FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND SURVEY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

GROUP 2 REPORT
CONTROL SYSTEMS ANALYSIS II

By:
EWULE JONATHAN
21/1/329/D/123

LECTURER:

MR. SERUNJOGI SOLOMON

DATE:

Sunday, 30th March 2025

1. Introduction to Lyapunov Functions

i) Define a Lyapunov function and explain its significance in control system

stability analysis?

Lyapunov Function refers to a scalar function that quantifies the "energy" or "potential" of
the system.

Let V(X,t) be a function which is continuously differentiable i.e. all its partial derivatives
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
, exist & vary continuously with X,t. Then we define a Lyapunov function V to satisfy
𝜕𝑋𝑖 𝜕𝑡

the 2 conditions:

a) V is bounded when X is bounded.

• 𝜕𝑉 • 𝜕𝑉
b) 𝑉 [𝑋, 𝑡] = [∑𝑖 𝜕𝑦 [𝑦, 𝑡]𝑋𝑖 + 𝜕𝑡
[𝑦, 𝑡]] ≤ 0
𝑖

In other words V must have –ve derivative

In control systems stability analysis, a Lyapunov function is used to determine the stability
of dynamical systems, both linear and nonlinear. It examines the behavior of a system near
its equilibrium points. These equilibrium points are the points where the system is at rest
and they are identified by setting the derivative of each state variable to zero.

ii) Compare and contrast Lyapunov stability, and asymptotic stability?

•
Consider a system, 𝑋(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑋(𝑡) .

Under Lyapunov, the system is said to be stable at the origin if for every initial state, X(t0)
which is near to origin, X(t) remains near the origin for all ‘t’ ie if we move from the origin
and travel close enough to the origin, then the system is said to be stable.

If the Lyapunov function decreases continuously along all trajectories away from the
equilibrium point, the equilibrium is Lyapunov stable.
Under Asymptotic stability, the system is said to be stable if X(t) approaches the origin as
‘t’ tends to infinity. This implies that for every initial state the system approaches to origin
as time approaches to infinity.

If the Lyapunov function decreases and eventually approaches zero as time goes to infinity
for all trajectories starting near the equilibrium point, the equilibrium is globally
asymptotically stable.

If the Lyapunov function remains constant along all trajectories, the equilibrium is
asymptotically stable.

2. Lyapunov Stability Criterion

i) State and explain the Lyapunov stability theorem.

Let x=0 be an equilibrium point of an autonomous system ẋ = 𝑓(𝑥) where f(x) is a
continuously differentiable function. If there exists a scalar function V(x), called the
Lyapunov function, that satisfies the following conditions:

a) V(x)>0 for all x≠0 and V(0)=0 (positive definite).

• 𝜕𝑉
b) 𝑉 (𝑋, 𝑡) ≤ 0 for all x (non-increasing behavior) or 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 0
𝜕𝑥

•
Then, the equilibrium point x=0 is Lyapunov stable. If 𝑉 (𝑋, 𝑡) ≤ 0 for all x≠0 (Negative
Semidefinite)

•
And the equilibrium point is asymptotically stable. If 𝑉 (𝑋, 𝑡) < 0 for all x≠0 (Negative
definite).

iii) Given a candidate Lyapunov function, describe the conditions it must satisfy to
guarantee stability of the system.

a) It must be positive definite (greater than zero for all non-zero states) and
continuous {V(x)>0 for all x≠0 and V(0)=0}

c) Its time derivative along the system trajectories must be negative definite (less than
or equal to zero for all non-zero states) within a region around the equilibrium
•
𝜕𝑉
point {𝑉 (𝑋, 𝑡) ≤ 0 or 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 0 for all x≠0}
𝜕𝑥

3. Constructing a Lyapunov Function for Non-Linear Systems

The Power Amplifier nonlinearity for wireless communication is described as;

i) Propose a candidate Lyapunov function?

The proposed Lyapunov function is V(x₁, x₂) = x₁² + x₂², where by;
V(x₁, x₂) > 0 for all (x₁, x₂) ≠ (0,0) and V(0,0) = 0 Thus positive definite.
V → ∞ as |x₁|, |x₂| → ∞ thus radially unbounded:

ii) Use Lyapunov’s direct method to analyse the stability of the system?

Soln:

ẋ₁ = -x₁ + x₂²
ẋ₂ = -x₂ - x₁x₂
proposed Lyapunov function, V(x₁, x₂) = x₁² + x₂², where V(x₁, x₂) > 0 for all (x₁, x₂) ≠
(0,0) and V(0,0) = 0 Thus positive definite.

• ∂V ∂V ∂x₁ ∂V ∂x₂
V(X, t) = f(x)= ∂x₁ + ∂x₂
∂x ∂t ∂t

∂V ∂V
But, = x₁ , = x₂
∂x₁ ∂x₂
•
V(X, t) = x₁(−x₁ + x₂²) + x₂(−x₂ − x₁x₂)
•
V(X, t) = −x₁² + x₁x₂² − x₂² − x₁x₂²
•
V(X, t) = -x₁² - x₂²
•
Since V(X, t) is negative definite, the equilibrium point (0,0) is globally asymptotically
stable by Lyapunov’s direct method.

4. Lyapunov Function for a Linear System

Consider the linear system ẋ₁= Aẋ₁,
i) Find a positive definite matrix P such that 𝑽(𝒙) = 𝒙𝑻𝑷(𝒙) is a Lyapunov
function.
 ii) ii) Determine whether the system is asymptotically stable. Justify your answer.

5. Practical Applications of Lyapunov Functions

i) Discuss the role of Lyapunov functions in adaptive control and robust control. Provide at
least two real-world applications?

Lyapunov functions play a critical role in adaptive control and robust control by ensuring
system stability in the presence of uncertainties, disturbances, and parameter variations.
They provide a mathematical framework to verify that a system remains stable under
changing conditions.

Adaptive Control
In adaptive control, system parameters are not known a priori and may change over time.
A Lyapunov function is used to design and analyze adaptive laws that update controller
parameters to ensure stability. It helps prove that the tracking error converges to zero or
remains bounded.

Robust Control
In robust control, the system must remain stable despite model uncertainties and external
disturbances. Lyapunov functions help establish conditions under which the system can
tolerate these uncertainties and still maintain stability.

Real-World Applications
a) Autonomous Vehicles
Adaptive control using Lyapunov functions is applied in self-driving cars to handle varying
road conditions and dynamic environments. The control system adjusts parameters in
real-time to maintain stability and trajectory tracking.

b) Robotic Manipulators
Robust control with Lyapunov functions is used in robotic arms that interact with
uncertain environments, such as manufacturing robots assembling delicate components
despite varying material properties.

ii) Explain how Lyapunov functions are used in designing controllers for uncertain
systems?

For uncertain systems, Lyapunov functions are used to design controllers that guarantee
stability despite unknown parameters or external disturbances. The general approach
involves:
a) Defining a Candidate Lyapunov Function
A common choice is a quadratic function, 𝑽(𝒙) = 𝒙𝑻 𝑷(𝒙), where P is a positive definite
matrix.
b) Ensuring Negative Definiteness of the Time Derivative
The derivative ẋ V(x) must be negative semi-definite to ensure stability. This implies that
system trajectories decrease over time, leading to convergence to equilibrium.
c) Using Lyapunov’s Direct Method for Stability Proofs
• •
If If 𝑉 (𝑋, 𝑡) ≤ 0, the system is stable. If If 𝑉 (𝑋, 𝑡) < 0, the system is asymptotically stable.

Examples of Systems in Control Design

a) Power Systems
Lyapunov-based controllers stabilize uncertain power grids by ensuring frequency and
voltage stability despite load variations and renewable energy fluctuations.

b) Aerospace Applications
Lyapunov functions are used in flight control systems to compensate for wind
disturbances and sensor noise, ensuring safe aircraft operation.