Fundamentals of Aquaculture and Fisheries

(AG2205PS)
Year: II
Semester: II
Unit 1
Introduction to Fisheries
[Link] of Fish, fisheries and aquaculture
Fish
➢ Fish are aquatic, poikilothermic (cold-blooded) vertebrates, that breathe by means of
gills and propel and balance themselves by means of fins. However, the word fish is
sometimes used more broadly to include any edible animal living in water.
Fisheries
➢ Fisheries is the industry or occupation devoted to the catching, processing, and selling
of aquatic organisms from natural water resources.
➢ According to FAO, aquatic organisms, which are exploitable by the public as a
common property resource with or without license are known as fisheries.
In general, fisheries activities can be divided into capture fisheries, enhanced fisheries, and
culture fisheries (Aquaculture).
Capture fisheries refers to all kinds of harvesting of naturally occurring living organisms in
both marine and freshwater environments.
➢ No stocking and no management practices
➢ Only harvesting
Enhanced fisheries refers to wild-caught aquatic organisms that involve some degree of
aquaculture.
➢ Stocking and habitat improvement
➢ No management practices such as feeding, liming, etc.
➢ Harvesting
Culture fisheries or aquaculture
➢ The term aquaculture is derived from two Greek words; ‘aqua’ means water and
‘culture’ means farming. Thus aquaculture may be defined as simply farming in water.
Aquaculture includes farming both plants and animals in both freshwater and coastal
waters.
Principles, Scope and Importance of Aquaculture
Principles
➢ Aquaculture principles is described as the steps or process to produce water – based
aquatic foods similar to land – based food through agriculture and livestock in an
 economical and eco-friendly way in favor of social welfare. For Good management and
maximization of benefits, the major principles of aquaculture are:
➢ Species selection and stocking of quality fish seed
➢ Water quality management for suitable aquatic environment
➢ Pond liming and fertilization
➢ Nutrition and feeding management
➢ Mono / polyculture and or integration of aquaculture with other farming
➢ Seed production, genetic management and stock improvement
➢ Use of records to analyze the economics of all process
➢ Harvesting, value addition and marketing.
Scope of aquaculture
➢ Nepal is rich in water resources about 383000hec (2.7%) area of Nepal is covered with
water. Therefore this large area of water bodies can be used for raising different types
of fishes.
➢ Irrigation and electricity project/project make the dam in the river which automatically
makes a reserve which can easily and cheaply use for fish production.
➢ Nepal has diversified agro-climatic condition that a number of cold water and warm
water fishes can be raised for fish production that has good demand.
➢ The internal production of fish and fish meat is very low. Too meet the increasing
demand of fish, Nepal has to import several 100 ton of fish every year from neighbor
countries.
➢ Government priorities on promotion of aquaculture and fisheries
➢ Fish feed is cheap and labor cost for production is low
Importance of aquaculture/ fish culture in Nepal
➢ Fish culture has been found productive venture compared to tradition agriculture and
veterinary. It has been estimated that a ton of fish can be raised in the same area that is
takes to raise of few of cattle’s.
➢ It helps to boost up economics condition of country by bringing foreign currency to
export.
➢ It recycles agriculture and domestic wastage in order to protect environment.
➢ It helps to IRD (Integrated Rural Development) by generating employment
opportunity.
➢ Integrated fish farming (IFF) is profitable than agriculture and livestock alone.
➢ Easier to culture fish since there is plenty of water sources in Nepal.
Economic importance of fish farming
1. Food Value:
➢ Fish serves as an important food for human. Fish is palatable and nutritious, low
calorie and high protein animal source diet. It provides fat, protein, major vitamin
A, D and minerals (iodine, phosphorus, iron, copper, calcium etc.) in higher
amounts.
2. Fish meal
➢ Unwanted and discarded fish are dried and grinded and used to feed the animals
like poultry, pig etc. it contain 60% protein and 5-6 % fat in dried weight basis.
3. Fish flour
➢ High qualities fish flour is used by human in their diet mixing with the different
food items like biscuits, bread, cake etc.
4. Fish oil
➢ It is divided into 2 types:
➢ Body oil- Oil extracted from body of fish. It is used for making soup, candle,
cosmetic, paints etc.
➢ Liver oil- Prepared from liver of fish. It contains vitamin A and D, 55-75 % fat, 5-
10% protein.
5. Fish manure
➢ Unwanted and discarded fish and its organs are dried and grinded and that is used
as manure.
➢ Mainly head, fins, scales are use as manure. It contains high nitrogen (60%),
phosphorus (4%), and calcium (20-40%).
6. Fish Insulin
➢ Insulin is extracted from the pancreas of large sized fishes such as sharks.
➢ Prior to the introduction of biosynthetic insulin, insulin derived from sharks and
other fishes was extensively used for glycemic control in human.
7. Fish leather
➢ It is used to make suitcase, bags, wallets; belts etc. especially leather of
shark/whale/dolphin are used to make such things.
8. Biological control
➢ Some fish species like Chelia sp., Puntius sp., Rosbora sp., Tilapia are
insectivorous fishes.
➢ They feed larvae of insect so they help to control malaria, population of mosquito.
Grass carp is herbaceous in nature that feeds on aquatic weeds. So, such types of
fishes are used to control aquatic weeds.
9. Aesthetic purpose
➢ Different varieties of color fishes that are kept in aquarium, oceanarium, pond etc.
that gives aesthetic value.
10. Recreational value
➢ Used for recreational purpose like fishing, enjoying by viewing the activities of
fishes.
1.2 General characteristics of fishes
➢ Fishes are Aquatic, poikilothermic vertebrates.
➢ The body of fish is generally fusiform and streamlined (but in puffers, the body is
globe-shaped shape and in eels is of serpentine form.)
➢ The body is bilaterally symmetrical with a prominent lateral line system.
➢ The body of the fish is covered by tough skins armored by variety of scales.
➢ The appendages of the fish comprised of the fins, which are generally paired (pectoral
and pelvic) and unpaired (dorsal, anal and caudal fins). All fins are supported by dermal
fin rays. These fins constitute the main locomotory organs.
➢ The mouth is generally situated anteriorly in the head and the anus is in the 2nd half of
the overall length of the individual behind the bases of the pelvic fin and just in front
of the anal fin.
➢ Respiratory organs are generally in the form of gills and other accessory respiratory
organs.
➢ Nostrils are paired and do not open into the pharynx, except in lungfishes and lobed
fishes.
➢ A skeleton is in the form of the notochord, connective tissues, bones, cartilages, and
non-bony scales.
➢ The digestive tract is well developed, with mouth, oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus,
stomach, intestine, and anus.
➢ The heart is generally two-chambered, pump with one auricle and one ventricle. The
circulation is a single circuit, i.e. heart-gills-body-heart.
➢ The kidneys are paired, longitudinal structures above the body cavity close to the
vertebral column.
➢ The brain is well developed with ten pairs of cranial nerves.
➢ The external ear is completely absent but the internal ear is a well-developed semi-
circular canal.
➢ Sexes are separate. Some are viviparous and more are oviparous.
➢ Fertilization is generally external.
➢ Eggs are large with much yolk.
➢ Development is direct, without any metamorphosis.
1.3 General morphology of Fish: external features, scale and fin of fishes
➢ The body of fish can be divided into three parts: head, trunk and tail. There is no neck
in fish as in the land animals.
➢ The gills opening is the boundary between the head and the trunk. Similarly, the vent
opening is the dividing line between the trunk and the tail.

Shape and size

➢ There is great diversity and ecological modification in the shape and size of fishes.
➢ Despite many variations in shape, the ground plan of the body is bilaterally symmetrical
with a prominent lateral line system.
Shape Characteristics

Fusiform Streamlined and tapered at each

end

Compressiform Compressed laterally

Depressiform Flattened shape

Serpentine Eel like shape

Filliform Rod shaped

Taeniform Ribbon like shape

Sagittiform Arrow like shape

Globiform Globe like shape

External organs
A. Mouth
➢ The mouth of fish is generally situated anteriorly in the head, however it location
varies depending on species and feeding habit.
➢ The location, type and size of the mouth is a good indicator of feeding habit and
habitat of that fish.
I. Upturned or superior mouth: Lower jaw is longer than upper jaw. The
fish is generally a surface feeder.
II. Terminal or sub-terminal mouth: Upper and lower jaws are almost equal.
The fish is generally column feeder
III. Underslung or inferior mouth: Upper jaw is longer than lower jaw. The
fish is generally bottom feeder
B. Snout:
➢ It is that portion of the head situated in front of the eyes. The snout has a pair of
nostrils on each side.
C. Nostrils:
➢ Generally, there are two nostrils on either side of the head. They serve as olfactory
organs that feel taste and smell.
➢ Water flowing through the nostrils circulates to the smelling organ (olfactory bulb)
and nerves transmit signals to the brain.
D. Eyes:
➢ Fish has a pair of eyes situated on the lateral sides of the head and each having its
own vision zone.
➢ Eyes position and size vary depending on the habitat and behavior of species. Fish
do not have eye-lid (except in some sharks).
E. Barbells:
➢ Barbells are elongated tactile organs located close to mouth.
➢ The barbells are used to screen the environment and increase awareness.
➢ The number and size of barbells varies greatly with species so are helpful in
identifying fishes. Based on origin barbells are named as:
I. Maxillary barbells: arises from upper jaw
II. Mandibular barbells: arises from the lower jaw
III. Rostral barbells: arises from the region of snout
IV. Nasal barbells: arise from the region of nostrils
F. Operculum:
➢ The operculum is the bony flap covering and protecting the gills. It opens and closes
to allow water to pass over the gills.
G. Lateral line:
➢ The lateral line is a sense organ that consists of a series of perforated scales that
most fish have along their sides, extending from their head to tail.
➢ The lateral line help fish to detect movement and vibration in surrounding water. It
also helps to feel pressure and temperature changes in water around it.
H. Fins:
➢ The fins are the major locomotory organs in fishes.
➢ There are two types of fins
i) paired and
ii) unpaired fins.
➢ The paired fins include pectoral and pelvic fin and unpaired fins include dorsal fin
on the back, an anal fin on the ventral side and a caudal fin at the end of the tail.
I. Vent
➢ The vent is the cumulative term for the external opening of digestive, urinary and
reproductive tract.
➢ It is generally situated on the posterior ventral side, just in front of the anal fin.
There is a separate opening for digestive tract called anus.
➢ However, the opening for urinary and reproductive tract are generally combined in
male and separate in female.
➢ The function of vent are to remove waste and extra water and to expel eggs or milt
during spawning.
J. Scales:
➢ The body of fish is covered by an exoskeleton in the form of scales. In a few
teleosts, scales are entirely absent (e.g, silurids), or they exist only as microscopic
vestiges hidden in skin. (e.g. Eels) and in some fishes, they become reduced to
papillae of the dermis.
➢ The body of some fishes is also covered by scutes, a bony plate (e.g sturgeons).
The number of sclaes covering the body remains constant throughout life, and in
general scale growth is proportional to the fish growth.
➢ According to mode of origin, there are two types of scales, placoid and non-placoid.
The placoid scales is formed due to the secretory activities of both epidermis and
dermis, while non-placoid scale is derived from the dermis only.
Function of scales:
➢ The scales of fish are in the form of exoskeleton, which provides protection to
the body
 ➢ It protects the body from external injury, parasites, fungus, bacteria and other
microscopic organism.
➢ In some species, scales are elongated to form spines for protection
➢ In most, the scales along the lateral line become perforate to communicate
sensory canal with the exterior.
➢ Scales are considerable help in calculating age and growth rate of fishes

1.4 Taxonomy of the fishes of Nepal

Kingdom- Animalia
Phyllum- Chordata- Presence of notochord
Sub-phyllum- Craniata- Presence of brain box
Division- Gnathostomata- True jaw present
Superclass- Pisces- Aquatic habitat
Streamlined body
Respiration by means of gills
Locomotion by means of fins
Body covered by scales
Biology of cultivated fish species
❖ Outline:
• Morphological characters
• Feeding habits
• Growth rate and
• Reproductive behaviour
(of Common carp, Chinese carps, Indigenous major carps, Tilapia, Trout, Catfishes, Sahar, Silver
barb and Freshwater prawn)
Fish Species
➢ Total fish species reported: 252
➢ Indigenous: 236
➢ Exotic: 16
Species under culture
➢ Carps: 7
➢ Tilapia: 1
➢ Catfish*(Pangas): 1
➢ Trout: 1
*African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) is restricted for farming.
1. Rohu: Labeo rohita
➢ Rohu is considered as tastier fish species among the cultivated carps in Nepal.
➢ It is characterized by an elongated and cylindrical body; the body color is dull reddish on
the sides and whitish on belly.
➢ Sub-terminal mouth parts and 1 pairs of maxillary barbells.
➢ The lips are thick and fringed.
➢ Column feeder, herbivorous in feeding nature. The fish feed on small plants and
decomposed materials of the pond.
➢ It attains size of 900 gm at first year and up to 30 kg largest size.
➢ Sexual maturity is attained towards the end of the second year.
➢ Rohu is seasonal breeder and artificial breeding is done by hypophysation.
➢ The breeding season is June to August when the temperature is 25-30˚C.

Fig: Rohu
2. Catla/Bhakur: Labeo catla
➢ Old Scientific name: Catla catla
➢ Catla is a fast-growing fish among the indigenous cultivated carps.
➢ The body is deep, laterally compressed with massive head and large upturned mouth.
➢ The barbells are absent and lips are non-fringed.
➢ Body color is grayish to silvery on upper sides and whitish on belly.
➢ Surface, zooplankton feeder but young ones feed both zooplankton and phytoplankton.
➢ It attains 1-1.5 kg at first year over 1.5 m length and size up to 45 kg.
➢ Time to maturity and breeding behavior is similar to rohu.
3. Mrigal/Naini: Cirrhinus cirrhosis
➢ Old scientific name: Cirrhinus mrigala
➢ This fish is characterized by an elongated and cylindrical body, small head.
➢ One pair of small barbells are present.
➢ The lips are thin and non-fringed, upper jaw is longer than lower jaw.
➢ The body color is grayish on the dorsal side and whitish on the belly.
➢ Mrigal is a bottom feeder, omnivorous in nature, and feeds on detritus mud organisms,
and decaying plant and animal matter however young ones feed on zooplankton.
➢ Mrigal grows slower than Catla and Rohu.
➢ The largest size attains up to 90 cm and 30 kg.
➢ Time to maturity and breeding behavior is similar to rohu and catla

Fig: Mrigal
4. Common carp: - Cyprinus carpio
➢ Most important cultivated fish in the world
➢ Was introduce to Nepal in 1956 & 1960 from India & Israel respectively
The general characteristics of the Common carp are as follows;
➢ Under this species two varieties are available i.e. German carp (Cyprinus carpio var
communis) and Israeli carp (Cyprinus carpio var specularis)
➢ Flat and deep body, small and short head
➢ Protractile mouth with two pairs of maxillary barbells.
➢ Dorsal fins are long with a sharp spine
➢ It is a bottom feeder, omnivorous and feeds on insect larvae, worms, molluscs, and
detritus, fresh and decayed vegetation and accepts formulated feed also.
➢ It attains 1-2 kg sizes in first year. It is found up to 18 kg in natural water bodies.
➢ It attains sexual maturity after 1-2 year.
➢ Common carp is a multiple breeder & can breed up to 5 times a year
 ➢ It can breed naturally on stagnant water but semi natural breeding/ induced breeding
with hypophysation is carried from Falgun to Baisakh.
➢ Peak breeding season in Nepal is March/April in Terai and April/May in Hills

Fig: Common Carp

5. Grass carp: - Ctenopharyngodon Idella

➢ Grass carp are exotic fish which was introduced in Nepal from India & Japan in 1967
& 1968 respectively.
➢ The body is elongated with moderately large scales, while the head has no scales.
➢ There are three simple and seven-branched rays on the dorsal fin.
➢ Grass carp are silvery to olive in color, lacking the golden hue of common carp.
➢ Absence of barbells.
➢ This is warm water fish thus requiring water temperature of about 22 to 27 degrees
celcius for successful culture.
➢ Elongated and cylindrical with a large greenish scale.
➢ It has tooth less mouth but has specialized pharyngeal teeth for grasping aquatic
vegetation
➢ Mouth is sub-terminal with the upper jaw slightly longer than lower jaw.
➢ Gill rackers are short & sparse.
➢ Grass carp is a column/marginal feeder, feed aquatic vegetation, column, and marginal
feeder, herbivorous in feeding habit.
➢ Fry of grass carp feed on protozoa, rotifers, Nauplius larvae & minute aquatic plants.
➢ Grass Carp is a voracious feeder & can consume 50 to 60% weight of grass per day of
its body weight.
➢ Digestion of grass carp is incomplete & about half of the food material ingested is
excreted as feces.
 ➢ It is said to be a biological weed controller fish.
➢ It grows 1-2 kg in the first year and up to 50 kg at maturity.
➢ After 2-3 years it takes sexual maturity for breeding. Artificial breeding is carried out
in the month of Jestha – Ashad.

Fig: Grass carp

6. Silver carp: - Hypophthalmichthys molitrix
➢ It is an exotic fish introduce in Nepal from India & Japan in 1967 & 1968 respectively.
➢ Warm water fish which grow best on 22 to 28 ⁰C temperature.
➢ Surface feeder.
➢ It is phytoplankton feeder but young fry feed on zooplanktons.
➢ Laterally compressed body covered by small silvery scale.
➢ Small head, barbells absents and abdominal keel is complete.
➢ Mouth upturned with lower jaw longer then upper jaw.
➢ It attains 1-2 kg at first year& largest size found up to 40-50 kg.
➢ It takes sexual maturity in 2-3 year of rearing & artificial breeding is done in controlled
environment.
➢ Highly sensitive fish during handling period i.e. Stress intolerance.
➢ Improper handling lead to high mortality rate in this fish.
 Fig: Silver Carp

7. Bighead carp: Aristichthys nobilis

➢ Old scientific name: Aristichthys nobilis
➢ Exotic fish were introduced to Nepal from America and Hungary in 1969 and 1972,
respectively.
➢ Flat body, laterally compressed and covered by small silvery scales brownish above.
➢ Head long and massive, barbells absent.
➢ Largemouth, upturn with lower jaw longer than the upper jaw, and the abdominal keel
is incomplete.
➢ The posterior margin of the pectoral fin extends beyond the base of the pelvic fin.
➢ Surface feeder, feed Zooplankton but larvae mainly feed on unicellular phytoplankton,
rotifers and nauplii.
➢ It grows 1-2 kg first year up to 40 -50 kg, maturity 2-3 years.
➢ Artificial breeding is done by hypophysation. The breeding season is May to July when
the temperature is 24-28 ⁰C.
➢ It is a docile and hardy fish for transportation and handling.
 Fig: Bighead Carp

8. Nile tilapia: Orechromis niloticus

➢ Native to most major northern and central African river systems and has been
distributed widely throughout the world.
➢ Introduced from Thailand in 1985.
➢ This fish is characterized by the presence of a long spiny dorsal fin, interrupted lateral
line, and the presence of distinct black stripes on the body and tail.
➢ The body color of the adult male is reddish underside and red coloration at the tip of
the caudal fin while the adult female is yellowish underside and brownish with stripes
on the dorsal surface.
➢ It is omnivorous and prefers vegetable food primarily phytoplankton but can also
accept crustaceans, insects, chironomids, detritus, and artificial feed.
 ➢ Nile tilapia is a prolific mouth breeder. Maturity occurs in two months in old
individuals. It breeds nearly eight times in a year.

Fig: Nile Tilpia

9. Rainbow trout: Oncorhynchus mykiss

➢ Member of salmon family & native to the USA.
➢ It is a high valued cold-water fish that was introduced in Japan in 1988.
➢ The body is elongated and laterally compressed with a rounded snout.
➢ Coloration varies widely based on subspecies, forms, and habitat. Adult fish are
distinguished by a broad reddish stripe along the lateral line, from gills to the tail, which
is most vivid in breeding males.
➢ The sides are silvery and marked with a bright pink blush to red band and many small
black spots.
➢ An adipose fin is present in addition to rayed dorsal
➢ Highly carnivorous and a predator with a varied diet. It feeds on animal matter like
insects, mollusks, fish eggs and small fishes etc.
➢ It needs a high protein content feed for culture.
➢ It attains 200-300g in the first year.
 ➢ It is a seasonal breeder matured in 3-4 years and reproduction is artificial with striping.
➢ The breeding season is from November to January when the temperature is 9 – 12 ⁰C.

Fig: Rainbow Trout

10. Mangur- Clarias gariepinus

➢ Native to the rivers of Africa. The African catfish is a large size attaining fish, usually
of dark gray or black coloration on the back, fading to a white belly.
➢ No scales
➢ The dorsal and anal fins are very long without spines but pectoral fins have spines.
Caudal fin is rounded.
➢ It posses an air breathing labyrinthine organ (called rosette or air tree) arises from gill
arches.
➢ Head is broad with four pairs of barbels
➢ Carnivorous. Growth 1.5-2kg/year
➢ It grows better in the temperature 25-30 ⁰C.
➢ Seasonal breeder, matured in 1-2 years. Breeding season May-July. Hypophysation.
➢ Cultured in high stocking density

Fig: Mangur

11. Striped Catfish: Pangasianodon hypophthalmus

➢ Pangas catfish
➢ Native to the rivers of South/SE- Asia. The body of this fish is long and laterally
compressed with no scales.
➢ Head is relatively small with two pairs of barbels
 ➢ Omnivorous, feeding on fish and crustaceans as well as on vegetable debris.
➢ Juveniles have a black stripe along lateral line and a secon long black stripe below
lateral line, large adults are uniformly grey.
➢ It grows better in the temperature 25-30 ⁰C.
➢ Seasonal breeder, matured in 2-3 years. Breeding season April-July. Hypophysation.
➢ Cultured in high stocking density

Fig: Striped Catfish

12. Silver barb: Barbonymus/ Puntius gonionotus

➢ Distribution: Asia: Mekong and Chao Phraya basins, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and
Java.
➢ Introduced to Nepal in 1991 from Bangladesh.
➢ Body is flat, laterally compressed and covered by large silvery scales, sometimes with
golden tint. The back is elevated, its dorsal profile arched, often concave above the
occiput.
➢ The head is small; the snout pointed; the mouth is terminal.
➢ Barbells are very minutes.
➢ Herbivorous feeds on plant materials and detritus.
➢ Adults feed on macrophytes.
➢ Sexual maturity is attained at the end of First year.
➢ Induced breeding by hypophysation. Year round spawner.

Fig: Silver Barb

13. Sahar or Mahseer (Tor putitora)
➢ Sahar is an important edible fish in the rivers and tributaries of Nepal.
➢ It resembles a typical carp in structure and appearance.
➢ The body is semi-round and slightly flattened along the ventral surface from near the
mouth opening to the anus, and there is sudden tapering of the body just after the anal
region.
➢ The eyes of the fish are large, round, and situated more toward the dorsal surface.
➢ The head is provided with two pairs of barbels.
➢ The entire body, except the head and fin, is covered with large-sized scales.
➢ It is one of the largest species of the Cyprinidae family, upto 1.5 m long and sometimes
exceeding 30 kg.
➢ During spawning season males develop strong tubercles and are easily distinguished
from females.
➢ They are long-lived and slow-growing fish.
➢ They feed on insects and fish fry of other species.
➢ It feeds mainly on drifting aquatic and terrestrial insects.
➢ As they grow, they become increasingly piscivores.
➢ It attains sexual maturity in 2-3 years and breeds in February/March or
October/November.

Fig: Sahar

14. Freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii)

➢ Prawns are crustaceans, not a real fish.
➢ They live in freshwater, but their larval stages require brackish water to survive.
➢ Body is usually greenish to brownish grey, sometimes more bluish and darker in larger
specimens.
➢ They have hard exoskeleton over a segmented body,
➢ Five pairs of legs on the main part of the body, plus five pairs of swimmerets on the
abdomen or tail.
➢ They have stalked eyes.
➢ Males are larger than those of the females.
➢ Males can reach a body size of 32 cm; females upto 25 cm
➢ The larvae go through 11 distinct stages before metamorphosis.
➢ Newly metamorphosed prawns are called post larvae (PL) which are about 7.7 mm long
and they move and swim in the same way as adult prawns.
 ➢ They are generally translucent and have a light orange-pink head area.
➢ Omnivorous and bottom feeder.
➢ They may mature and breed year-round except in colder months.
➢ Larvae are reared artificially in the hatchery by collecting the nauplii that hatch out
from eggs released by berried female.
➢ Their larval stage requires brackish water (10-15 ppt) to survive.

Fig: Freshwater Prawn

1.5 Desirable Characters of Fish for Culture

➢ Fish must meet certain requirements for culture. The requirements may differ depending
on the area, culture system and aquacultural experiences of the fish culturists.
➢ There are about 40000 species of fish in the world, but FAO estimated that the number of
documented species being cultured was only about 369. Among them fewer species are
commercially cultivated. As there cannot be a universal fish which will follow or can
satisfy all the desirable qualities, but have maximum criteria being suggested can be taken
for selection of fish species for culture purposes.
In general, the following criteria should be considered before selecting a fish for culture purpose.
1. Growth Rate:
➢ Fishes that grow to a large size in shorter period are suitable for culture. They must
have natural ability to grow fast so that they attain a marketable size in a shorter
time.
2. Efficient conversion of food:
➢ The fish suitable for culture must be an efficient converter of feed. The species of
fish which will give more edible flesh per unit of food consumed is preferred than
which gives less flesh per unit weight.
𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 (𝐾𝑔)
FCR = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝐾𝑔)

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑐𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝐾𝑔)
Feed efficiency = 𝑥 100%
𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 (𝐾𝑔)
3. Short food chain:
➢ It is best for a fish being raised to have a short food chain, in order to reduce the
loss of energy resulting from the passage of one link of production to next for the
production.
➢ In this regard, the best fish are herbivorous, planktivorous, omnivorous,
microphagus and detrivorous. Carnivorous species generally need a high protein
diet and are therefore considered to be more expensive to produce.
4. Ready to accept formulated feed:
➢ To obtain a high production rate, it is necessary that reared fish accept an abundance
of cheap, formulated feed.
➢ Fries that would accept formulated feeds would be easier to rear in hatcheries. The
raising of live food is comparatively more difficult and expensive.
5. Disease and poor water quality resistance:
➢ Disease usually occurs following stressful events such as stocking, hypoxia or sub-
acute conditions of chemicals like ammonia.
➢ The ideal cultured fish must have low susceptibility of disease and tolerant to wide
range of environment parameters like dissolved oxygen, high ammonia,
temperature and pH etc. and accept handling and transport without difficulty.
6. Meat quality & consumer’s acceptance:
➢ It is absolutely essential that reared fish should have high meat quality and suit the
taste of consumers. ( for e.g; Nepalese people prefers carps whereas American’s
prefer catfish than carps)
7. Easy to breed in captivity:
➢ In order to assure an easy and constant supply of fish seed for rearing, it is best if
fish reproduce in captivity.
8. High fecundity:
➢ Fecundity refers to the number of eggs in the ovary of females prior to spawning
period. It is essential that the reared fish should have high fecundity.
➢ Fecundity, frequency of spawning, shorter incubation period are desirable.
9. Economic and Market considerations:
➢ Economic considerations are more important to an aquaculturist than other
biological factors in the selection. The cultured fish should be economically viable
and easy to market.
The attributes of common carp that make it suitable fish for culture due to:
➢ Fish is hardy, can tolerate wide range of temperature, DO, pH, salinity, turbidity
and stress.
➢ Fish is omnivore
➢ Fish can easily fatten on cereals and leguminous feeds.
➢ Fish feeds on a variety of artificial foods.
➢ Fish is easily induced to spawn in captivity
➢ Fish does well as a constituent of polyculture
➢ Fish does well to selective breeding and hybridization.
➢ Fish is relatively more economical and market demand is high.
 Unit 2
Pond, Cage and Pond
Fish Culture
Classification of fish farming systems
1. On the basis of Intensity
i. Extensive fish farming system
ii. Intensive fish farming system
iii. Semi-intensive fish farming system
2. On the basis of Fish Species
i. Mono-culture
ii. Poly-culture
3. On the basis of Enclosure
i. Pond fish culture
ii. Cage fish culture
iii. Pen/Enclosure fish culture
iv. Race-way fish culture
4. On the basis of Integration
i. Rice-fish farming
ii. Horticulture-fish farming
iii. Livestock-fish farming (Pig-fish, duck-fish, Poultry-fish, Dairy-fish)
iv. Cage-pond integration etc.
Extensive:
➢ Extensive fish culture system is the least managed form of fish farming
➢ Involves large ponds measuring 1 to 5 hectares in area
➢ Stocking density limited to only less than 7000 fish/ha.
➢ No supplemental feeding or fertilization is provided. Fish depends only on natural foods.
➢ Yield is poor (1 to 2 ton/ha) and survival is low.
➢ Labor and investment cost are low
Advantages:
➢ Less investment is required.
➢ Less labor is required.
 ➢ Low risk of oxygen depletion.
➢ Low chances of diseases and parasites outbreak.
Disadvantages
➢ Low production.
➢ Less control on size of fish.
➢ Large water surface area required.
Semi-Intensive:
➢ In between the intensive and extensive fish culture systems.
➢ Involves small ponds 0.2 to 0.5 hectare in area
➢ Stocking density (7000 to 10000 fish/ha).
➢ Care is taken to develop natural foods by fertilization but no supplemental feeding is
provided.
➢ Yield is moderate (3 to 6 ton/ha) and survival is high.
Intensive:
➢ Well-managed form of fish farming, which achieve maximum production of fish
➢ High stocking density (100000-150000 fish/ha).
➢ Fed on artificial feed and the pond is improved by use of fertilizers.
➢ Good management to control water quality by use of aerators and nutrition by use of highly
nutritious feed.
➢ Yield ranges from 15 to 100 ton/ha/year or more. Although the cost of investment is also
high, the return from the yield ensure a great profit.
Advantages:
➢ High production per unit area.
➢ Permits great control over size of the fish to be produced.
➢ Less water surface area required.
➢ Less food conversion ratio (FCR).
➢ Control of weeds and diseases is easier.
➢ Easy to harvest.
➢ Partial harvesting of marketable fish can be employed.
Disadvantages:
➢ High investment per unit area.
➢ More labor is required.
➢ More risk of oxygen depletion.
➢ More chances of epizootic diseases and parasites due to overcrowding.
➢ Large nutrient load in effluents.
➢ High energy cost.
➢ Risky business.
➢ Skilled manpower is required.
Monoculture
➢ A fish production system in which only one fish species is reared in a water body.
➢ The typical fish reared in this way are trout, tilapia, catfishes, carps etc.
Advantages:
➢ Easy to feeding.
➢ Permits great control over age, size and sex of the fish.
➢ Easy to operate.
➢ Selective harvest of marketable fish can be employed.
➢ Suitable for farmers having limited land resources.
Disadvantages:
➢ Natural productivity of the pond is not fully utilized.
➢ Available space in the water column is not utilized.
➢ More chances of epizootic diseases and parasites.
➢ More risk of water quality problem like dissolved oxygen depletion.

Polyculture
➢ Two or more fish species with different habitats and different food preferences, are stocked
together in such densities that there will be almost no food or space competition.
 ➢ Optimum use of water resources and volume
➢ Gives higher yields than monoculture under the same conditions.
Principal requirement of the different species in combination:
➢ They have complementary feeding habits,
➢ They occupy different ecological niches,
➢ They attain marketable size at the same time,
➢ They should tolerate each other,
➢ They should all be non-predatory.

Advantages:
➢ Full utilization of feeding niche.
➢ Full utilization of space available in the water column.
➢ Full utilization of compatibility of species.
➢ Full utilization of artificial feeds.
➢ Less chances to fail the enterprises.
➢ More economic return than monoculture under similar conditions.
➢ Less chances of epizootic diseases and parasites.
➢ Play an ecological role in maintaining water quality.
Disadvantages:
➢ Difficult to harvest.
➢ Difficult to maintain the food for all species of fish.
➢ Need of high technical knowledge
Pond Culture
➢ Common method of fish culture.
➢ May be extensive, semi-intensive and intensive types.
➢ May be monoculture, poly-culture, monosex , mix sex culture practices etc.
➢ Mostly earthen.

Fig: Pond Culture

Cage culture
➢ Defined as raising of fish from juvenile stage to commercial size in the volume of water
which encloses in all sides including bottom i.e. cage.
➢ Popular in many country, Japan, South Korea, China, Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia,
Germany etc.
➢ Cage -fish culture in Nepal started from 1972 at lake of Phewa, Pokhara (Swar et al., 1983)
as a facility for holding common carp (Cyprinus carpio) brood stock in the lake when the
fish pond of the fisheries centres near lake Phewa suffered a water shortage.
Advantages:
➢ Economic use of natural water resources which are unsuitable for other means of fish
culture.
➢ Removal of organic matter and nutrients accumulated in plankton as fish flesh.
➢ Low investment but high return.
➢ Easy prevention and control on fish disease and predators.
➢ Easy harvest at desirable quantity within the stock, and time.
➢ At the time of emergencies cages and be removed from one place to another.
Disadvantages:
➢ Water quality problems, especially dissolved oxygen, can develop due to high stocking
densities.
➢ Disease outbreaks spread very quickly.
➢ Damage to the cages can result in escape of fish.
➢ Fish are easier to poach or vandalize.
➢ Production rates are lower than in production ponds.
In principle, almost fish every cultivated fish species can be used in cages, such as carps, tilapia,
trout, catfishes etc.
Certain criteria:
➢ Natural ability to grow fast.
➢ Food habits adapted to types of organisms living in water bodies.
➢ Ability to adapt to crowded conditions.
➢ Controlled breeding/ reproduction.
➢ Easy handling and harvested.
➢ Tolerance of dissolved oxygen and temperature fluctuation.

Types of cages
➢ Cage materials may vary from wood to nylon depending on availability and suitability of
the water body.
➢ Bamboo cage, wooden cage, iron cage, angle iron and nelton cage, nylon or polyethylene
net cage
➢ Cages used in Nepal are 50 – 65m3 (5mx5mx2.5m) because they are convenient for
handling.
➢ However, 100- 150m3 are also in operation.
Floating system:
➢ The framing and floating systems are essential to keep net cages in proper shape and size
at the water surface.
➢ A simple cage can be framed and floated by using four bamboo logs.
 ➢ Bamboo frames last about 2 years.
➢ Empty oil drums or Styrofoam blocks can be used to float the bamboo frames if more cages
are set together.
Anchoring system:
➢ It is essential to securely anchor the cage to maintain its position, shape and size.
➢ Different types of anchor are used depending upon the nature of bottom, depth and water
current.
➢ Stones can be used as anchor but preferably concrete block or iron anchors are
recommended to use.

Stocking density and production

➢ Stocking density depends on trophic status of lakes and reservoirs.
➢ In lake Phewa, Rupa and Begnas, the stocking density of 10 fingerlings /m3 with of average
weight 15 – 25 g.
➢ Silver and bighead carp were stocked 12 fish/m3.
➢ Net fish production reached 5.27 kg/m3.
Management of cage fish culture
➢ Maintenance of cage
➢ Growth and water quality check
➢ Feeding and monitoring feeding behaviour
➢ Harvesting
✓ Partial harvesting
✓ Total harvesting
Pen culture
➢ A type of enclosure culture in which raising of fish or aquatic organisms from small size
to reach marketing size in which encloses all side excluding upper and bottom surfaces.
➢ Hybrid of pond and cage culture.
➢ Mostly made in the shallow regions along the shores and banks of the lakes and reservoirs.
Advantages:
1. Intensive utilization of space
2. Safety from predators
3. Suitability for culturing many varied species
4. Easy to harvest
5. Availability of natural food and exchange of materials with the bottom
Disadvantages:
1. Dependence on artificial feed
2. Food losses
3. Chances of pollution
4. Rapid spread of diseases
5. Risk of theft
6. Conflict with multiple use of natural waters
Design for Pen culture
Site selection:
➢ Shallow region
➢ Max depth should be less than 2m
➢ Avoid the site subjected to high water currents, storms, landslide and extreme climatic
conditions
Pen size, structure and construction:
➢ Small-sized pens usually allow for higher fish yields, lower production costs and easier
management
➢ Materials used in pen construction include polyethylene netting, ropes, bamboo or wooden
logs, concrete blocks, and rod anchors.
➢ The height of net above the maximum water level of the lake should be about 3-4 ft.
➢ Chinese use two layers of net enclosures of same mesh size. The inner one is used for
culture of fish and the outer enclosure is used to prevent the escape of fish.
Wall net
Bamboo or wooden stakes
Concrete blocks and rod anchors
Suitable species for pen culture:
➢ Herbivorous, planktivorous or detritivorous, fast growing and tolerant to temperature and
oxygen fluctuation fish species
➢ Such as Silver carp, Grass carp etc
➢ Common carp is risky because of its bottom dwelling habit
➢ Fixing wall net beneath bottom at least 6-12 inches will allows to culture bottom feeder
fish.
Stocking Density:
➢ 5,000 to 10,000 fish seed/ha with average weight of fingerlings 20-25g.
Care and management:
➢ Same as cage culture
➢ Adopt multiple stocks and harvesting system.
➢ But for harvesting, pen is undrainable, so harvesting is done by seining or dragging.
➢ Seining generally start from deeper end to shallow end.
Raceway culture (Running water culture)
➢ Raceway culture units linked with continuously flowing water or culture of fishes in
running water.
➢ A raceway usually consists of rectangular basins or canals constructed of concrete and
equipped with an inlet and outlet.
➢ A continuous water flow-through is maintained to provide the required level of water
quality, which allows animals to be cultured at higher densities within the raceway.
➢ Raceway ponds are smaller in size and may be concrete or earthen pond.
➢ Slope land easy for maintain for raceway construction and running water.
➢ Natural spring water resources which maintain constant temp.
➢ Cold climate temperature less than 20 oC (Optimum 15-18 oC)
➢ An abundant flow of good quality, well oxygenated water (≥8 mg/L)
➢ Area= 50-150m2 with length 10-20m
➢ Water depth= 60-90 cm
➢ Best for Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)
➢ Trout needs high protein content feed in pellet form. Generally, 35-40% crude protein (CP).
➢ Young trout (<30 g) needs to feed 3-10% body weight per day where 1-2% is sufficient for
the bigger one.
➢ Periodically thin out and grading the stock to reduce cannibalism.
➢ The bigger one should be sorted out from smaller ones using a grader.
➢ Growth checking during the grading is necessary to determine feeding rate, feeding
efficiency and condition of health.
➢ Pond cleaning is very important part and frequent pond/Raceway cleaning is necessary to
avoid disease outbreak.
➢ Rainbow trout can reach marketable size (200-300 g) within 12-14 months from free-
swimming larvae depending on diet quality, management and suitable temperature.
➢ In Nepal, Production varies from 100-200 mt/ha/year.
➢ For luxury market.
Types of raceway pond:
➢ Linear type
➢ Parallel type
Integrated aquaculture
Integrated aquaculture system means integration of two or more crop simultaneously i.e.
integration of two or more systems in same periods of time.
Principles:
➢ Waste recycling
➢ Resource utilization and
➢ Energy saving.

Rice Fish Farming

➢ Rice-fish culture is an integrated farming practice in which fish is cultured in rice field
along or simultaneously with rice crop, rice being the primary crop and fish as secondary
crop.
➢ Rice-fish farming is one of the primitives farming method in Asia.
➢ In Nepal, 1964 Department of Fisheries introduced rice-fish farming (Gurung et al., 2001).
Advantages:
➢ Proper utilization of land and water.
➢ The productivity of rice increases due to different beneficial activities of fish.
➢ Fish controls the weeds, diseases, snails and harmful insects.
➢ Rodent control due to sufficient water in rice field.
➢ If rice crop is failed, it is compensated by the fish.
➢ More income per unit area.
Techniques of Fish Culture in Rice Fields
Site selection:
➢ The availability of adequate supply of water.
➢ Soil having good water holding capacity (preferably loamy soil) and pH between 7 to 9.
➢ Rice field should be near to residence for proper care and management.
 ➢ The site which are subject to flood and landslide should be avoided for rice-fish culture.
Dike/Bund construction:
➢ The dike should hold at least 15 cm of water.
➢ 50 cm wide at the base, 50 cm height with a 30 cm top width.
Refuge System Construction:
➢ Trench refuge
➢ Pond refuge
✓ Both of them require 10% of total area of rice plot.
Trench Refuge System:
➢ The trench serves as a refuge for fish when the water level drops to low, when the
temperature of the rice field is too high and when there is a threat of predators.
➢ Also serves as a catch basins during harvest.
➢ Types of trenches; peripheral trench, linear trench, T-shaped trench etc.
➢ In Nepal, peripheral trench system is commonly practiced for rice-fish farming.
➢ Trench of 50 cm wide and 50 cm deep are constructed all around the dikes.
Pond Refuge System:
➢ Functions same as Trench.
➢ Can be in the corner or in the middle of the field.
➢ May be circular, square or rectangular shape with about 1m deep.
Size and design of rice plots:
➢ Size of rice-fish plot should be 200-2000 m2.
➢ However, smaller plots are easier to manage.
➢ Inlet and outlet construction.
➢ The inlet and outlet are placed diagonally opposite so that there is more circulation of water
in the rice field.
➢ Inlets and outlets are provided with screens to prevent the entry of unwanted fish, tadpoles
and to prevent escape of stocked fishes.
Suitable species for rice-fish culture:
➢ Thrive in shallow water.
➢ Tolerate high water temperature.
➢ Tolerate low dissolved oxygen.
➢ Withstand fairly high turbidity.
➢ Grow rapidly to a eatable size.
➢ Must not show escaping behaviour.
➢ In Nepal, mainly two fish species are popular for culture in rice field: common carp
(Cyprinus carpio) and Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus).
 ➢ Being a herbivorous, grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) should not cultured with rice
crop.
Rice varieties:
➢ Late maturing, non-lodging and water logged tolerance rice varieties are suitable
❖ Mansuli: late maturity (155 days)
❖ Sabitri: moderate maturity (140 days)
❖ Radha-4: early maturity (125 days)
❖ Janaki, Himali, Kanchan, Barse-1, Barse-2 etc
Preparation of rice field and plantation:
➢ Rice seedlings are planted at a distance of 20-25 cm which allows enough space for
fish movement.
➢ The depth of water should be about 15-25 cm.
Fish stocking:
➢ Small fish fingerlings should be stocked as early as possible in order to extend the
growing period.
➢ Larger fingerlings (>10 g) should not be stocked until rice has turned fully green
otherwise the fish may damage the seedlings.
➢ Stoking rate 6000 to 9000 fingerlings/ha by acclimatization.
Fish feed:
➢ Rice field is a rich source of natural organisms
➢ Production can be enhanced by supplementary feeding i.e. Rice bran and mustard oil
cake 1:1 @ 2-4% body weight of fish per day is provided.
Care and Management:
➢ Snake control: Using snake trap.
➢ Bird control: Using flash guns, sirens, bamboo rattles and bells.
➢ Prevent water leakage or seepage
➢ Do not use pesticides as far as possible. If necessary, care is taken that fish are not
killed.
Harvesting:
➢ Fish should be harvested before a week of rice harvest.
➢ Harvested from refuge by water draining.
Yield:
➢ Depend upon the species cultivated, time and duration, depth of water, feed supplied
and intake.
➢ In Nepal, production of fish in rice field varies from 200-500 kg/ha/year.
Horticulture-fish farming:
➢ Vegetable/fruit tree – fish farming system
➢ Fish culture along with the fruits, vegetables and flowers.
➢ These horticulture products provide the additional income to the fish farmers and also
improves the environment.
➢ The dikes are strengthened, terraced, prepared and fertilized by application of pond silt.
➢ Bananas, papayas, pumpkins, spinach, brinjals, tomatoes, cucumbers and leafy
vegetables are grown on the dikes(0.3 ha/ha of pond).
➢ Flowers and vegetables can be grown also in remaining space.
➢ Leaves can be used as fish feed and pond water & pond bottom soil can be used for
irrigation & fertilizer respectively for the plantation.

Livestock-fish farming
➢ Livestock-fish farming system, animal adding manures into the pond to supply nutrients
for phytoplankton and to be substrate for bacteria and micro fauna which were eaten by the
fish.
➢ The farmers in this system as an alternative to reduce costs of investment in farming
systems and increase their incomes.
➢ Different combination of livestock animals integrated with fish farming are as : Pig-fish
farming, Duck-fish farming, Cattle-fish farming, Chicken-fish farming etc.
Pig-fish Farming:
➢ Integration of pig with fish farming is highly profitable.
➢ The digestion of pig is incomplete and about 30 % of the undigested feed is excreted
in feces which serves as direct food for fishes.
➢ Supplementary fertilization and feeding are not required for fish culture.
➢ 40 to 50 pigs/ha are sufficient.
Duck-fish farming:
➢ Dropping of the ducks acts as substitute fish feed and pond fertilizers which account
for 60% of the total input cost.
➢ Acts as natural aerators
➢ Ducks feed on such organisms from the pond such as larvae of aquatic insects, tadpoles,
mollusks, aquatic weeds etc.
➢ Ducks are reared in sheds built on the banks of the ponds or constructed over the ponds
on stilts, or sometimes built on floating platforms.
➢ A shed of 20 m2 is capable of accommodating about 300-400 ducks. 500- 800 ducks
are sufficient to fertilize one hectare pond area with fish stocking 7000-10000/ha.

Poultry-fish farming:
➢ Protein rich poultry feed is provided to poultry and later its dropping acts as fertilizer
for fish pond similar to ducks.
➢ 1200-1500 poultry birds are sufficient to serve the fertilizer per hectare of fish pond.
➢ Fish stocking is also same as duck-fish farming.
Dairy-fish farming:
➢ Fish culture with cattle and buffalo.
➢ Partial or temporary confinement of dairy animals may permit beneficial integration.
➢ Growing demand of milk stimulated the development of intensive dairying and
availability of excreta for fish culture.
➢ 5-7 dairy animals/ha are sufficient to fertilize pond and growing fodder on the dykes
i.e. berseem, napier, maize etc.
 Unit 3
Water quality and pond management
Water Quality
❖ Outline
➢ Physical parameters
• Temperature
• Turbidity
➢ Chemical parameters
• DO
• pH
➢ Biological parameters
• Plankton
The main requisite for fish culture in ponds is the water. Water is essential not only for the rearing
of fish but also for other aquatic organisms as well, which form the food of the fish.
All of the fishes vital functions such as feeding, digestion, assimilation, growth, responses to
stimuli and reproduction are dependent on water. Many physical and chemical factors are
concerned to make water quality good.
1. Temperature
➢ Most important water quality parameter
➢ Measured by thermometer
➢ Related to solar radiation and air temperatures
➢ Water temperatures closely follow air temperatures
➢ Major source of heat for water- solar radiation
➢ Light energy is absorbed exponentially with depth so most heat is absorbed within
the upper layer of water
➢ The transfer of heat from upper to lower layer of water depends on mixing by wind
Thermal Stratification
➢ Horizontal separation of warmer upper layer and the cooler bottom layer of
water in ponds and lakes
❖ Upper layer: Epilimnion
❖ Lower layer: Hypolimnion
❖ Metalimnion/Thermocline in between
➢ Principle: Density of water
 ➢ The density of water is temperature-dependent.
❖ Being highest at 4°C.
❖ Decreasing with increase in temperature.
❖ Decreasing with decrease in temperature up to 0°C

Diel Fluctuation
Diel fluctuation means the variation within a day (24 hours time)
Temperature in fish ponds is:
➢ Minimum during the early morning
➢ Maximum in the afternoon
➢ Gradually decreases after sunset and becomes minimum in the morning

Fig: Diel fluctuation of temperature in the pond

Water temperature and fish growth
➢ Normal difference in fish body temperature and that of the environment is about
0.50C
➢ Rapid temperature difference > 5 0C may be lethal to fish
➢ Metabolism/biochemical reaction depends on temperature (doubles for each
100C rise in temperature)
➢ Decomposition rate increases with an increase in temperature
 ➢ The metabolic activity of fish, microorganisms and plants increase with
increasing temperature which demands more feed and oxygen resulting in faster
growth and more production of CO2
➢ The peak oxygen consumption rate is maintained over a small temperature
range.
➢ The oxygen consumption then decreases with further rise in temperature.

➢ Fish along with other aquatic organisms show varied degree of temperature
tolerance
❖ Cold water fish: Optimum temperature range, 10-20 ℃ (eg. Rainbow
trout, Snow trout)
❖ Warm water fish: Optimum temperature range, 20-32 ℃ ( eg. Chinese
carps, catfish, tilapia etc
Temperature management in fish ponds
➢ Maintain the pond water depth (not less than 1m)
➢ Provide the temporary shade during the hot months
➢ Water exchange
➢ No handling during low and high temperatures
2. Turbidity
➢ Presence of suspended matter in water interferes the passage of light and visibility
through water, causing turbidity
Many substances can impart turbidity to water
a. Planktons
b. Humic substances
c. Suspended soil particles
➢ Most common source of turbidity in ponds: planktons and suspended soil particles.
➢ Turbidity caused by plankton is considered desirable.
Types of Turbidity
A. Plankton turbidity
➢ Turbidity caused by plankton generally is desirable in fish ponds.
➢ Plankton blooms favor greater fish production by stimulating the growth of fish
food organisms.
➢ Improves water quality by producing DO and removing potentially toxic
compounds such as ammonia.
 ➢ Troublesome underwater weeds are eliminated by plankton turbidity.
➢ Excessive plankton turbidity may cause shading effect in the pond and oxygen
failure.
B. Clay turbidity
➢ Generally undesirable type
➢ May not have immediate direct effects on fish, but may affect in long runs in
aquaculture ponds.
➢ Restrict the light penetration adversely affecting the primary productivity.
➢ Clog the gills, smother fish eggs, and destroy benthic organisms
➢ Easy fishing due to decreased vision of fish
C. Turbidity due to humic substances
➢ Not directly harmful to fish
➢ Acidic in nature
➢ Low light penetration- low photosynthesis
➢ Exert high oxygen demand depriving fish with dissolved oxygen.
Sources of Turbidity
a. External sources
➢ Surface runoffs, construction, livestock, dike erosion, wind
b. Internal sources
➢ Resuspension of particles by fish and water movements
➢ Uneaten feed and fecal matters
➢ Lime, fertilizers

Effects of Turbidity
➢ Reduce light penetration
➢ Interfere Gill function that cause respiratory problem
➢ Reduce pond depth
➢ Affect vision of fish
➢ Acidifies and sterilize the water
Measurement
a. Sechchi disk visibility method
Sechchi disk:
➢ weighted disk painted with alternate black and white quadrants, 20 cm in
diameter
➢ Centrally fixed rod has marked length
➢ Dip the disk to pond water
➢ Record the point of disappearance and that of appearance
➢ Transparency= (Point of disappearance + point of appearance)/2
➢ Desirable range= 20-40 cm
 b. Suspended solids measurement method
➢ Sample water taken from the pond
➢ 1 litre, filtered through glass fibre filter paper
➢ Residue in filter paper dried, weighed and calculated
➢ Expressed in mg/L
➢ 25-80 mg/L desirable range
c. Nephelometric method
➢ Nephelometer: device for measurement of scattered light
➢ Accurate measure of turbidity
➢ Sample water in a cuvette placed in nephelometer and light source focused
on it
➢ Amount of scattered light measured
➢ Greater the turbidity, greater is the amount of scattered light
➢ Unit: Nephelometer Turbidity Unit (NTU)
Management of turbidity
➢ Fertilization
➢ Water exchange
➢ Liming to maintain acidity due to excess humus
➢ Siltation
To reduce turbidity by clay and suspended particles, apply
❖ Alum (AS) @5-10 mg/L
❖ Copper sulfate @0.5 mg/L
❖ Calcium sulfate @ 500Kg/ha
Clay turbidity treatment
❖ 15-22 bales hay per hectare (bales=bundle)
❖ 3:1 cotton seed meal and superphosphate @110kg/ha
3. Dissolved oxygen (DO)
➢ The most important chemical water quality parameter in aquaculture.
➢ Used in respiration by aquatic organisms, decomposition
Effects of Low DO
➢ Stress to cultured organisms increasing their susceptibility to disease and parasites
➢ Reduced appetite causing slower growth rate and high FCR
➢ Mortality due to long exposure to DO deficient environment

Solubility of Oxygen
➢ Fish cannot directly use oxygen from atmosphere
 ➢ Uses in its dissolved form
➢ Oxygen enters the water column by diffusion

Oxygen solubility is dependent upon:

a. Temperature: decrease with increase in temperature

b. Light intensity: Oxygen solubility increases with increase in light intensity

c. Atmospheric pressure: Oxygen solubility increase with increasing atmospheric
pressure

d. Salinity: Decrease with increased salinity

e. Water current velocity: faster water flow, more mixing of atmospheric oxygen to
water

Source and sink of Oxygen in pond

Sources
➢ Photosynthesis
➢ Diffusion
Sinks
➢ Respiration
➢ Diffusion
➢ Decomposition
Stratification of DO
➢ Similar to that of thermal stratification
➢ Greater abundance of phytoplankton on the surface results to higher level of DO on
the surface
➢ DO decreases with the depth due to less phytoplankton and light penetration
➢ Decomposition also plays role in low DO at the bottom

Diel Fluctuation
➢ Lowest concentration in the early morning, increase to maximum at afternoon and
decrease at night
➢ During daylight hours, photosynthesis in euphotic zone releases oxygen faster
than consumed in respiration.
➢ Photosynthesis stops at night, but respiration continues.
➢ This pattern of daytime production and continuous use of oxygen leads to diel
fluctuations of DO in euphotic zone.
➢ DO fluctuations higher in ponds with heavy plankton bloom

Fig: Diel fluctuation of DO

Measurement of Dissolved Oxygen
➢ By use of dissolved oxygen (DO) meter
➢ Direct measurement of DO at different depths
➢ Regular calibration for accurate reading
➢ DO meter consists probe with electrode inside, processing and display board

DO requirements to fish
➢ Varies upon fish species, size, activity, water temperature, etc.
➢ Optimum level- 5 mg/L for warm water fish
➢ Cold-water species has less capacity to extract oxygen from water
than warm water species.
➢ So more DO 8 mg/L is needed for cold water fish culture than warm water fish
culture (5 mg/L).
 Prolonged exposure to lower DO results
➢ Decreased resistance to diseases
➢ Low fecundity
➢ Slow growth rate
➢ Feed refusal
➢ Less activity

Causes of low DO in ponds

➢ High stocking density
➢ Cloudy or gloomy weather
➢ High water temperature
➢ High organic load, decaying matter consume substantial amounts of oxygen in the
decaying process.
➢ Low plankton density
Maintenance of DO in ponds
I. Direct improvement of DO in pond
➢ Addition of oxygenated/ cool water
➢ Stirring of pond water by using mechanical aerator, boating, swimming etc.
➢ Potassium permanganate @ 1- 2 ppm,
II. Increase photosynthesis
➢ Increase sun light availability
➢ Fertilization to increase phytoplankton density

III. Reduction of oxygen requirements of fish

➢ Thinning out of fishes
➢ Reduce/stop feeding
IV. Reduction decomposition
➢ Avoid over feeding and over fertilization
➢ Liming: 500kg/ ha
➢ Remove the pond bottom mud if it exceeds above one feet.
4. pH
➢ Negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration
➢ Measured on a scale of 0-14.
➢ Pure water has 0.0000001 mole per liter of free H+ and OH- ion.
➢ Higher H+ lower the pH value
➢ Fluctuating mostly with respect to cabondioxide
➢ Higher carbondioxide concentration makes acidic water and vice versa
Diel fluctuation
➢ Acidic in the early morning and alkaline at afternoon
➢ Low pH in the early morning due to increased level of carbondioxide due to
respiration at night
➢ During the day carbondioxide is consumed by photosynthesis, increase pH
 ➢ Optimum range: 6.8-8.6

Measurement of Ph
a. pH indicator paper
➢ Litmus paper
➢ Dipped in sample water and changed in color compared to color chart
Blue to red: acidic
Red to blue: alkaline
b. Color comparator
➢ Use of chemicals in test kit
➢ Added to sample water
➢ Colors compared with standard colors in test kit

c. pH meter
➢ Switch on and dipped in pond water
➢ Hold for a while, record the readings
➢ Regular calibration for accuracy

Fig: ph meter
 Effects of pH
Effect of low pH
➢ Reduce appetite
➢ Inhibit growth and reproduction
➢ Excessive production of mucus on the gills which interfere with respiration
➢ More attack of parasites and disease
➢ Acid death (pH 4 and lower)
Effect of high pH
➢ Damage cornea and lens of the eyes
➢ Disturb blood acid base balance
➢ Slow growth rate
➢ Alkaline death (> 11)

pH Management
➢ Liming in acidic pond @500kg/ha/yr
➢ Use carbonic fertilizer (compost), nitrogenous fertilizer (urea, ammonium
sulphate), gypsum (calcium sulphate) in alkaline ponds.

Pond Management
❖ Outline
➢ Site selection for pond construction
➢ Liming, fertilization
➢ Feed and Feeding
➢ Aquatic weeds and Predators control
Site Selection
➢ Great care should be taken in selecting a pond site because economy of construction,
usefulness and productivity of the pond depends upon its location.
➢ Site selection will be based on the species to be cultured and the technology to be
employed.
➢ It may be possible to find solutions when factors are unfavourable and present
problems, but it would involve increased investment and operating cost and would
affect the profitability.
➢ In land-based aquaculture, like Nepal, the most farms have earthen ponds, soil
characteristics, quality and quantity of available water and ease of filling and drainage,
especially by gravity, are basic considerations.
❖ Flooding:
➢ Do not have flood problem from last 10 years data
❖ Land slope:
➢ Land should not steeper than 2%. Steeper land limit the pond size, increase
the excavating cost and increase the risk of erosion.
❖ Room for further expansion:
➢ The increasing farm site will increase the management cost.
❖ Vegetation:
➢ Dense vegetation particularly tall trees make cleaning more difficult and
expensive. Land under grass or low shrubs is much better suited in this
respect. In the wind prone area tall tree near the pond may act as a effective
wind breaker but side by side it provides the niche for fishing birds.
❖ Water:
➢ Assurance of water supply of sufficient quantity and adequate quality
➢ Source of water may be an irrigation canal, river, stream, reservoir, lake,
spring, rainfall or tube wells
➢ Minimum supply of water should be 5L/sec/ha throughout the year
➢ Water depth= 1.0m – 1.5m
➢ About 1cm of water is lost from the pond due to evaporation, seepage and
percolation every day
➢ Most economical method of water supply is by gravity flow.
❖ Soil characteristics:
➢ The quality of soil is important in pond farms, not only because of its
influence on productivity and quality of overlying water, but also because
of its suitability for dike construction.
➢ The ability of pond to retain the required water level is also greatly affected
by the characteristics of soil.
➢ Sandy clay to clay loam soil are considered suitable for pond construction.
❖ Source and nature of pollution:
➢ It will be useful to ascertain the past use of the site. Crop land that would
have treated for long period with pesticides may have residue that are
 harmful to fish and shell fish. The farm that use the water mixed with
pollutant from industry may have the problem.
❖ Accessibility:
➢ The farm should have access to the electricity, road, input market etc to run
the business well.
❖ Social security:
➢ The community around the proposed site should be business friendly and
have positive attitude to industrialization.
❖ Land Type and Topography:
➢ Cost of pond construction in low land is cheaper, however it should not be
flooded during the rainy season.
➢ Should have regular shape and extensive for further expansion.
➢ Drainage possibility should be carefully investigated.
➢ Avoid slopes greater than 5 percent
❖ Climate:
➢ Terai– warm water for carps, catfishes and tilapia
➢ Mid-hill– Cold water for Rainbow trout
➢ Sufficient sunlight is also important
Liming
➢ Liming is a part of the maintenance for ponds and has a beneficial effect on the health
of fish.
➢ Also used as disinfectant
➢ Solves problems with acid-base relationships in ponds
➢ Identification of ponds needing lime:
➢ Ph too low < 6.5
➢ Alkalinity is too low
➢ Failure of fertilizer to produce a plankton bloom
➢ Organic matter contents is too high
Liming materials
➢ Compounds useful as liming materials contain either calcium or calcium and
magnesium associated with an anionic radical that will neutralize acidity.
The common liming materials are;
➢ CaCO3 – Calcium carbonate or Calcite
➢ CaMg(CO3)2 – Dolomite
➢ Ca(OH)2 – calcium hydroxide/hydrated lime/builders lime
➢ CaO – calcium oxide/quick lime/unslaked lime/burnt lime

Liming Dose:
➢ Lime dose is based on the pH. If pH is low, high amount of lime is required and
vice versa.
pH 4-5 5-6.5 6.5-7 7.5-8

Amount of lime as 2000 1000 500 200

CaCO3 (kg/ha/yr)

Method of application of lime

➢ New ponds can best be limed before they are initially filled with water. The required
quantity of liming material should be spread evenly over the pond bottom.
➢ The bottom of the older pond that are drained for fish harvest or renovation may be
allowed to dry and limed by spreading over it.
➢ Water-filled pond: Through inlet or broadcast
➢ Dried pond: By broadcasting
Pond Fertilization
Fertilizer are applied to the ponds to increase the inorganic nutrient concentrations, favour
greater phytoplankton growth and ultimately enhance the production of fish or crustaceans.
There are two types of fertilizers;
➢ Organic manures
➢ Inorganic/chemical fertilizers
1. Organic Manure
Organic manure are composite in nature and contain all the natural elements required for
the metabolic cycle.
Organic fertilizers may be of following types:
a) Livestock manure
b) Compost
c) Green Manure
❖ Advantages
➢ Improve the pond soil water holding capacity
➢ Relatively inexpensive
➢ Readily available on-farm
➢ Slow nutrient release for long time
➢ Also provide micronutrients
➢ Also serve as direct source of food for certain fish species
➢ Encourage bacterial growth and zooplankton bloom
❖ Disadvantages
➢ Difficult to transport
➢ Low content of primary nutrient (N,P,K).
 ➢ High demand of BOD which may cause oxygen depletion of pond water
when applied at high rates
2. Inorganic Fertilizer
The different inorganic fertilizer used in the fish ponds are classified as:
Nitrogenous fertilizer
➢ Urea- 46% N
➢ Ammonium Sulphate (AS) – 20-21%N
Phosphorus fertilizer
➢ Single Super Phosphate (SSP) – 18-20% P2O5
➢ Triple Super Phosphate (TSP) – 44-54% P2O5
Potassium fertilizer
➢ Muriate of potash (MoP) – 60% K2O
Compound fertilizer
➢ DAP ---- 18% N, 48% P2O
❖ Advantages of chemical fertilizer
➢ Mineralization is very fast giving quick effect on pond productivity
➢ Lack of pollution
➢ No BOD is required
➢ Easy to transport
❖ Disadvantages
➢ Costly
➢ Effective for short period
➢ May create water quality problem
Time of fertilization in pond
➢ If the pond is new and good bottoms muds has not yet formed
➢ Low turbidity ( >40 cm secchi-disk visibility)
➢ When pond is not green
➢ Periodic basis (weekly or forthnightly).
➢ Secchi disk can be used as a simple methodfor judging
plankton turbidity and the need for additional fertilization of a fish
pond

Secchi disc transparency (after 3-4 days of Interpretation

fertilization)

<25 cm No fertilization, management practice to

increase DO.
 25- 40 cm No fertilization, regularly observed fish
behavior.

40 to 60 cm Routine fertilization.

More than 60 cm Routine fertilization with increase dose.

Do not fertilize the pond

➢ Pond completely depends on artificial feed
➢ Excessive water exchange rate
➢ Pond has too much aquatic vegetation
➢ High plankton turbidity.
Fertilizer Application method
a) Chemical fertilizer
➢ Dissolve in the water and spray all over the pond.
➢ Large application of fertilizer at long intervals is wasteful because much of the
phosphorus is adsorbed by the pond mud and nitrogen is lost through de-
nitrification.
➢ Never throw solid fertilizers directly into the pond water especially phosphate
fertilizer, because the bottom mud can quickly absorb and turn the soluble
phosphate into insoluble compounds, which are than limited use for the pond
water.
b) Organic Manure
➢ Heaping at the corner of the pond with a sunny exposure by making platforms
about 30 cm under water.
➢ Fertilizer should be applied in the early hours of the day, about 2-3 hr after
sunrise.
Fertilizer dose
➢ Nitrogen: 0.2 – 0.4g N/m2/day
➢ Phosphorus fertilizer: 0.1 – 0.2 g P/m2/day
➢ Manure: 120 -150 kg/ha/day
Control of Aquatic Weed and Predators
➢ Weed infestation is a problem in almost all systems of aquaculture especially in tropical
and sub-tropical un-drainable ponds.
➢ Dense vegetation particularly floating plants, prevents adequate light penetration and may
cause oxygen depletion and consequently anoxia.

➢ Nutrients from the water will be used up by the weeds.

➢ Dense growth of aquatic weeds will make fishing with nets extremely difficult in ponds
➢ It adds substantially to the operational cost.

Common Aquatic weeds

Floating weeds: They are unattached and float with their leaves above the water surface and
roots under water (Eg; Eichhornia, pistia, Azolla).

Fig: Pistia and Azolla

Submerged weeds: They are completely submerged underwater but may be rooted in the bottom
soils (e.g. Hydrilla, Najas) or free floating (e.g. Ceratophyllum, Utricularia)

Fig: Hydrilla
Marginal weeds: They fringe the shoreline of the water body and are mostly rooted in the water-
logged soils (e.g. Typha, Phragmites).
Emergent weeds: They are rooted in the bottom soil but have all or some of their leaves, leaf
laminae or shoots above water surface (e.g. Nymphaea, Trapa, Myriophyllum).

Fig: Myriophyllum
Filamentous algae: They form mats in the marginal area or scums in the main body of water
(e.g. Spirogyra, Pithopora)

Fig: Spirogyra
Algal blooms: occurring dispersed in the water body (e.g. Microcystis, Anabaena).

Fig: Microcytis and Anabena

Methods of weed control
Preventive measures
➢ Prevention is better than cure
➢ Avoid very shallow marginal areas and maintain a depth of about 0.75m to 0.9m around
the shoreline to discourage the growth of marginal weeds.
➢ Discourage the silt accumulation from run off and regular de-siltation.
➢ Construct barriers or mesh filters to prevent the entry of noxious weeds and their spores or
seeds.
Manual methods
In small farms it is often possible to remove floating weeds and uproot marginal and emergent
weed manually.

Mechanical methods
Mechanical equipments are used in the large ponds and lakes. The most common device is weed
cutter, used for cutting submerged and emergent weeds.

Chemical methods
➢ Treatment with herbicide shows relatively more rapid result in weed control.
➢ Foliage application of 2,4-D @1% aqueous solution effectively controls floating and
emergent weeds like water hyacinth, Pistia, Myriophyllum and Prosopsis.
➢ Copper sulphate @ 1-3ppm is effective in the control of several algae.
 ➢ Foliar spray of 1% aqueous ammonia solution and a 0.25% wetting agent are reported to
have been most effective in controlling Pistia.

Biological Control
➢ Grass carp and tilapia are useful in controlling the growth of vegetation.
➢ Azolla could be cleared within a month by stocking grass carp @ 300-375 per hectare. 125-
150 grass carp per hectare consume the duckweed @1.8kg/fish/day.
➢ Stocking of sterile tilapia @ 2470 fish per hectare will control filamentous algae and soft
submerged vegetation.
Predator control
➢ Predatory fish are controlled by installing mesh on the water inlet and outlet.
➢ Predation of insect larvae can be controlled by spreading oil to prevent aerial breathing.
➢ Netting of the pond is effective in preventing bird predation
➢ Snake can be controlled by clearing pond dike and installing snake trap.
➢ Otters can control by hunting with the help of trained otter dogs and proper fencing of the
farm.
➢ Poaching by man is difficult to control. Employment of reliable watchman, use of
trained watchdogs, lighting, installing CC camera, and fencing could be effective.