
In an instance where you will be putting the caller
on hold, say “ May I place the call on hold?” in a
polite manner.
Step 7: End the Call Properly
End the call with a greeting. Wait for the caller to
hang up before you do.
For example: Thank you for calling. Have a great
day! Ensure Proper Communication -
Communication is crucial in negotiations both
Making Calls verbal and non-verbal. This fosters understanding,
builds relationships, resolves conflicts, influences
Aside from answering calls, it is also decisions, and manages expectations by following
important to take note of the guidelines that will these practices during communication:
facilitate effective communication when making Display friendliness and warm welcoming
calls. Lead conversation before negotiating
Below are the steps on how to properly Be assertive
make calls in the workplace: Be attentive
Step 1:List Down the Objectives of the Call Maintain eye contact
Before making a call, list down first the objectives Reflect and listen
of why you are making the call. Practice Emotional Intelligence - Emotional
Step 2: Prepare your paper and pen intelligence is important because it helps
Ready a pen and paper to write down information negotiators understand and manage their own
regarding the call. emotions, empathize with the perspectives of
Step 3: Make a Call and Introduce yourself others, build rapport, navigate conflicts
Introduce yourself and the purpose of your call. constructively, and ultimately achieve mutually
beneficial agreements. Here are some personal an employee. It is important for you to use the
attributes you must consider when negotiating: equipment of the company and the spaces provided
for your comfort so that the rest of the team can
Self awareness enjoy it as well.
Self esteem Build Emotional Intelligence: Emotional
Objectivity intelligence means understanding and managing
Empathy emotions, both in yourself and others. It helps you
Respect for others empathize with teammates and handle challenges
Plan Ahead - Planning ahead with clear goals and effectively, making it valuable in any workplace
knowing your limits is crucial in negotiations. situation, regardless of conflicts.
Without preparation, you might miss key details or
other potential solutions. To avoid this study the Setting personal goals and monitoring
goal of the negotiation and conduct prior research. performance
Prioritize Value Creation - In negotiations,
prioritizing value creation over maximizing As bookkeepers/accounting clerks, setting
individual gains not only leads to greater overall personal goals is vital for the drive of your
benefits but also fosters trust and collaboration professional growth and advances in your career.
among parties for future interactions. By monitoring your performance against these
Strategize properly - When negotiating with other goals, you can stay motivated, accountable, and
people you need to strategize how to extract the adaptable to changes in your work environment,
details you need, without oversharing the ultimately leading to improved job satisfaction and
company's financial standing and information. success.
Analyzing the topic and flow of conversation will Kaizen method can help you enhance
greatly help to avoid misunderstanding. efficiency, quality, and innovation within your
organization through continuous improvement. This
TOPIC 3: PRACTICING DIVERSITY AND method involves specific steps to monitor
PROFESSIONALISM performance and optimize processes, fostering a
culture of ongoing improvement.
As bookkeepers and accounting clerks you Step 1: Identify Areas for Improvement
need a solid grasp of work ethics as you manage Analyzing your workflow and how you
critical financial data that directly influences a comply with different tasks will help you identify
company's financial well-being. Adhering to ethical key indicators for areas where you should start
standards ensures accuracy, builds client trust, and improving. It is important to focus on areas that will
ensures compliance with laws, safeguarding their greatly impact your work performance.
reputation. Here are essential some work etiquettes Step 2: Analyze the Current Process
to follow: Analyzing the current process can help
Always be on time: One of the best habits in a identify areas for improvement, such as attendance
workplace is being punctual. This shows respect and deadline compliance.
towards other people's time and shows that you are Step 3: Develop Solutions
complying with the company’s policy. Once the analysis is done, brainstorm
Recognize your team: Recognizing others is solutions with colleagues and then implement the
considered good business etiquette in both informal most feasible and impactful ones.
and formal work settings. When someone enters a Step 4: Implement the Solution
room during a business dinner or meeting, it's In the Kaizen process, you are now at the
important to greet them appropriately, such as with stage of implementing solutions throughout a small-
a handshake or by observing cultural customs. scale pilot project or within yourself. It's crucial to
Dress Appropriately: Choosing appropriate monitor outcomes and refine solutions as needed to
clothing varies depending on whether you work in check if your solutions are effective.
an office or remotely. While companies with daily Step 5: Evaluate the Results
office presence might prefer business casual attire The last step of the Kaizen method involves
for face-to-face interactions with stakeholders or measuring the effects of the changes and comparing
clients, those in hybrid work settings may promote them to the baseline data of your old work process.
casual dress to enhance comfort and productivity. This helps you see the difference in your
Respect Shared Spaces: The way you treat your performance before and after implementing the
environment will greatly reflect your personality as solutions.
 The International Federation of Accountants
(IFAC) relies on its Code of Ethics for Professional
Addressing Workplace Challenges Accountants to guide ethical conduct in the
accounting profession. This code outlines
In your career as a bookkeeper, you'll fundamental principles such as integrity,
encounter diverse challenges with each transition. objectivity, professional competence, and
Crafting effective strategies to overcome these confidentiality, serving as a reference point for
hurdles is crucial for success, that is why, you need accountants worldwide. As bookkeepers, it's
to know the following tips to help you manage a important to practice the principles outlined in this
variety of workplace challenges. code.
Tip 1: Staying positive Integrity - To be straightforward and honest in all
Remaining positive during work challenges professional business relationships.
motivates, and focusing on controllable tasks helps. Objectivity - Don't let personal biases, conflicts of
Make a list of achievable tasks and seek advice interest, or others' influence affect your professional
from trusted colleagues on maintaining positivity or business decisions.
during difficulties. Professional Competence and Due Care -
Tip 2: Braimstorm solutions Acquire and uphold professional knowledge
When encountering a workplace challenge, and skills necessary to provide competent service to
gaining perspective is crucial. Try working clients or employing organizations, following
remotely to brainstorm solutions from different current technical and professional standards and
angles, keeping an open mind for reassessing relevant legislation.
assumptions and problem-solving approaches. Work diligently and follow relevant
Tip 3: Ask for help technical and professional standards.
Consulting managers, colleagues, or Confidentiality - Keep all information learned
external sources for advice can assist in addressing internally confidential.
challenges. Discussing issues and receiving Professional Behavior - Adhere to applicable laws
guidance can help you gain confidence in taking and regulations and avoid any actions that could
necessary actions. potentially harm the reputation of the accounting
Tip 4: Identify a strategy profession.
Breaking the challenges in the workplace
into smaller parts helps manage it better, making it Lesson 3: Practicing Occupational Health and
easier to determine the next steps. Setting goals for Safety Measures in the Workplace
each part also aids in overcoming the challenge
effectively. Introduction
Tip 5: Admit when you need help
Sometimes, you'll need to seek assistance, Staying safe and healthy at work is essential
whether it's practicing a mock interview with a for bookkeepers and accounting clerks. Your job
friend or requesting skills training from a requires focus and mental stamina to handle a
supervisor, to build confidence. company's finances.
Tip 6: delegate task Proper training on equipment use and
If you manage a team, delegating tasks enforcing safety protocols help prevent accidents
when you're busy can free up time to focus on and injuries. Following safety regulations protects
solutions, while also giving your team opportunities you, your colleagues, and avoids legal trouble for
to grow and take on more responsibility. the company.
Tip 7: use the challenge to your advantage A safe and healthy work environment
Sharing examples of how you overcome benefits everyone. It boosts morale, keeps you
work challenges can demonstrate your problem- engaged, and helps you be more productive. This
solving skills effectively. Keeping detailed notes on all contributes to a positive workplace culture.
the challenges faced and the steps taken to
overcome them can be valuable. Sharing these TOPIC 1: SAFE WORKPLACE PRACTICES
experiences, such as in a job interview, can boost
your chances of success. According to the mandated law under R.A.
11058: Occupational Safety and Health
Basic Professional Values and Business Ethics Standards employers are required to provide
necessary safety equipment, training, and facilities
to protect their employees from workplace hazards.
The law mandates the creation of a safe and healthy
workplace environment, including measures to
prevent accidents, injuries, and illnesses.

Safety Workplace Practices

As bookkeepers/accounting clerks, you
should prioritize these safe work practices to
safeguard your well-being and ensure legal
compliance with regulations, promoting a positive
work environment and productivity.

Work on Ergonomics - As bookkeepers, you may Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation

tend to sit in your chair and work on your desk for When there is a cardiac or breathing
extended periods. To prevent any harmful emergency, cardiopulmonary resuscitation, or CPR,
circumstances, it's important to maintain proper is the emergency procedure that is carried out. To
posture and remember to stretch every once in a restore breathing and blood circulation until
while. medical help arrives, it combines artificial
Protect your Eyes - When recording the company's ventilation with chest compressions.
financial transactions, you'll likely spend long
periods facing computer screens. To protect your Evacuation
eyes, follow the 20-20-20 rule: every 20 minutes, During the event of natural disasters, follow
take 20 seconds to look at something 20 feet away. these evacuation procedures:
Additionally, adjusting your monitor's brightness
can be very helpful. 1. Go to the designated assembly point when the
Clean your Workstations - You should clean your safety alarm rings.
workstations to maintain a tidy and organized 2. If the “emergency kit” is near you. Bring it,
workspace, which enhances efficiency and reduces otherwise, do not bother.
distractions. A clean environment also promotes 3. If you are inside a multi-story building, the
better concentration and prevents the buildup of employees closest to the stairways/doors must be
germs, contributing to overall well-being. the first to leave. The last person to leave shall close
Practice Electrical Safety - You should practice the door.
electrical safety to prevent accidents and injuries in 4. You must move as quickly and safely as possible
the workplace, placing your computer at arm's without panicking and creating hazards.
length will greatly help. Proper electrical safety 5. Proceed to access routes.
measures also minimize the risk of fires and 6. The focal person must perform head counts and
equipment damage, promoting a secure work check for several wounded or missing people.
environment.
Fire Safety
Emergency Procedures  Fire occurs when oxygen from the air reacts
with fuel.
 For a fire to ignite here are the three
combustions

First Aid
A first aid kit in your workplace is a must.
This will help you during times of emergency. Here
is the list of things you need to put in your first aid
kit:
 the efficient utilization of supplies and digital
alternatives.
Fire Extinguisher
P- Pull the Pin 2. Work closely with Operations and Management
A- Aim for the base to assess the viability of flexible work
S- Squeeze the lever arrangements, aiming to decrease employee travel
S - Sweep from side to side and lower the carbon footprint associated with
transportation.
TOPIC 2: ENVIRONMENTAL WORK
PRACTICES 3. Engage in discussions with Procurement to
identify suppliers and vendors that prioritize
A clean, organized environment fosters a sustainability practices.
positive work culture and reduces the risk of
accidents, enhancing both employee satisfaction 4. Prepare reports that extend beyond financial
and operational efficiency. statements, incorporating data on the company's
environmental and societal contributions.
Workplace Resources
These environmental workplace practices 5. Plan and predict the company's future
supports companies in their efforts towards preparedness for sustainability within budget
corporate social responsibility. constraints.
Step 1: Make a list of resources used in your
workplace.
Step 2: Measure current usage of workplace
resources.
Step 3: Record and store properly the gathered
data.
Step 4: Convey relevant data to your supervisor or
to the designated staff or employees for appropriate
action.

Techniques in Resource Conversation

Being aware of energy usage at work can
lower utility bills, reduce carbon emissions, and
create a more eco-friendly environment. Resource
conservation can also improve the work
environment by reducing heat and noise from
energy-consuming equipment, making the
workspace more comfortable and productive for
employees.

Environmental Standards in Bookkeeping

Companies are highly encouraged to make
their business environmentally friendly, as it not
only helps the environment but also attracts more
investors. One efficient strategy companies employ
is the adoption of Green Accounting which is a way
of tracking the efforts of a company to protect the
environment, and reducing its carbon footprint.

Here are the following steps accountable for Green

Accounting:

1. Collaborate with Human Resources (HR) and

Technology departments to establish policies aimed
at reducing resource consumption and promoting
UNIT II: FUNDAMENTAL OF 18 - 3 = 15
BOOKKEEPING Multiplication (x): This is the process of
multiplying two or more numbers to get the answer
Lesson 1: Practicing Mathematical Operations called “product”. This process is like conducting
Introduction addition but multiple times. In bookkeeping, this
As a bookkeepers/accounting clerks, you operation is essential for determining total costs or
will be relying on your strong math skills to ensure values by repeating additions.
the accuracy and integrity of financial records, Example:
analyze data, and identify trends or potential 4 x 4 = 16
financial risks. These skills are essential for 10 x 3= 30
compliance with regulations, such as tax 12 x 2= 24
calculations and financial reporting standards. Division (÷): This is a method of distributing a
Overall, strong mathematical skills streamline group of things into equal parts. It is the opposite of
bookkeeping processes and improve financial multiplication. In bookkeeping, this operation is
management within organizations. crucial for distributing quantities into equal parts or
finding rates of change, enabling calculations like
TOPIC 1: BASIC MATHEMATICAL cost per unit or monthly revenue.
OPERATIONS Example:
9 ÷ 3= 3
Proficiency in mathematical concepts such 10 ÷ 2 = 5
as ratios, percentages, and averages allows 24 ÷ 12 = 2
bookkeepers to assess financial performance and
provide valuable insights to stakeholders. Learning Understanding Fractions
various mathematical operations is the best way to
make your job as a bookkeeper easy and more Bookkeepers need to understand fractions
efficient. because financial data often involves fractional
amounts, like percentages or proportions. This
Four Fundamental Operations knowledge helps them accurately calculate things
like tax rates or profit margins and interpret
The basic operations in mathematics are financial reports correctly, ensuring precise
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. financial management.
Mastery of these operations is crucial for accurate
financial analysis and decision-making in
bookkeeping. NUMERATOR
The four fundamental operations are
essential in bookkeeping as this will be part of most
of the processes: DENOMINATOR
Addition (+) : This is the process of putting two or
more numbers together, to get the total sum of 2 or Numerator - It denotes the quantity of equal parts
more numbers. In bookkeeping, this operation is taken from the whole of collection.
used to sum up various financial transactions such Denominator - It indicates the total number of
as revenues and expenses. equal divisions within the whole or the total count
Example: of identical.
5+2=7
9 + 3 = 12 Four Operations of Fractions
10 + 10 = 20
Subtraction (-): This is the process of taking one Similar to whole numbers, fractions also
number away from another or taking away a make use of the basic mathematical operations:
smaller number from a bigger number. In
bookkeeping, this is used to find the difference Addition - Finding the common denominator is the
between values, aiding in calculating net income or first thing to consider in adding fractions. In
equity. instances where there is NO common denominator
Example: in the equations, you need to find it by the least
common denominator (LCD) between the
7-4=3 denominators.
13 - 2 = 11
With Common Denominator - To change it back to mixed numbers, you
2/5+ 1/5 = 3/5 need to divide the denominator by the numerator.
Here, the common denominator is copied, while the Division - The process of dividing fractions is
numerator is added. similar to the process of multiplication but differs in
Without Common Denominator - its 3rd step. Remember to keep in mind the
3/4+1/5=? technique of “Keep, Switch, and Flip”. Here are the
To get the least common multiple you need steps when dividing fractions.
to multiply the denominators and by doing cross Step 1: Change mixed numbers to improper
multiplication. numbers.
Multiply 3, the numerator, to 5, the Similar to multiplication, you will need to
denominator of the second value, to get the first multiply the denominator and add the numerator to
value of 15. Then, multiply 4, the denominator, to change it into improper numbers.
1, the numerator of the second value, to get the Remember the following:
value of 4. - Keep the numbers
Add the 15 and 4 to get the final numerator, - Change the operation from division to
19. multiplication
Afterwards, multiply the two denominators, - Switch the position of the denominator and
4 and 5, to get the final denominator of 20. numerator of the second equation
The answer is 19 / 20 Step 3: Change improper fraction to mixed fraction
Subtraction - Subtracting fractions are similar to To change, find how many 12 whole
adding. Take note of the following steps in numbers is there in 30 by dividing it.
subtracting fractions: Step 4: Simplify
With Common Denominator - Find the greatest common factor which is 6
Similar to adding fractions if the denominator is the to get the final answer.
same you just simply copy it and subtract the
numerator. While with different denominators, you Example
will need to cross multiply.
1/5- 2/5= 1/5
Here, the numerator is subtracted while the
denominator remains the same.
Without Common Denominator -
However, if the denominator is not the same you
would also need to find the LCD.
2 / 5 - 1 / 3 = 1 / 15
Multiply the numerator 2, to the
denominator of the second value, 3, to get 6. Then
multiply 1, the numerator of the second value, to 5,
the denominator of the first value, to get 5.
Afterwards, subtract the two values, 6 and 5,
to get the final numerator 1.
Then, multiply the two denominators to get
the final denominator of 15.
Multiplication - there are 4 steps in multiplying
fraction.
Step 1: Change mixed numbers to improper
numbers.
Multiply 3 to 4 to get 12 then the numerator.
Step 2: Find divisible numbers.
In this example 4 and 2 have common factor Understanding Percentage
of 2. That’s why they can be divided.
Step 3: Multiply the fraction. Bookkeepers rely on comprehension of
Here, you will multiply both the numerators basic percentages to analyze financial data
and the denominators. accurately, allocate resources effectively, and
Step 4: Change the improper fraction to mixed ensure compliance with tax regulations.
numbers to get the final answer. Understanding percentages is essential for tasks
such as calculating profit margins, budgeting There are two systems of conversion of
expenses, and assessing performance metrics, measurements used in bookkeeping; they are the
enabling bookkeepers to make informed decisions Metric System and the English System.
and maintain financial stability for their
organization.
Since percentages are just hundredth parts,
we can easily write them as fractions and decimals.
For example, Percent - fraction - decimal
63% = 63 / 100 = 0.63
Take note that In bookkeeping, fractions are
often used to represent portions or percentages of a
whole in financial calculations.
Conversion of Units
Here are some examples:
Percentage of Sales (porsyento ng benta) Conversion of Units Using Metric System
A company may calculate what percentage
of its total sales comes from a particular product Conversions are easy with factors of 10. Just move
line. If a company's total sales for the month are the decimal point right for smaller units and left for
P10,000, and P2,000 of that comes from Product A, larger ones.
then the fraction representing the percentage of
sales from Product A would be 2,000/10,000 or 1/5, For example:
which is 20%. Suppose a bookkeeper needs to convert the
Profit Margin weight of a product from kilograms to grams for
Bookkeepers might calculate the profit inventory purposes.
margin, which is the percentage of revenue that Given: Weight of the product: 3.5 kilograms
exceeds the cost of goods sold. If a company's To get that you need to convert kilogram to
revenue is P50,000 and the cost of goods sold is grams
P30,000, then the profit margin is (50,000 - Take note that a 1 kilogram = 1000 grams
30,000)/50,000, or 20/50, which is 2/5, or 40%. 3.5 kilograms x 1000 grams/kilogram = 3500 grams
Allocation of Expenses Therefore, the weight of the product in
When allocating expenses among different grams is 3500 grams.
departments, fractions may be used to determine
each department's share. For instance, if total Conversion of Units Using English System
overhead costs are P10,000 and Department A is
responsible for 40% of those costs, then their The US English System of measurement
allocated expenses would be P10,000 × 0.40, or originated from using body parts and common
P4,000. objects for measurements. For instance, people
measured short distances with the foot and longer
Units of Measurements ones with paces, where one mile equals 1,000
paces. Capacities were measured using household
Unit conversion means expressing the items like cups, pails (formerly known as gallons),
same measurement in a different unit. This and baskets.
process happens by taking the given unit, such as Here is the list of measurements under the
length, capacity, mass, or time. English System:
For example: Length
How many minutes are in 2 hour? 1 foot = 12 inches
- hours is a measurement of time. Other time 1 yard = 3 feet
measurement examples are seconds, minutes, 1 mile = 5280 feet
weeks, years, decades, and centuries, etc. 1 mile = 1760 yards
- Since there are 60 minutes in 1 hour, there are 120 Weight
minutes in 2 hours. 1 pound = 16 ounces
- sample computaion: 60 minutes (1 hour) 1 ton = 2000 pounds
60 minutes (1 hour) = 120 minutes (2hours) Capacity
1 tablespoon = 3 teaspoon
1 cup = 16 tablespoon
1 cup = 8 ounces
1 pint = 2 cups
1 quart = 2 pints
1 gallon = 4 quarts

TOPIC 2: BASIC ANALYTICAL

TECHNIQUES

Analytical techniques refer to methods or

procedures used to analyze problems, situations, or
facts. These methods are typically specific to
particular tasks and have time constraints. As
bookkeepers, using these techniques can help you
to understand financial information, find patterns,
and spot problems. Proficiency in analytical
techniques ensures compliance with regulatory
requirements and supports accurate financial
reporting to internal and external stakeholders.

Here are the key factors in analyzing results:

TOPIC 3: COMPUTATION OF purchase orders, sales orders, bank statements, and
DEPRECIAITION OF ASSETS payroll records. They provide details about
transactions, expenses, revenues, and other
Depreciation is the process of allocating the financial activities.
cost of a long-term asset over its useful life. It is BANK AND CREDIT CARD STATEMENTS
important in Bookkeeping as it helps businesses Bank statements and credit card statements
track the value decrease of assets like equipment, are essential sources for reconciling transactions,
vehicles, or buildings. verifying balances, and detecting discrepancies
There are two types of assets that depreciate: between the company’s records and actual bank
transactions.
Tangible Assets: Physical objects like cars, TAX RECORDS
machinery, and furniture. Tax-related documents such as tax returns,
Intangible Assets: Patents tax identification numbers, tax notices, and
supporting documents for deductions and credits
are important for complying with tax
regulations, preparing tax filings, and
Lesson 2: Navigating ICT Technologies maintaining tax records.
CONTRACTS AND AGREEMENTS
Introduction Contracts, agreements, and legal documents
Though traditional methods like paper related to business transactions, leases, loans and
receipts, invoices, journals, and ledgers remain in partnerships contain important financial
use, bookkeepers today heavily rely on technology. information such as payment terms, obligations,
It's no surprise, as technology plays a vital role in and liabilities. They serve as references for
most modern tasks. Not only does it speed up recording financial transactions accurately.
bookkeeping processes, but it also helps reduce INTERNAL REPORTS AND MEMOS
paper waste. Internal reports, memos, and
As a bookkeeper, mastering Information and communications within the organization provide
Communication Technology (ICT) allows you to insights into budget allocations, financial
efficiently manage data, utilize accounting software performance, forecasts, and strategic plans. They
with ease, and ensure the security of financial help in monitoring financial activities and making
information. With strong ICT skills, you can informed decisions.
automate repetitive tasks, collaborate with EXTERNAL REPORTS AND STATEMENTS
colleagues remotely, and integrate different External reports and statements issued by
systems, ultimately boosting both your productivity regulatory authorities, government agencies,
and accuracy. This lesson equips you with the lenders, investors, and auditors contain information
essential knowledge in becoming a bookkeeper/ relevant to the financial position and performance
accounting clerk. of the business. Examples include annual reports,
financial statements, and audit reports.
TOPIC 1: TYPES OF INFORMATION CORRESPONDENCE AND EMAILS
SOURCES Correspondence with clients, vendors,
creditors, and other stakeholders often contains
Information is vital in bookkeeping for information related to billing, payments, invoicing,
making decisions and following rules. It helps and financial transactions. Keeping track of such
businesses understand how they're doing correspondence helps in maintaining accurate
financially, make smart choices, and plan. It also records and resolving discrepancies.
shows where money is coming from and going to, ACCOUNTING SOFTWARE
which helps with budgeting. Plus, having all the Accounting software systems as electronic
necessary information keeps a business in line with sources of information, recording and organizing
tax laws and financial rules, reducing the chance of financial data such as journal entries, ledgers, trial
getting in trouble. To gather all this important data, balances, and financial statements. They automate
bookkeepers rely on these types of information bookkeeping processes and ensure consistency and
sources. accuracy in record-keeping.
FINANCIAL DOCUMENTS
These are primary sources of financial
information and include invoices, receipts,
TOPIC 2: INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN
BOOKKEEPING AND ITS
TECHNOLOGICAL TOOLS

Technology played a big role in

revolutionizing traditional bookkeeping practices.
In today’s innovative solutions, the needs of
businesses are met due to technology. The term
"information technology" refers to the use of
electronic systems, software, and communication
technologies to manage, store, process, and transmit
financial data. Some of these innovations are the
following technologies used in various industries.

Office Technology - it focuses on tasks like typing

documents, handling data, creating graphics,
making publications, and communicating.
Industrial Technology - It applies engineering and
manufacturing principles to make the
manufacturing process simpler and faster.
Professionals in this field aim to find creative and
efficient ways to streamline manufacturing process.
System Technology - it is a group of connected
parts designated to do a specific task without
needing more human input. These systems can
change, store, move, or manage materials, energy,
or information for a particular reason.
Industrial Technology - it involves working with
computer systems, including designing, building,
and managing software and hardware. IT workers
ensure that computers function effectively for users.
System Technology - It uses computer tools to
make training more engaging, often by getting
trainees involved instead of just watching. It
encourages self-directed learning through various
media and assessment options.

Software

It encompasses the use of accounting

software, electronic spreadsheets, databases, online
banking systems, and other digital tools to
streamline bookkeeping processes, enhance data
security, and facilitate collaboration and
communication among stakeholders. Here are some
software popularly used in the industry of
bookkeeping:
 Standardize (Seiketsu): Set your own standards
for a consistent clean and organized workplace.
Sustain (Shitsuke): Be consistent in following the
5S.

Total Quality Management (TQM)

TQM is a management system that
emphasizes customer focus and engages all
employees in ongoing improvement efforts. It
integrates quality principles into the organization's
culture and operations through strategy, data, and
communication. These principles laid the
groundwork for modern quality management
systems. Here are the 8 TQM principles:

Principles of Total Quality Management

Customer-Focused: The customer decides if the

improvements were effective.
Total Employee Involvement: it means that all
employees work together towards shared goals.
Achieving full employee commitment requires
eliminating fear from the workplace, empowering
employees, and creating a supportive environment.
Process-Centered: Employees collaborate towards
common goals in a fear-free environment
empowered by management, integrating continuous
improvement.
TOPIC 3: PROPER MAINTENANCE AND Integrated System: it focuses on connecting
ADMINISTRATION OF ASSETS horizontal processes across different functional
specialties within an organization, aiming to
As an employee of the company and its improve overall performance and exceed
bookkeeper/ accounting clerk, it is part of your job stakeholder expectations.
to maintain proper usage of the administrative Strategic and Systematic Approach: a key aspect
technological assets. Not only are they expensive to of quality management involves strategically
replace but these devices will also help you to planning and systematically integrating quality into
easily and quickly record all financial transactions. an organization’s vision, mission, and goals through
Here are the different ways you can maintain processes like strategic planning.
technological assets. Continual Improvement: a large aspects of TQM
is the continuous process enhancement, compelling
5S organizations to be analytical and innovative in
The 5S methodology, pioneered by enhancing competitiveness and meeting stakeholder
HIROYUKI HIRANO for Japanese expectations.
manufacturing, is highly adaptable to various work Fact-Based Decision Making: TQM advocates
settings, including corporate and government ongoing data collection and analysis within
offices. It embodies a systematic approach and organizations to enhance decision making accuracy,
cultural customs rooted in Japanese principles of foster consensus, and enable predictive insights
continuous improvement. based on historical performance measures.
Communications: effective communication is
Sort (Seiri): Only keep necessary items within the crucial for maintaining morale and motivating
workplace. employees at all levels during both organizational
Systematize (Seiton/Set in Order): Ensure that change and day-to-day operations, requiring
your items are efficiently organized. attention to strategic methods and timeline.
Shine (Seiso/Shine and Clean): Don not leave the
workplace dirty, clean the work area until it’s neat.
Tips in Computer Maintenance 5. Local and remote storage
Local storage refers to storing data on a
Maintaining technology is essential for device directly connected to the user's computer,
bookkeepers to perform their duties efficiently, like a hard disk drive, while remote storage
accurately, and adaptively in today's digital age. It involves storing data on a separate location
enables you to streamline processes, reduce errors, accessible via a network, such as cloud storage or a
and stay up-to-date with advancements in the field, remote server.
ultimately contributing to the overall success of the 6. Optical drives
organization they serve. Here are some tips on how Optical drives are hardware components
you can properly maintain computers: found in computers and other devices, capable of
reading and writing data from optical discs like
1. Creating and managing more space in the hard CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs, providing a means
disk and other peripherals of physical storage and distribution for digital
2. Reviewing programs content.
3. Deleting unwanted files
4. Backing up files
5. Checking hard drive for errors
6. Using up to date anti-virus programs
7. Cleaning dust from internal and external surfaces

Storing Files

Bookkeepers must understand proper file

storage methods to maintain organization, comply
with legal requirements, and safeguard sensitive
financial information. Implementing secure storage
practices and backup procedures ensures data
integrity and minimizes the risk of unauthorized
access or data loss. Additionally, well-organized
files facilitate efficient retrieval of information,
supporting accurate financial reporting and audit
readiness. Here are some examples where you can
store your files:

1. Diskettes
This is a type of magnetic storage media
consisting of a thin, flexible disk enclosed in a
protective casing, used for storing and transferring
digital data in earlier computer systems.
2. CDs
CDs, or compact discs, are optical storage
media commonly used for storing and distributing
digital audio, video, and data files.
3. Zip discs
Zip disks are a type of removable magnetic
storage media, similar to floppy disks but with
larger storage capacity, often used for backup,
archiving, and transferring files between computers
in the late 20th century.
4. Hard disk
Hard disk drives are non-volatile storage
devices used in computers and other electronic
devices to store and retrieve digital data using
rotating magnetic disks and read/write heads.