Project File

On behalf of
CENTRAL BOARD OF SECONDARY
EDUCATION(C.B.S.E)

BRIGHTLAND SCHOOL

ACADEMIC YEAR:2025-26
NAME : ADITYA VERMA
CLASS : XI- SCIENCE
SUBJECT. : CHEMISTRY
PROJECT GUIDE : MR. DILIP DIXIT
 Brightland School
Navikot Nandana

AISSE(CLASS XII) Practical Examination in Computer

Session 2025-26
CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that ADITYA VERMA of class XI-

SCIENCE of Brightland School had successfully
completed his Chemistry project. He has taken proper
care and utmost sincerity in completion of his project.
All the works related to the project was done by the
candidate himself. The approach towards the subject
has been sincere and technology based.
I certify that this project is upto my expectation and as
per the guidelines issued by the CBSE.

……………………… …………………………
(Internal Examiner) (Principal’s Signature
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is my privilege to express my sincere thanks towards

all those completion of the project work by
encouraging me to take this project providing me
expert guidance valuable suggestion and inspirational
support throughout the work without which the
project would not have been in present shape.

I am extremely grateful to my principal MRS. SWATI

SRIVASTAVA and my subject teacher MR. DILIP DIXIT,
for his able guidance and useful suggestions, which
helped me in completing the project file in time.

I would also like to thank all the teaching and non-

teaching staff of Mathematics department who helped
me directly or indirectly in the completion of this
project.

Finally, yet importantly, would like to express my

heartfelt thanks to my beloved parents for their
blessings, my friends/classmates for their help and
wishes for the successful completion of this project.
Introduction
The atom, once thought to be indivisible,
has revealed an intricate inner world as
science advanced. From Dalton’s concept
of the atom as a solid sphere to the
quantum mechanical model, our
understanding has undergone several
transformations. Among the most
revolutionary developments in atomic
theory is the wave mechanical model,
which integrates classical ideas with
quantum theory to describe atomic
structure more accurately. Unlike earlier
models, it embraces the dual nature of
electrons and the uncertainty in their
positions, representing a major paradigm
shift in atomic science.
1. Historical Overview: Evolution of
Atomic Models
1.1 Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1803)
John Dalton proposed that:
• All matter is composed of indivisible
atoms.
• Atoms of the same element are
identical in mass and properties.
• Atoms combine in fixed ratios to form
compounds.
However, it lacked any explanation of
internal structure or subatomic particles.
1.2 Discovery of Electron – J.J.
Thomson (1897)
Through cathode ray tube experiments,
J.J. Thomson discovered electrons and
proposed the “Plum Pudding Model,”
where electrons were embedded in a
sphere of positive charge, like raisins in
pudding. It couldn't explain the behavior
of atoms under high-energy conditions.
1.3 Rutherford’s Nuclear Model (1911)
Rutherford conducted the Gold Foil
Experiment:
• Bombarded a thin gold foil with alpha
particles.
• Most passed through, but some
deflected at large angles.
Conclusion:
• The atom has a small, dense, positively
charged nucleus.
• Electrons revolve around the nucleus.
Limitations:
• Could not explain electron stability
(why electrons don’t spiral into the
nucleus).
 • Failed to explain atomic spectra.

2. Bohr’s Atomic Model (1913)

Bohr introduced the concept of quantized
orbits. He combined classical and
quantum ideas:
• Electrons move in fixed orbits with
defined energies.
• No radiation is emitted while in a
stable orbit.
• Electrons emit or absorb energy when
jumping between orbits.
Bohr’s Formula for Energy Levels:
En=−13.6 eV/n2 (for hydrogen atom)
Where:
• En = energy of the nth orbit
• n = principal quantum number
Successes:
• Explained hydrogen’s line spectra.
• Introduced quantization.
Limitations:
• Only accurate for hydrogen or single-
electron systems.
• Could not explain multi-electron
atoms.
• Failed to explain fine spectral lines,
Zeeman effect, and electron behavior
at atomic scale.
3. Emergence of Quantum Theory
3.1 Max Planck’s Quantum Hypothesis
(1900)
• Energy is not continuous but emitted
or absorbed in discrete packets called
quanta.
• Energy of a quantum:
E=hv
Where h = Planck’s constant,
v = frequency.
This was the starting point of quantum
mechanics.
3.2 Einstein’s Photoelectric Effect
(1905)
Einstein explained the emission of
electrons from a metal surface when light
strikes it, using Planck’s idea. He proved
that light behaves like particles (photons),
reinforcing wave-particle duality.

4. de Broglie’s Hypothesis (1924)

Louis de Broglie proposed that matter
(like electrons) has wave-like properties,
extending wave-particle duality to all
particles.
de Broglie Equation:
λ=h/mv
Where:
• λ = wavelength
• h = Planck’s constant
• m= mass of particle
• v = velocity
Experimental Verification:
• Davisson and Germer (1927) observed
electron diffraction, confirming that
electrons behave like waves.
Implication:
• Electrons cannot be simply thought of
as particles in fixed orbits.
• Their behavior must be described by
wave equations.

5. Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

(1927)
Werner Heisenberg introduced a
fundamental limitation in measuring
atomic particles:
Δx⋅Δp≥h/4π
Where:
 • Δx = uncertainty in position
• Δp = uncertainty in momentum
Conclusion:
• We cannot know both the position and
momentum of an electron
simultaneously with accuracy.
• Thus, fixed paths like Bohr’s orbits are
meaningless.
• This led to the probabilistic approach
in atomic theory.

6. Schrödinger’s Wave Mechanical

Model (1926)
Erwin Schrödinger formulated a
mathematical model for the behavior of
electrons using wave mechanics.
He treated electrons not as particles, but
as wave functions (Ψ\PsiΨ) that give
probability distributions for finding an
electron in a given space.
Schrödinger's Wave Equation (Time-
Independent):
H^Ψ=EΨ
In one dimension:
−h2/8π2m⋅ d2Ψ /d2x2+VΨ=EΨ
Where:
Ψ = wave function
V = potential energy
E = total energy
m = mass of electron
Interpretation:
• Ψ2 gives the probability density of
locating an electron.
• The electron exists in a “cloud” around
the nucleus, not in fixed paths.
 • The space where the probability is
highest is called an orbital.

7. Orbitals and Quantum Numbers

Orbit vs Orbital:
Orbit (Bohr) Orbital (Schrödinger)
Fixed circular Region of space with
path high probability
Electron position Electron position
known uncertain
Based on Based on quantum
classical physics mechanics
Quantum Numbers:
To describe orbitals and electrons, four
quantum numbers are used:
1. Principal Quantum Number (n)
o Indicates energy level
o Values: 1, 2, 3...
o Larger nnn = higher energy and
distance from nucleus
2. Azimuthal Quantum Number (l)
o Indicates shape of orbital
o Values: 0 to n−1n-1n−1
o l=0l = 0l=0 (s), 111 (p), 222 (d), 333
(f)
3. Magnetic Quantum Number (m)
o Indicates orientation in space
o Values: −l-l−l to +l+l+l
4. Spin Quantum Number (s)
o Electron spin direction
o Values: +1/2 ,-1/2
8. Shapes of Atomic Orbitals
• s-orbitals: Spherical shape, present in
all energy levels.
• p-orbitals: Dumbbell-shaped, start
from second energy level.
• d-orbitals: Cloverleaf shaped, from
third energy level onward.
• f-orbitals: Complex shapes, from
fourth energy level.

9. Applications of the Wave

Mechanical Model
• Periodic Table: Explains trends in
atomic size, ionization energy, and
chemical properties.
• Chemical Bonding: Predicts bond
formation through orbital overlap.
 • Spectroscopy: Basis for understanding
atomic and molecular spectra.
• Material Science: Underpins
semiconductor physics and
nanotechnology.
• Quantum Chemistry: Foundational for
modeling molecules and reactions.
• Quantum Computing: Inspired by
quantum behavior of electrons.

10. Comparison with Earlier Models

Bohr’s Schrödinger’s
Feature
Model Model
Probabilistic
Electron Path Fixed orbit
orbital
Hydrogen
Suitable For All atoms
atom
 Bohr’s Schrödinger’s
Feature
Model Model
Energy
Yes Yes
Quantization
Spectral Only for
All atoms
Explanation hydrogen
Dual Nature No Yes
Classical + Purely
Basis
Quantum Quantum

11. Limitations of the Wave

Mechanical Model
• Schrödinger’s equation is solvable
exactly only for hydrogen-like atoms.
• Requires approximations for multi-
electron systems.
 • Interpretation of wave functions
requires abstract .

Despite these, it remains the most

accurate and widely accepted model of
atomic structure.
Conclusion
The Wave Mechanical Model of the atom
is the culmination of decades of scientific
inquiry. It combines the quantum nature
of particles with mathematical precision,
offering the most accurate description of
atomic structure to date. The
contributions of scientists like de Broglie,
Heisenberg, and Schrödinger laid the
foundation of modern quantum
mechanics, shifting our understanding
from classical to probabilistic models.
This model not only explains atomic
structure and chemical bonding but also
underpins much of modern science, from
lasers to quantum computing. It stands as
a testament to the power of human
curiosity and the evolution of scientific
thought.
Bibliography
1. NCERT Class 11 Chemistry –
Chapter 2: Structure of Atom
2. Levine, I. N. (2009). Quantum
Chemistry. Pearson Education
3. Morrison, R. T., & Boyd, R. N.
(2011). Organic Chemistry
4. Websites:
o ChemLibreTexts
o BYJU’S Learning App
o Physics Stack Exchange