UNIT – 4

Communication Protocols
Mobile IP- IP packet delivery- Tunneling – Reverse Tunneling- IPv6- DHCP- Tradition TCP-
Congestion control- Classical TCP Snooping- Mobile TCPFast retransmit / Fast recovery-
Transaction oriented TCP TCP over 2.5/3G wireless Networks- Introduction to WAP WAP
Architecture- Wireless Datagram Protocol Wireless Transaction Protocol- Wireless Session
Protocol- Wireless Transport Layer Security- Wireless Markup Language- Push Architecture.

Mobile IP
Introduction:
Mobile IP is a communication protocol developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF) to facilitate seamless connectivity for mobile devices as they move across different
networks. Unlike standard IP, which requires a change in IP address when a device switches
networks (causing session drops), Mobile IP allows a user to maintain a permanent IP
address, ensuring ongoing data sessions are uninterrupted.
Key Components:
 Mobile Node (MN): The device (like a laptop or phone) that moves between
networks.
 Home Agent (HA): A router in the MN's home network that keeps track of its current
location and forwards data.
 Foreign Agent (FA): A router in the visited network that helps the MN connect.
 Care-of Address (CoA): A temporary address assigned to the MN when it's on a
foreign network.
 Correspondent Node (CN): The device communicating with the MN.
Working Mechanism:
1. The MN enters a new network and receives advertisements from the FA.
2. The MN registers its new CoA with the HA in its home network.
3. The HA intercepts incoming packets meant for the MN and tunnels them to the CoA.
4. The FA decapsulates and delivers the packet to the MN.
Reverse Tunneling: If required, the MN can send packets back to the HA first before they
are forwarded to the CN. This is helpful in firewalled or NATed environments.
Advantages:
 Seamless mobility with no IP change.
 Maintains ongoing sessions across networks.
 Transparent to higher-layer protocols and applications.
Challenges:
 Triangle Routing: Packets go HA → FA → MN instead of directly from CN → MN.
 Tunneling Overhead: Encapsulation adds bytes, increasing latency.
 Security Risks: Registration requests and tunnels must be secured (IPsec often used).
Applications:
 Mobile telephony and VoIP.
 Mobile web browsing.
 Live streaming and real-time communication over mobile networks.

IP Packet Delivery in Wireless Networks

Overview:
IP packet delivery refers to the process by which data packets are transmitted from a source
to a destination over the internet. In wireless networks, this process is more complex than in
wired networks due to several unique challenges like mobility, signal interference, fluctuating
bandwidth, and power constraints.
Key Challenges in Wireless IP Delivery:
 Mobility: Devices change their point of attachment frequently.
 Interference: Environmental noise leads to high error rates.
 Bandwidth Constraints: Wireless links generally have lower bandwidth than wired
links.
 Latency and Jitter: Delays in packet delivery are inconsistent.
Adaptation Mechanisms:
 Header Compression: Since wireless channels are bandwidth-limited, compressing
the IP headers (e.g., using ROHC - Robust Header Compression) can save significant
bandwidth.
 Packet Fragmentation: To match smaller Maximum Transmission Units (MTUs),
large IP packets are fragmented into smaller packets for delivery.
 Power-Aware Routing: Nodes (especially in ad-hoc networks) use algorithms that
balance performance with battery life.
Transmission Modes:
1. Unicast: One-to-one delivery. Ideal for private communication.
2. Multicast: One-to-many. Useful in video streaming or broadcasting alerts.
3. Broadcast: One-to-all. Used during ARP or routing protocol discovery.
Delivery Scenarios:
 Infrastructure Mode: Devices communicate via a central Access Point (AP).
 Ad-hoc Mode: Devices communicate directly without central control. Routing is
more complex here (e.g., using AODV, DSR).
Quality of Service (QoS):

Mechanisms like Differentiated Services (DiffServ) and Integrated Services (IntServ) are
used to prioritize important packets (like video/audio) over normal data.
Protocols Involved:
 Mobile IP: For seamless handover.
 TCP/IP: Traditional data transfer protocol.
 UDP: Used for applications where speed is preferred over reliability.
Conclusion:
Delivering IP packets efficiently in wireless environments requires tailored mechanisms to
handle the mobility and instability of the medium. Techniques like header compression,
tunneling, and adaptive routing make wireless packet delivery robust and reliable.

Tunneling and Reverse Tunneling

Tunneling:
Tunneling is a method of encapsulating one network protocol packet within another to enable
its transmission across incompatible networks or to traverse a private or secured route. In the
context of Mobile IP, tunneling is used to forward packets from the Home Agent (HA) to the
Mobile Node (MN) when it is away from its home network.

Why Tunneling is Needed:

When an MN roams to a foreign network, its IP address becomes invalid. But to maintain
ongoing sessions and seamless connectivity, data packets destined to the MN’s home address
must be rerouted to its current (foreign) location. Tunneling achieves this without changing
the IP address visible to the application layer.
Encapsulation Process:
 A packet meant for the MN is first sent to the HA.
 The HA encapsulates this packet inside a new packet with a new IP header directed to
the CoA.
 When it reaches the FA or MN (depending on the mode), it is de-encapsulated and
delivered to the original destination.
Protocols Used:
 Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE): Allows encapsulating many types of
packets.
 IP-in-IP: Simplest form where an entire IP packet is encapsulated within another.
 L2TP (Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol): Often used with VPNs.
Reverse Tunneling:

Reverse tunneling allows the MN to send its outgoing packets back through the tunnel to the
HA before they are sent to the Correspondent Node (CN). This is useful when:
 The foreign network has firewall rules that block outgoing packets.
 Network administrators require traffic to appear as if it originates from the home
network.
Benefits of Reverse Tunneling:
 Simplifies security enforcement.
 Supports access control and billing at the home network.
 Helps traverse NATs and firewalls.
Drawbacks of Tunneling:
 Overhead: Each tunnelled packet carries an extra header.
 Increased Latency: Triangle routing may lead to slower communication.
 Complexity: Additional configuration and processing are required.
Use Cases:
 Virtual Private Networks (VPNs).
 Mobile IP routing.
 Site-to-site corporate tunnels.
IPv6 (Internet Protocol Version 6)
Introduction:
IPv6 is the most recent version of the Internet Protocol (IP), designed to replace IPv4
due to address exhaustion. IPv6 uses a 128-bit address space, providing over 340
undecillion unique IP addresses. This is essential for the growth of the Internet of
Things (IoT), mobile networks, and globally expanding internet use.
Key Features:
1. 128-bit Addressing: Allows a virtually limitless number of IP addresses, compared to
the ~4.3 billion in IPv4.
2. Simplified Header: IPv6 headers are simpler and more efficient than IPv4, reducing
router processing time.
3. Auto-configuration: Devices can generate their own IP addresses using Stateless
Address Auto-Configuration (SLAAC).
4. No NAT (Network Address Translation): Unlike IPv4, NAT is not required in IPv6,
allowing true end-to-end connectivity.
5. Integrated Security: IPsec is mandatory in IPv6, enabling better security for data
transmission.
6. Better Mobility Support: Mobile IPv6 (MIPv6) improves mobility by allowing MNs
to receive packets directly from the Correspondent Node (CN) instead of routing via
the Home Agent (HA).
IPv6 Address Format:
 Written as eight groups of four hexadecimal digits (e.g.,
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
 Leading zeros and contiguous zero groups can be compressed
(2001:db8::8a2e:370:7334).
Transition Mechanisms:
 Dual Stack: Devices run both IPv4 and IPv6.
 Tunneling: IPv6 packets are encapsulated in IPv4 packets for transmission.
 Translation: Uses NAT64/DNS64 to translate between protocols.
Mobility in IPv6:
 MIPv6 eliminates triangle routing.
 The MN informs CN of its Care-of Address.
  Packets can be sent directly to the MN without detouring through HA.
Challenges:
 Transition from IPv4 to IPv6 is complex and ongoing.
 Requires support from ISPs, hardware, and software developers.
Applications:
 5G mobile networks.
 IoT and smart devices.
 Corporate networks with expanding global services.

DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)

Overview:
DHCP is a network management protocol used to dynamically assign IP addresses and
other network configuration parameters to devices on a network. This allows devices to
join the network without requiring manual IP configuration.
Purpose:
To automate the assignment of:
 IP addresses
 Subnet masks
 Default gateways
 DNS server addresses
DHCP Process (DORA):
1. Discover: The client sends a broadcast request to find available DHCP servers.
2. Offer: DHCP server responds with an IP address offer.
3. Request: Client requests to use the offered address.
4. Acknowledge: Server confirms, and the address is assigned.

Lease Time:

IP addresses are leased temporarily. Devices must renew the lease periodically to keep the
address.
Role in Mobility:
 When a mobile device enters a new network (like a Wi-Fi hotspot), DHCP assigns it a
new IP address.
 It enables dynamic configuration, which is convenient but doesn’t maintain ongoing
sessions (unlike Mobile IP).
Advantages:
 Reduces manual configuration.
 Supports large networks efficiently.
 Minimizes configuration errors.
Limitations:
 No session continuity for mobile users.
 DHCP traffic may be blocked or delayed on networks with strict policies.
Security Concerns:
 Rogue DHCP servers can mislead clients.
 DHCP snooping and authentication can prevent unauthorized usage.
Real-World Applications:
 Home and enterprise Wi-Fi networks.
 Dynamic IP address management in ISPs.
 IoT and sensor networks where devices frequently connect/disconnect.

Traditional TCP and Congestion Control

Introduction:
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a connection-oriented protocol that ensures
reliable data transmission. TCP’s congestion control algorithms manage network traffic
and avoid overloading network paths. However, traditional TCP performs poorly over
wireless networks.
Why Congestion Control is Needed:
 Prevents excessive data transmission that overwhelms routers and links.
 Maintains fair bandwidth distribution among users.
Core Congestion Control Mechanisms:
1. Slow Start:
 o TCP starts with a low data rate and increases exponentially until loss is
detected.
2. Congestion Avoidance:
o After the slow start threshold, the rate increases linearly to avoid congestion.

3. Fast Retransmit:
o If three duplicate ACKs are received, TCP resends the lost packet
immediately.
4. Fast Recovery:
o Avoids going back to slow start after a minor loss, resumes transmission using
an adjusted window.
Window Size & RTT:
 TCP adjusts its sending window based on acknowledgment timing (Round Trip
Time).
 Window size reflects how many bytes can be sent without acknowledgment.
Limitations in Wireless Networks:
 Packet losses in wireless are often due to interference, not congestion.
 TCP misinterprets this as congestion and slows down unnecessarily.
 Frequent handoffs also lead to delays and retransmissions.
Solutions:
 Using wireless-aware TCP variants (like TCP Vegas, TCP Westwood).
 Introducing intermediate nodes (like snooping agents) to manage local
retransmissions.
Applications of TCP:
 File transfers (FTP).
 Web traffic (HTTP).
 Email (SMTP/IMAP).

Classical TCP Snooping

Introduction:
Classical TCP snooping is an optimization technique used in wireless networks to
improve the performance of TCP connections. It works by placing a “snoop agent”
(usually at the base station) that monitors TCP packets and acknowledgments to locally
handle retransmissions due to wireless errors—without involving the sender.
Problem It Solves:

Traditional TCP assumes all packet loss is due to congestion. In wireless environments,
losses often result from link errors, interference, or handoffs. When TCP wrongly
assumes congestion, it reduces the data rate unnecessarily, harming performance.
How TCP Snooping Works:
 The base station “snoops” or listens to TCP data and ACKs exchanged between
sender and receiver.
 When the base station detects a packet loss (missing ACKs), it locally retransmits the
lost packet to the mobile receiver.
 It suppresses the duplicate ACKs from reaching the sender, preventing unnecessary
retransmissions or rate reductions.
 If it sees an ACK for the lost packet, it clears its buffer.
Key Components:
 Snoop Agent: Placed at base station; monitors and caches TCP segments.
 Buffer: Stores unacknowledged packets temporarily.
 Local Retransmitter: Resends lost packets quickly to the mobile node.
Advantages:
 Reduces end-to-end delay by retransmitting lost packets locally.
 Avoids triggering congestion control mechanisms at sender.
 Fully transparent to both sender and receiver.
 No change needed in TCP/IP stacks of mobile or fixed host.
Limitations:
 Requires the base station to understand TCP headers and maintain connection state.
 Does not handle handoffs efficiently (state may be lost).
 Only applicable to networks where the base station can see both directions of traffic.
Comparison to Other Techniques:

Unlike Split TCP or Indirect TCP (which break end-to-end semantics), snooping TCP
preserves end-to-end communication while still optimizing for wireless errors.
Use Cases:
 Cellular base stations.
 Wireless LAN access points.
 Campus or enterprise wireless networks.

Mobile TCP (M-TCP)

Overview:
Mobile TCP (M-TCP) is a modified version of TCP designed specifically to improve
performance in mobile and wireless environments. Unlike classical TCP, which reacts to
packet losses by reducing the transmission rate, M-TCP is more aware of mobility-related
events such as disconnections, handoffs, and signal fades.
Problems with Traditional TCP in Mobile Scenarios:
 Interprets disconnection as congestion.
 Reduces window size unnecessarily.
 Causes slow throughput and higher latency.
Core Idea of M-TCP:

M-TCP splits the TCP connection into two segments:

1. Between the fixed host and the base station.
2. Between the base station and the mobile node (MN).
The base station acts as an intermediate proxy but preserves end-to-end semantics,
unlike Indirect TCP.
Key Features:
 Disconnection Awareness: When the mobile device disconnects or goes through a
handoff, M-TCP freezes the sender’s congestion window instead of reducing it.
 Window Management: Maintains window size across short disconnections.
 Fast Recovery: When the mobile reconnects, M-TCP resumes the connection with
minimal delay.
 Selective Acknowledgment (SACK): Optionally supported to improve loss recovery.
Advantages:
 Maintains high throughput even with frequent mobility.
 Improves user experience for applications like browsing and downloads.
 Reduces unnecessary retransmissions and delays.
Use Cases:
 2.5G/3G and early 4G mobile networks.
 Laptops or mobile devices switching between Wi-Fi and mobile data.
 Vehicular networks with frequent handoffs.
Limitations:
 Base station must be modified to support M-TCP.
 May require buffering and state management at base station.
 Security and complexity increase due to connection splitting.

Fast Retransmit / Fast Recovery

Introduction:
Fast Retransmit and Fast Recovery are two TCP mechanisms that work together to
efficiently handle isolated packet loss without waiting for a retransmission timeout, which
improves performance over both wired and wireless networks.

Fast Retransmit
What It Does:
 Detects packet loss early without waiting for the timeout period.
 Triggered when the sender receives three duplicate ACKs (acknowledging the same
packet).
 Immediately retransmits the missing segment.
Example:
 If packet 6 is lost, the receiver sends duplicate ACKs for packet 5 (indicating it’s
waiting for packet 6).
 Upon receiving 3 such ACKs, the sender deduces loss and retransmits packet 6.
Benefits:
 Reduces waiting time.
 Avoids unnecessary timeouts.
 Improves TCP responsiveness.

Fast Recovery
What It Does:
 Prevents going back to Slow Start phase after Fast Retransmit.
 Instead, it reduces the congestion window slightly and enters Congestion Avoidance.
 Resumes normal data transmission without dramatically dropping throughput.
How It Works:
 Sets the congestion window (cwnd) to half its previous size (instead of 1 MSS).
 Continues to transmit new data as new ACKs arrive.
 Ensures faster recovery from minor packet loss.

Together They Offer:

 Faster error recovery.
 Less dramatic drop in throughput.
 Better bandwidth utilization.
Use Cases:
 Wireless networks with occasional loss.
 High-latency environments (satellite, mobile).
 TCP variants (Reno, NewReno, SACK) all include these features.

Transaction-Oriented TCP over 2.5G/3G Wireless Networks

Introduction:
Transaction-oriented TCP (TTCP) is a specialized adaptation of TCP designed to optimize
performance over mobile networks like 2.5G and 3G, which are characterized by higher
latency, variable throughput, and frequent disconnections. Unlike traditional TCP that is
designed for long-lived connections, TTCP aims to efficiently handle short transactions
— like HTTP requests, database queries, or message transfers — which are commonly
used in mobile applications.

Problems with TCP in 2.5G/3G Networks:

 High Latency: Causes slow start and delayed acknowledgments.
 Packet Loss: Misinterpreted as congestion, leading to unnecessary throttling.
 Handoffs & Fading: Frequent breaks in connectivity result in retransmissions and
session drops.
 Short Transactions: Traditional TCP overhead is too high for small payloads.

Key Enhancements in TTCP:

1. TCP Fast Open:
o Reduces connection setup time by allowing data to be sent during the
handshake.
o Saves time in short transactions like browsing or API calls.

2. Connection Pooling:
o Maintains multiple idle TCP connections for quick reuse.

o Minimizes the need to establish new connections.

3. Persistent Connections:
o Keeps connections alive across multiple transactions.

o Useful for mobile web apps where multiple requests happen within seconds.

4. Explicit Loss Notification (ELN):

o Helps differentiate between congestion and wireless losses.

o Avoids unnecessary reduction in congestion window.

5. Forward Error Correction (FEC):

o Adds redundant data to correct errors without retransmission.

o Improves reliability on lossy wireless links.

6. Delayed ACKs & Optimized Retransmissions:

o Reduces acknowledgment frequency to save bandwidth.

o Smart retransmission based on link conditions.

Advantages:
 Greatly reduced latency for short operations.
 Better throughput under variable network conditions.
 Lower battery consumption due to fewer retransmissions.
 Ideal for mobile transactions like form submissions, queries, and lightweight
communications.
Use Cases:
 Web browsing from mobile browsers.
 Banking or wallet transactions.
 Push notifications and real-time alerts.
 IoT device communication.

Introduction to WAP (Wireless Application Protocol)

Overview:
Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) was developed in the late 1990s as a standard for
enabling mobile phones and handheld devices to access internet content and services. It
addressed the limitations of mobile networks and small-screen devices before the era of
smartphones and mobile broadband.
Why WAP Was Needed:
 Devices had small, monochrome displays.
 Internet used HTML, which was heavy for mobile devices.
 Bandwidth was limited (9.6–56 kbps).
 Browsers and rendering engines were unavailable or inefficient on early phones.

WAP Protocol Stack:

WAP introduced a layered protocol architecture, similar to the TCP/IP model, optimized
for wireless networks.
1. WDP (Wireless Datagram Protocol):
o Transport layer, bearer-independent.

o Allows WAP to work over SMS, USSD, CSD, GPRS, etc.

2. WTLS (Wireless Transport Layer Security):

o Provides secure communication over mobile networks.

o Based on TLS, optimized for mobile constraints.

3. WTP (Wireless Transaction Protocol):

o Lightweight and reliable transaction handling.
 o Supports one-way and two-way communications.

4. WSP (Wireless Session Protocol):

o Maintains sessions and supports session suspension/resumption.

o Handles content negotiation and caching.

5. WAE (Wireless Application Environment):

o Includes WML (Wireless Markup Language), WMLScript, and a
microbrowser.

Key Features of WAP:

 Lightweight communication.
 Compact content (WML instead of HTML).
 Efficient for low-speed and high-latency networks.
 Gateway-based architecture to translate WAP into standard HTTP.

Applications:
 Checking emails and news.
 Banking via SMS/USSD.
 Weather and travel updates.
 Accessing corporate portals.

Limitations:
 Lacked multimedia and interactivity.
 Could not compete with full-featured HTML browsers.
 Was eventually replaced by mobile web (HTML5, CSS, JS on smartphones).

WAP Architecture
Overview:
WAP Architecture was designed to bring internet content to mobile devices through a
structured stack of protocols. It separated concerns like transport, security, session, and
presentation into modular layers, much like the OSI model.
Architecture Components:
1. Mobile Client:
o Contains a WAP-enabled browser (microbrowser).

o Capable of interpreting WML and WMLScript.

2. WAP Gateway:
o Acts as a bridge between the wireless world and the internet.

o Translates WAP requests (WSP) into HTTP and WML into HTML.

o Performs content encoding/compression.

3. WAP Server:
o Hosts WML pages and scripts.

o Responds to requests from the WAP Gateway.

Protocol Layers:
1. WAE (Wireless Application Environment):
o WML for page content.

o WMLScript for client-side logic.

2. WSP (Session):
o Supports both connection-oriented and connectionless sessions.

o Manages session persistence and state.

3. WTP (Transaction):
o Lightweight protocol with support for unreliable/reliable requests.

o Lower overhead than TCP.

4. WTLS (Security):
o Provides confidentiality, integrity, and authentication.

o Based on TLS, adapted for low processing power.

5. WDP (Transport):
o Adapts to various bearer services (SMS, GPRS, etc.).

o Provides a consistent interface to upper layers.

Flow of Communication:
1. User clicks a link on the microbrowser.
2. Request is sent via WSP → WTP → WTLS → WDP to the Gateway.
3. Gateway converts it to HTTP and fetches content from WAP Server.
4. The response (WML) is translated and compressed by the Gateway.
5. Sent back to the client via WAP layers and rendered by the microbrowser.

Benefits:
 Efficient use of bandwidth.
 Support for wireless security.
 Architecture designed specifically for mobile limitations.

Challenges:
 Heavy reliance on WAP Gateway.
 Limited graphical and interactive capability.
 Quickly became obsolete with the rise of smartphones and 3G/4G networks.

Wireless Datagram Protocol (WDP)

Introduction:
Wireless Datagram Protocol (WDP) is the transport layer of the WAP (Wireless
Application Protocol) architecture. It acts as an adaptation layer that enables WAP to run
over various wireless bearer networks. WDP provides a uniform service interface to the
upper layers, regardless of the underlying bearer technology.

Role of WDP in WAP Stack:

WDP is the equivalent of UDP in the TCP/IP model. Its main job is to ensure that upper
layers (WTP, WSP) can operate independently of how data is physically transmitted
(SMS, GPRS, CDMA, etc.).

Bearer Independence:
One of WDP’s major contributions is bearer independence:
 It allows the same WAP stack to function over different carrier technologies.
 This flexibility was crucial during the early mobile era where networks varied
significantly by region and provider.

Functions of WDP:
1. Encapsulation/Decapsulation:
o Takes user data and encapsulates it into bearer-specific frames.

o On reception, it extracts original data for upper layers.

2. Addressing and Port Handling:

o Uses port numbers similar to UDP for distinguishing services.

o Helps route data to the correct application or service.

3. Reliability Delegation:
o WDP does not guarantee reliability.

o Responsibility is pushed to higher layers like WTP (Wireless Transaction

Protocol).

How It Works:
 Over GPRS: WDP encapsulates data in GPRS packets.
 Over SMS: WDP uses concatenated SMS to send large WAP messages.
 Over USSD or CSD: It uses data streams.

Advantages:
 Universal interface for upper WAP layers.
 Flexibility to run WAP services over multiple network types.
 Reduces complexity of upper layers.

Limitations:
 No in-built retransmission, ordering, or reliability.
 Susceptible to bearer-specific errors (e.g., SMS delay or GPRS jitter).
 Higher layers must be robust against such issues.

Real-World Use Cases:

 Push services via SMS (news alerts, banking).
 WAP-based mobile browsing via GPRS.
 USSD-driven applications.

Wireless Transaction Protocol (WTP)

Introduction:
WTP is the transaction layer protocol of the WAP stack, designed to provide reliable
messaging over unreliable and low-bandwidth wireless networks. It plays a role similar to
TCP but is lighter and more suited for mobile environments.

Why WTP is Needed:

Traditional TCP is too heavy for wireless conditions:
 Requires large headers.
 Maintains connection state.
 Assumes reliable channels.
WTP offers reliable messaging without persistent connections, reducing overhead and
energy consumption.

Transaction Classes in WTP:

1. Class 0 (Unreliable One-Way):
o Like UDP; no acknowledgment or reliability.

o Used for non-critical data (e.g., advertisement messages).

2. Class 1 (Reliable One-Way):

o Ensures delivery but no response expected.

o Suitable for commands or logging.

3. Class 2 (Reliable Two-Way):

 o Request-response model.

o Used for transactions like booking confirmations, bank queries.

Transaction Lifecycle:
1. Sender transmits request with a transaction ID.
2. Receiver sends acknowledgment or response.
3. Timeout and retransmissions are handled efficiently with timers and message caching.

Features:
 Lightweight headers.
 Supports acknowledgments and retransmissions.
 Error handling with minimal overhead.
 Duplicate detection to avoid processing repeated messages.

Benefits:
 Conserves bandwidth.
 Reduces latency and overhead compared to TCP.
 Scalable for small devices with limited processing power.
 Flexible transaction models for different use cases.

Limitations:
 Not suited for long-lived sessions.
 Provides reliability only up to transaction level, not full data streams.
 Security depends on lower (WTLS) and upper (WSP) layers.

Real Applications:
 Mobile ticket booking.
 Online banking transactions.
 Alert and notification confirmations.
 E-commerce payment requests.

Wireless Session Protocol (WSP)

Introduction:
WSP is the session layer protocol in the WAP architecture, responsible for managing
sessions and delivering efficient communication between the client and WAP
gateway/server. It is analogous to HTTP in the web world but optimized for low-
bandwidth and high-latency wireless links.

Functions of WSP:
1. Session Establishment and Management:
o Supports persistent and suspended sessions.

o Allows session resumption after temporary disconnections.

2. Content Negotiation:
o Client and server negotiate content formats (WML, images).

o Helps tailor data to device capabilities.

3. Header Compression:
o WSP headers are binary-encoded and highly compact compared to HTTP.

o Reduces transmission cost and improves efficiency.

4. Session Persistence:
o A session ID is used to maintain context across requests.

o Minimizes re-authentication and repeated setup.

Connection Types:
 Connection-oriented: Reserves state and maintains session continuity.
 Connectionless: Stateless requests like HTTP GET.
Request/Response Model:
 Similar to HTTP GET/POST.
 Client sends request for WML content.
 Server responds with encoded data.
 Header fields like Accept, Content-Type, and Session-ID manage data exchange.

Advantages:
 Optimized for wireless networks.
 Supports low-latency content delivery.
 Maintains efficiency and user context.
 Flexible to device and network conditions.

Limitations:
 Limited to WML content types.
 Dependent on WAP Gateway for translation.
 Eventually outdated by HTTP/HTTPS in modern mobile web.

Use Cases:
 Session-based mobile services.
 Interactive mobile portals.
 WAP-based mobile banking.

Wireless Transport Layer Security (WTLS)

Introduction:
WTLS is the security layer of the WAP (Wireless Application Protocol) stack, providing
end-to-end security features like encryption, integrity, and authentication for wireless
communications. It is a lightweight version of TLS (Transport Layer Security), optimized
for devices with low processing power and limited memory, such as early mobile phones
and PDAs.

Why WTLS Was Needed:

Mobile devices in the early 2000s operated under constraints:
 Limited CPU and memory
 Low network bandwidth (e.g., GSM: 9.6 kbps)
 High latency and error rates
TLS was too heavy to operate under these constraints. Hence, WTLS was designed to
deliver similar security properties in a more efficient form.

Features of WTLS:
1. Confidentiality (Encryption):
o Prevents unauthorized access.

o Uses symmetric cryptographic algorithms like RC5, DES, and IDEA.

2. Data Integrity:
o Ensures that messages are not modified during transmission.

o Uses MAC (Message Authentication Codes).

3. Authentication:
o Confirms the identity of communicating parties using digital certificates.

o Supports certificate-based and pre-shared key methods.

4. Handshake Protocol:
o Establishes a secure session using negotiation of algorithms, keys, and
certificates.
5. Alert Protocol:
o Communicates errors or security events (e.g., session timeout, bad certificate).

6. Record Protocol:
o Breaks data into manageable blocks and applies compression, encryption, and
integrity checks.

Optimizations for Wireless:

 Smaller certificate sizes.
 Optional fields and simplified handshakes.
 Ability to resume sessions without repeating the handshake.
 More efficient cryptographic algorithms.

How It Works:
1. Client initiates a secure session with WTLS handshake.
2. Server responds with its certificate and selected security parameters.
3. Session key is agreed upon.
4. Encrypted communication begins.

Limitations:
 The “WAP Gap”: Early implementations decrypted data at the WAP gateway before
re-encrypting it, causing a potential security breach.
 Limited support for modern ciphers.
 Replaced by full TLS/SSL as mobile processing power improved.

Legacy Use Cases:

 Secure mobile banking and payments.
 Encrypted access to corporate intranets.
 Secure form submissions via WAP.

Wireless Markup Language (WML)

Introduction:
WML (Wireless Markup Language) is a lightweight, XML-based language designed for
creating web pages viewable on mobile devices with limited screens and capabilities. It
was the primary language used in WAP before smartphones with HTML-capable
browsers became mainstream.

Why WML Was Developed:

 HTML was too resource-intensive for early mobile devices.
 Screen sizes were small (2–3 lines).
 Memory and processing power were limited.
 Bandwidth was low (9.6–56 kbps).
Structure of WML:
1. Decks and Cards:
o A WML page is called a deck, which contains one or more cards (similar to
individual screens or views).
o Only one card is displayed at a time.

2. Tags:
o <wml>: Root element.

o <card>: Defines a screen.

o <do>: Specifies actions (like buttons).

o <input>: For user input fields.

o <select>: Drop-down options.

o <anchor>: Hyperlinks to other cards or decks.

Example WML Code:

xml
CopyEdit
<wml>
<card id="main" title="Welcome">
<p>Hello! Select an option:</p>
<do type="accept" label="Go">
<go href="next_card.wml"/>
</do>
</card>
</wml>

Features:
 Compact content delivery.
 Support for navigation, form input, and basic interactivity.
 Integration with WMLScript for scripting logic.
 Uses MIME type: text/vnd.wap.wml.

Advantages:
 Fast rendering on limited hardware.
 Efficient use of bandwidth.
 Seamless integration with WAP stack.

Limitations:
 No support for multimedia, JavaScript, or modern UI.
 Obsolete with the advent of smartphones and HTML5.
 Required WAP Gateway translation.

Real Uses:
 Early mobile news portals.
 Banking via mobile browser.
 Government information services.

Push Architecture
Introduction:
Push Architecture is a network communication model where the server initiates data
transfer to the client without the client explicitly requesting it. This is ideal for
applications that need real-time updates or event-driven data delivery, such as
notifications, stock alerts, and messaging.

Push vs Pull:
 Pull: Client requests data from server (e.g., browser fetching a page).
 Push: Server pushes data to client automatically when available (e.g., WhatsApp
message).
How Push Works:
1. A connection is established between client and server.
2. Server monitors events or data changes.
3. When new data is available, it is sent directly to the client.
4. The client displays or processes the data immediately.

Push Technologies:
1. WebSockets:
o Full-duplex communication over a single TCP connection.

o Enables instant message delivery (used in chat apps, multiplayer games).

2. Server-Sent Events (SSE):

o One-way server-to-client communication over HTTP.

o Useful for updates like stock tickers or live scores.

3. Push Notifications (Mobile OS):

o Apple Push Notification Service (APNS)

o Firebase Cloud Messaging (FCM)

o Enables background notifications even when apps are closed.

4. WAP Push (Legacy):

o Used WSP to deliver messages to mobile phones.

o Triggered WML content rendering or alerts.

Advantages:
 Real-time responsiveness.
 Reduces latency and load on servers (no frequent polling).
 Improves user engagement with timely updates.

Disadvantages:
 Requires persistent connections.
 Battery drain on mobile devices if not optimized.
 Firewall/NAT traversal can be complex.

Use Cases:
 Instant messaging (WhatsApp, Telegram).
 News alerts and weather warnings.
 Stock price and forex updates.
 IoT device monitoring.