BCA

SEMESTER II

EVS NOTES
(Whole syllabus compiled)
 UNIT I

Environmental awareness, Ecology and Environment

Topic 1: Multidisciplinary nature of environmental science, definition, scope,

importance and need for public awareness

Definition: Environment simply means surrounding and can be defined as the sum total of
the social, cultural and physical conditions that surround, affect and influence the survival,
growth and development of organisms. Environmental studies deals with every issue that
affects an organism. It is essentially a multidisciplinary approach. Its components include
biology, geology, chemistry, physics, engineering, sociology, health, anthropology,
economics, statistics, computers and philosophy.

MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

The Environment studies is a multi-disciplinary science because of the reasons discussed

below:

a) It comprises various branches of studies like chemistry, physics, medical science, life
science, agriculture, public health, sanitary engineering etc.

b) It is the science of physical phenomena in the environment. It studies about the sources,
reactions, transport, effect and fate of physical and biological species in the air, water, soil
and the effect of from human activity upon these.

c) As the environment is complex and actually made up of many different environments like
natural, constructed and cultural environments, environmental studies is inter disciplinary in
nature including the study of biology, geology, politics, policy studies, law, religion
engineering, chemistry and economics to understand the humanity’s effects on the natural
world.

d) This subject educates the students to appreciate the complexity of environmental issues
and citizens and experts in many fields.

e) By studying environmental science, students may develop a breadth of the interdisciplinary

and methodological knowledge in the environmental fields that enables them to facilitate the
definition and solution of environmental problems.

SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES Environmental studies as a subject has a wide

scope. It includes a large number of areas and aspects, which may be summarized as follows:

a) Natural resources- their conservation and management

b) Ecology and Biodiversity

c) Environmental pollution and control

d) Human population and environment

e) Social issues in relation to development and environment

Several career options have emerged in these fields that are broadly categorized as:

(i) Research and development in environment:

(ii) Green advocacy:

(iii) Green marketing:

(v) Environmental consultancy:

IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

a) The importance of environmental studies is that, the current trend of environmental

degradation can be reversed if people of educated communities are organized, empowered
and experts are involved in sustainable development.

b) Environmental factors greatly influence every organism and their activities

c) At present a great number of environmental issues, have grown in size and complexity day
by day, threatening the survival of mankind on earth.

d) These issues are studied besides giving effective suggestions in the environment studies.
The environment studies enlighten us, about the importance of protection and conservation of
our natural resources, indiscriminate release of pollution into the environment etc.

NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS

1. Growing Population: A population of over thousands of millions is growing at 2.11 per

cent every year. Over 17 million people are added each year. It puts considerable pressure on
its natural resources and reduces the gains of development. Hence, the greatest challenge
before us is to limit the population growth.

2. Poverty: The poverty and environmental degradation are mixed with one another. The vast
majority of our people are directly dependent on the nature resources of the country for their
basic needs of food, fuel shelter and fodder. About 40% of our people are still below the
poverty line.

3. Environment degradation: It has adversely affected the poor who depend upon the
resources of their immediate surroundings. Thus, the challenge of poverty and the challenge
of environment degradation are two facets of the same challenge.

4. Agricultural Growth: The people must be made familiar with the methods to sustain and
increase agricultural growth without damaging the environment. High yielding varieties have
caused soil salinity and damage to physical structure of soil.

5. Need to Increase Ground water: Factors like community wastes, industrial effluents,
chemical fertilizers and pesticides have polluted our surface water and affected quality of the
groundwater. It is essential to restore the water quality of our rivers and other water bodies.
Suitable strategies for conservation of water, provision of safe drinking water and keeping
water bodies clean should be developed.

6. Urbanization: Nearly 27% of Indians live in urban areas. Urbanization and industrialization
has given birth to a great number of environmental problems. Over 30 percent of urban
Indians live in slums.

7. Air and water Pollution: Majority of our industrial plants are using outdated and pollution
causing technologies and makeshift facilities devoid of any provision of treating their wastes.
A great number of cities and industrial areas have been identified as the worst in terms of air
and water pollution.

Topic II

Ecosystem concept and structure

An ecosystem is defined as a natural functional ecological unit comprising of living

organisms (biotic community) and their non-living (abiotic or physio chemical) environment
that interact to form a stable self-supporting system. A pond, lake, desert, grassland, meadow,
forest etc. are common examples of ecosystems.

Structure of ecosystem

Each ecosystem has two main components:

(1) Abiotic

(2) Biotic
(1) Abiotic Components:
The non living factors or the physical environment prevailing in an ecosystem form the

abiotic components. They have a strong influence on the structure, distribution, behaviour

and inter-relationship of organisms.

(2) Biotic Components:

The living organisms including plants, animals and micro-organisms (Bacteria and Fungi)

that are present in an ecosystem form the biotic components.

(I) Producers
(II) Consumers
(III) Decomposers or Reducers.

(I) Producers:
The green plants are producers, have chlorophyll with the help of which they trap solar

energy and change it into chemical energy of carbohydrates using simple inorganic

compounds namely water and carbon dioxide. This process is known as photosynthesis. As

the green plants manufacture their own food they are known as Autotrophs (i.e. auto = self,

trophos = feeder)

The chemical energy stored by the producers is utilised partly by the producers for their own

growth and survival and the remaining is stored in the plant parts for their future use.

(II) Consumers:
The animals lack chlorophyll and are unable to synthesise their own food, they depend on the

producers for their food and are thus consumers. They are known as heterotrophs (i.e. heteros

= other, trophos = feeder)

The consumers are of four types, namely:

(a) Primary Consumers or First Order Consumers or Herbivores:

These are the animals which feed on plants or the producers. They are called herbivores.

Examples are rabbit, deer, goat, cattle etc.

(b) Secondary Consumers or or Primary Carnivores:

The animals which feed on the herbivores are called the primary carnivores. Examples are

cats, foxes, snakes etc.

(c) Tertiary Consumers or secondary carnivores:

These are the large carnivores which feed on the secondary consumers. Example are Wolves.

(d) Quaternary Consumers or Omnivores:

These are the largest carnivores which feed on the tertiary consumers and are not eaten up by

any other animal. Examples are lions and tigers.

(III) Decomposers or Reducers:

Microorganisms like Bacteria and fungi belong to this category. They breakdown the dead

organic materials of producers (plants) and consumers (animals) for their food and release to

the environment the simple inorganic and organic substances produced as by-products of

their metabolisms. These simple substances are reused by the producers resulting in a cyclic

exchange of materials between the biotic community and the abiotic environment of the

ecosystem. The decomposers are known as Saprotrophs (i.e., sapros = rotten, trophos =

feeder)

Function of Ecosystem:
An ecosystem is a discrete structural, functional and life sustaining environmental system.
The environmental system consists of biotic and abiotic components in a habitat. Biotic
component of the ecosystem includes the living organisms; plants, animals and microbes
whereas the abiotic component includes inorganic matter and energy.

Abiotic components provide the matrix for the synthesis and perpetuation of organic
components (protoplasm). The synthesis and perpetuation processes involve energy exchange
and this energy comes from the sun in the form of light or solar energy.

Thus, in any ecosystem we have the following functional components:

(i) Inorganic constituents (air, water and mineral salts)

(ii) Organisms (plants, animals and microbes), and

(iii) Energy input which enters from outside (the sun).

These three interact and form an environmental system.

Topic III

Energy flow and Biogeochemical cycle

Energy Flow:
The interdependence of the flora and fauna of an ecosystem is evident from the fact that some
species met their energy (both catabolic and anabolic) need by consuming some other
species. The basic source of energy for all living beings on earth is solar energy. Utilizing this
energy, the primary producers (autotrophs) synthesize food.

Food Chain

Food chain is a linear sequence of organisms which starts from producer organisms and ends with
decomposer species. In scientific terms, a food chain is a chronological pathway or an order that
shows the flow of energy from one organism to the other. In a community which has
producers, consumers, and decomposers, the energy flows in a specific pathway. Energy is not
created or destroyed. But it flows from one level to the other, through different organisms.
Example of food chain
Grass (Producer) —–Goat (Primary Consumer) —– Man (Secondary consumer)
Food Web
Food web is a connection of multiple food chains. Many interconnected food chains make up a
food web. When you look at the larger picture, a food web shows a realistic representation of the
energy flow through different organisms in an ecosystem.

Biogeochemical cycle

Various elements are required for proper growth and development of living organisms. Most
important of these are C, H, O, P, K, N, S, Ca, Fe, Mg, B, Zn, CI, Mo, Co, I and F. These
materials flow from abiotic to biotic components and back to the non-living component again
in a more or less cyclic manner. This is known as the biogeochemical cycle or inorganic-
organic cycle. The flow of these elements through the ecosystem must be cyclic, with matter
being consistently reused. Because the flow involves not only the living organisms but also a
series of chemical reactions in the abiotic environments, these cycles are called
biogeochemical cycles.

Some of the important types of Biogeochemical Cycles: Hydrologic Cycle, Gaseous Cycles
and Sedimentary Cycles

1. Hydrologic or Water Cycle:

Interchange of water between atmosphere, land and sea and between living organisms and
their environment is accomplished through water cycle. Water cycle or hydrologic cycle
involves evaporation, transpiration, cloud formation and precipitation.
2. Gaseous Cycles:
The gases like carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, etc. are present in atmosphere and are
used by organisms in their various functions. Plants utilise these to produce food, which are
then used by consumers and so on. After the death and decay the work of decomposer begins
and these are again returned to the environment.
3. Sedimentary Cycles:
Mineral elements required by living organisms are obtained initially from inorganic sources.
Available forms occur as salts dissolved in soil water. Plants and some animals take minerals
in the form of mineral solution from their habitats. After the death of living organisms the
nutrients return to the soil and water through the action of decomposers (bacteria and fungi)
and transformers.

Topic IV
Ecological Pyramid
An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation of the relationship between the different
living organisms at different trophic levels.

Types of Ecological Pyramid

Three types of ecological pyramid exist. They are as follows:
Pyramid of Numbers
In this type of ecological pyramid, the number of organisms in each trophic level is
considered as a level in the pyramid. The pyramid of numbers is usually upright but may also
be inverted.

Pyramid of Biomass
In this particular type of ecological pyramid, each level takes into account the amount
of biomass produced by each trophic level. The pyramid of biomass is also upright except for
that observed in oceans where large numbers of zooplanktons depend on a relatively smaller
number of phytoplanktons.

Pyramid of Energy

Pyramid of energy is the only type of ecological pyramid, which is always upright as the
energy flow in a food chain is always unidirectional. Also, with every increasing trophic
level, some energy is lost into the environment
Long questions

1. Why environmental study is considered as a multidesciplinary aproach? Explain with

examples.

2. What are ecological pyramids and what are its types?

3. Why study of environment is important? What are its scope and importance?

4. What do you mean by term ecosystem, explain its structure?

5. Flow of energy in ecosystem with examples.

Short questions

1. Biogeochemical cycle

2. Pyramid of energy

3. Differentiate between producer and consumer

4. Differentiate between abiotic and biotic components.

5. What role does decomposers play in ecosystem?

 Unit 2

I. Segment of Environment
Environment means Surrounding in which we are living, which includes all living (biotic)
and non living (abiotic) factors on which we are interdependent.

There are four different segment of environment:

1. Atmosphere:
The air envelope surrounding the earth is known as Atmosphere. This protective envelop

surrounding earth sustain life on earth and protect us from unfriendly environment of outer

space. It extends to the height of about 1600 km from the earth surface. It consists of life

saving gases like O2 for human beings and animals and CO2 for plants.
2. Hydrosphere:
It covers more than 75% of the earth surface either as oceans or as fresh water. Hydrosphere

includes sea, rivers, oceans, lakes, ponds, streams etc.

3. Lithosphere:
It means the mantle of rocks constituting the earth’s crust. The solid component of the earth

is called Lithosphere, which includes soil, earth, rocks and mountains etc. The lithosphere

mainly contains three layers –

(a) Inner and Outer Core:

Central fluid or vaporised sphere of diameter of about 2500km from the centre.

(b) Mantle:
It is about 2900-3000 km above the core in molten state.

(c) Crust:
Outermost solid zone about 8-40 km above mantle.

4. Biosphere:
This segment of environment consists of atmosphere (air- 02, N2, C02). Lithosphere (land-

minerals, salts, food, nutrients) and hydrosphere (water- dissolved oxygen, Salts) which
influences and support the entire biotic and abiotic life systems.
There is a continuous interaction among the various components of the environment. And
ultimately, it is the biosphere that gets influenced by the other components.

II. Pathways and fate of Pollution:

As already stated, environmental pollution is mostly due to direct or indirect human
activities, arising out of the built-world created by him.

There are six major sources of environmental pollution:

1. Industrial sources

2. Agricultural sources

3. Biogenic sources

4. Anthropogenic sources

5. Unnatural sources

6. Extra-terrestrial sources.

The relative importance of each one of these sources depends on the site-specific situation.
For instance in cities, anthropogenic sources are the major contributors while in rural areas,
agricultural sources significantly add to pollution.

Types of Pollution:
The environmental pollution may be categorized into six major groups:
1. Air/atmosphere pollution

2. Water pollution
3. Land/soil pollution

4. Noise pollution

5. Thermal pollution

6. Radioactive pollution.

Nature of Pollutants:
The pollutants that occur in the environment may be chemical, biological and physical in
their nature.

Chemical pollutants:
Gaseous pollutants (sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide), toxic metals, pesticides, herbicides,
hydrocarbons, toxins, acidic substances, carcinogens.

Biological pollutants:
Pathogenic organisms, products of biological origin.

Physical pollutants:
Heat (thermal), sound, odours, radiation and radioactive substances.

III. Causes of pollution

1. Increase in Population:
The rapid increase in population is one of the most important factors of air pollution. World
population had touched 6.3 billion in the year 2010 and it will grow to 22.5 billion by 2100.
An increase in population leads to global warming, loss in forest cover and wild life species.

2. Deforestation:
Indiscriminate cutting of plants, trees and forests has disturbed the balance of CO 2 and O2 in
nature. Forests are also removed to meet the growing demand of population. The world
produced 399 million tonnes of paper in 2009 and is losing 23 million hectare of forest cover
each year. Developed countries use more than 71% of the world’s paper production. By 2012,
Asia would be the largest producer of paper.
3. Burning of Fossil Fuels:
About 97% of the energy is generated by fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas. The major
fuel burning sources are automobiles, thermal power plants, heating plants and industrial
processes. Burning of fossil fuels produces about 2/3 of SO2 present in air. It is the fourth
largest source of air pollution.
4. Rapid Industrialisation:
Next to combustion systems, the major sources of air pollutants are chemical and
metallurgical industries.

5. Metallic Contaminants:
Industrial activities discharge toxic metals which are indestructible poisons to living biota.
According to International Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals of United Nations
Environment Programme, there exist six million known chemicals in the world today and
30,000 new compounds are added to the list every year. About 70,000 compounds are
commonly employed.

6. Agricultural Activities:
Several types of biocides such as pesticides, insecticides, herbicides etc. are used in
agricultural practices which have caused soil erosion, ground water pollution and spread of
pests resistant to pesticides in air. In global terms India, today has 16% of human population,
15% of farm animal population, 2% of the geographical area, 1% of rainfall, 0.5% of forests
and 0.5% of grazing land. A number of biocides such as DDT, BHC, aldrin, chlordane,
endosulphan etc. are not easily biodegradable. These are absorbed by plants and create
adverse effects on biotic components.

IV. Chemical, physical and biological transformation of pollutants

The chemical-physical and biological treatment of waste mainly includes the following
processes:

Pollutants are removed from aqueous waste through filtration, precipitation or other
techniques like decomposition by microorganisms so that the water can be introduced into the
sewage system. Depending on their composition, the pollutants removed from the waste are
incinerated or deposited in landfills.

Sludge-like waste must undergo repeated dewatering cycles so that it can be incinerated or
deposited in landfills.

Solid waste with high pollutant content may not be deposited in landfills without
undergoing pre-treatment. Pollutants can be removed from contaminated excavated material
through washing. Organic pollutants are destroyed using thermal treatment or transformed
into harmless substances using microorganisms or plants. Waste containing high levels of
heavy metals, for example filter ash from waste incineration plants, is solidified using binders
like cement. This prevents the leaching of the pollutants.

V. Population explosion
Population explosion refers to the rapid and dramatic rise in world population that has

occurred over the last few hundred years. Between 1959 and 2000, the world’s population

increased from 2.5 billion to 6.1 billion people. According to United Nations projections, the

world population will be between 7.9 billion and 10.9 billion by 2050.

Most of the growth is currently taking place in the developing world, where rates of natural

increase are much higher than in industrialized countries. Concern that this might lead to over

population has led some countries to adopt population control policies.

However, since people in developing countries consume far less, especially of non-renewable

resources, per head of population than people in industrialized countries, it has been argued

that the West should set an example in population control instead of giving, for example,

universal child benefit.

The Causes of Rapid Population Growth:

Until recently, birth rates and death rates were about the same, keeping the population stable.

People had many children, but a large number of them died before age of five.

During the Industrial Revolution, a period of history in Europe and North America

where there were great advances in science and technology, the success in reducing

death rates was attributable to several factors:

(1) increases in food production and distribution,

(2) Improvement in public health (water and sanitation), and

(3) Medical technology (vaccines and antibiotics), along with gains in education and

standards of living within many developing nations.

Without these attributes present in many children’s lives, they could not have survived
common diseases like measles or the flu. People were able to fight and cure deadly germs
that once killed them. In addition, because of the technology, people could produce more and

different kinds of food. Gradually, over a period of time, these discoveries and inventions

spread throughout the world, lowering death rates and improving the quality of life for most

people.

VI. Human health and environment

A clean environment is essential for human health and well-being. At the same time, the local
environment can also be a source of stressors - for example air pollution, noise, hazardous
chemicals - that negatively affect health. The health of population is also adversely affected
by climate change, through heatwaves, floods and changes in the distribution of vector-borne
diseases. At a broader level, climate change, loss of biodiversity, and land degradation can
also impact on human well-being by threatening the delivery of ecosystem services, such as
access to freshwater and food production.

Human health and well-being are intimately linked to the state of the environment. Good
quality natural environments provide basic needs, in terms of clean air and water, fertile land
for food production, and energy and material inputs for production. Green infrastructure also
serves to regulate climate and prevent flooding. Access to green and blue spaces also
provides important opportunities for recreation and supports well-being.

At the same time, the environment represents an important pathway for human exposure to
polluted air, noise and hazardous chemicals. In their report on preventing disease through
healthy environments, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that environmental
stressors are responsible for 12–18 % of all deaths in the 53 countries of the WHO Europe
Region. Improving the quality of the environment in key areas such as air, water and noise
can prevent disease and improve human health.

VII. Human rights

Human rights are rights we have simply because we exist as human beings - they are not
granted by any state. These universal rights are inherent to us all, regardless of nationality,
sex, national or ethnic origin, color, religion, language, or any other status. They range from
the most fundamental - the right to life - to those that make life worth living, such as the
rights to food, education, work, health, and liberty.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), adopted by the UN General
Assembly in 1948, was the first legal document to set out the fundamental human rights to be
universally protected. The UDHR, which turned 70 in 2018, continues to be the foundation of
all international human rights law. Its 30 articles provide the principles and building blocks of
current and future human rights conventions, treaties and other legal instruments.

Human rights law obliges governments to do some things, and prevents them from doing
others. Individuals also have responsibilities: in using their human rights, they must respect
the rights of others. No government, group or individual person has the right to do anything
that violates another’s rights.

Universality and inalienability

Human rights are universal and inalienable. All people everywhere in the world are entitled
to them. No one can voluntarily give them up. Nor can others take them away from him or
her.

Indivisibility
Human rights are indivisible. Whether civil, political, economic, social or cultural in nature,
they are all inherent to the dignity of every human person. Consequently, they all have equal
status as rights. There is no such thing as a 'small' right. There is no hierarchy of human
rights.

Inter-dependence and inter-relatedness

The realization of one right often depends, wholly or in part, upon the realization of others.
For instance, the realization of the right to health may depend on the realization of the right to
education or of the right to information.

Equality and non-discrimination

All individuals are equal as human beings and by virtue of the inherent dignity of each human
person. All human beings are entitled to their human rights without discrimination of any
kind, such as race, color, sex, ethnicity, age, language, religion, political or other opinion,
national or social origin, disability, property, birth or other status as explained by the human
rights treaty bodies.
Participation and inclusion
Every person and all peoples are entitled to active, free and meaningful participation in,
contribution to, and enjoyment of civil, political, economic, social and cultural development,
through which human rights and fundamental freedoms can be realized.

Accountability and rule of law

States and other duty-bearers must comply with the legal norms and standards enshrined in
human rights instruments. Where they fail to do so, aggrieved rights-holders are entitled to
institute proceedings for appropriate redress before a competent court or other adjudicator, in
accordance with the rules and procedures provided by law.

VIII. Value education

The very purpose and main function of education is the development of an all round and

well-balanced personality of the students, and also to develop all dimensions of the human

intellect so that our children can help make our nation more democratic, cohesive, socially

responsible, culturally rich and intellectually competitive nation.

But, nowadays, more emphasis is unduly laid on knowledge-based and information-oriented

education which takes care of only the intellectual development of the child.

Consequently, the other aspect of their personality like physical, emotional, social and

spiritual are not properly developed in providing for the growth of attitudes, habits, values,

skills and interests among the pupils. It is here that we talk in terms of value-education. A

complete description of what value-education is, could entail a study in itself.

There are corroborating findings, by many researchers. After analysing and studying the

descriptions (about value-education) of such researchers the definition of value-education

may be started as follows:

Value-education is a many sided endeavour and in an activity during which young people are
assisted by adults or older people in schools, family homes, clubs and religious and other
organisations, to make explicit those underlying their own attitudes, to assess the

effectiveness of these values for their own and others long term well-being and to reflect on

and acquire other values which are more effective for long term well-being.

Value- education, is thus concerned to make morality a living concern for students. Hence,

what is needed is value-education. Despite many educators and educationists description

regarding value-education, it cannot be denied that continuing research will continue to

making the description of value- education more adequate.

According to C. V. Good — ”Value-education is the aggregate of all the process by

means of which a person develops abilities, attitudes and other forms of behaviour of
the positive values in the society in which he lives.”
The objectives for value-education may be taken up as follows:

1. Full development of child’s personality in its physical, mental, emotional and spiritual

aspects,

2. Inculcation of good manners and of responsible and cooperative citizenship.

3. Developing respect for the dignity of individual and society.

4. Inculcation of a spirit of patriotism and national integration.

5. Developing a democratic way of thinking and living.

6. Developing tolerance towards and understanding of different religious faiths.

7. Developing sense of brotherhood at social, national and international levels.

8. Helping pupils to have faith in themselves and in some supernatural power that, is

supposed to control this universe and human life.

9. Enabling pupils to make decisions on the basis of sound moral principles

10. Evolving the evaluation criteria on value-education.

11. Suggesting measures for better utilisation of value-education.

IX. Women and child welfare programmes:

Department of women and child development: It was elevated to the status of an independent
ministry at the union level from 20th Feb, 2006.

The consequent changes have helped in giving children’s issues a focused attention and
enhanced allocation- children’s issues were also consolidated and entrusted to MWCD for
better and effective implementation.

The department of women and child development is one of the major departments in the
district implementing variety of programmes for the development of women & children,
protecting children from being neglected, exploited, prevent destitution and delinquency,
provide alternative shelter based rehabilitation through institutional treatment, improve health
nutritional status of children and women, create awareness among rural women to improve
overall living conditions.

The department has developed many programmes in fulfillment of the above objectives.
ICDS scheme covers all the 7 talukas of the district. The department is also responsible
for prevention of juvenile linguency, destitution & negligence of children by parents and is
running an observation home, juvenile home under government sector and 7 destitute
cottages run by NGO’s are given financial assistance. All the services are provided through
an anganwadi centre and there are 1303 anganwadi workers in the district
providing services to the pregnant & lactating women with nutritional food 300 days in a
year, immunizing children and pregnant women and other basic services.

Schemes of the department:

 Attendance scholarship for girls up to 10th standard.

 Assistance to girls in job oriented courses 7 encouragement to take up self
employment through bank loans under schemes like Vikasini, Navajeevan, Mane
Belaku, Udyogini etc.
 Special school for child labour, physical handicapped childrens.
 Providing scholarship to disabled students and encouraging them for self
employment.
 Widow / Devadasi marriage
 Assistance to Mahila Mandals and Mahila federations.
Integrated child development services scheme: Integrated child development scheme
launched on 2nd Oct 1975 in 33 community development locks. Government of India
proclaimed a National Policy on children in August, 1974 declaring children as “supremely
important asset”. The policy provided the required frame work for assigning priority to
different needs of the child.

It was launched in 1975 seeking to provide an integrated package of services in a convergent

manner for the holistic development of the child.

Objectives of ICDS:

 Way the foundation for proper psychological development of the child.

 Improve nutritional and health status of children 0-6 yrs.
 Reduce incidence of mortality, morbidity, malnutrition and school dropouts.
 Enhance the capability of the mother and family to look after the health, nutritional
and development needs of the child.
 Achieve effective co-ordination of policy and implementation among various
departments to promote child development.
Services: The scheme provides an integrated approach for converging basic services through
community based workers and helpers. The services are provided at a centre called
anganwadi. A package of following six services is provided under the ICDS scheme.’

 Supplementary nutrition.
 Non-formal preschool education.
 Immunization
 Health check up
 Referral services
 Nutrition and health education.
The kasturba Gandhi balika vidyalaya scheme:It was launched in 2004 is designed to
encourage greater participation of girls in education at upper primary level.

Under the scheme 1180 residential schools at upper primary level has been sanctioned for
girls belonging predominantly to SC/STOBC and minority communities in educationally
backward blocks with higher gender gaps and low female literacy.

 Kishora balika pathakam: It is being implemented in Andhra Pradesh to engineer

change in social attitudes, self-esteem and ensure capabilities. 100% enrolment in
elementary education especially for girls and to discourage early marriage.
 Bala streela sikshana kendra: It is a residential vocational training centre offers
courses to mould adolescent girls as entrepreneurs.
 Unit III

The different layers of the atmosphere

The atmosphere can be divided into layers based on its temperature, as shown in the figure
below. These layers are the troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere and the
thermosphere. A further region, beginning about 500 km above the Earth's surface, is called
the exosphere.

The Troposphere

This is the lowest part of the atmosphere - the part we live in. It contains most of our weather
- clouds, rain, snow. In this part of the atmosphere the temperature gets colder as the distance
above the earth increases, by about 6.5°C per kilometre. The actual change of temperature
with height varies from day to day, depending on the weather.

The troposphere contains about 75% of all of the air in the atmosphere, and almost all of the
water vapour (which forms clouds and rain). The decrease in temperature with height is a
result of the decreasing pressure. If a parcel of air moves upwards it expands (because of the
lower pressure). When air expands it cools. So air higher up is cooler than air lower down.

The Stratosphere

This extends upwards from the tropopause to about 50 km. It contains much of the ozone in
the atmosphere. The increase in temperature with height occurs because of absorption of
ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun by this ozone. Temperatures in the stratosphere are
highest over the summer pole, and lowest over the winter pole.

By absorbing dangerous UV radiation, the ozone in the stratosphere protects us from skin
cancer and other health damage. However chemicals (called CFCs or freons, and halons)
which were once used in refrigerators, spray cans and fire extinguishers have reduced the
amount of ozone in the stratosphere, particularly at polar latitudes, leading to the so-called
"Antarctic ozone hole".

The Mesosphere

The region above the stratosphere is called the mesosphere. Here the temperature again
decreases with height, reaching a minimum of about -90°C at the "mesopause".

The Thermosphere and Ionosphere

The thermosphere lies above the mesopause, and is a region in which temperatures again
increase with height. This temperature increase is caused by the absorption of energetic
ultraviolet and X-Ray radiation from the sun.
The region of the atmosphere above about 80 km is also caused the "ionosphere", since the
energetic solar radiation knocks electrons off molecules and atoms, turning them into "ions"
with a positive charge. The temperature of the thermosphere varies between night and day
and between the seasons, as do the numbers of ions and electrons which are present. The
ionosphere reflects and absorbs radio waves, allowing us to receive shortwave radio
broadcasts in New Zealand from other parts of the world.

The Exosphere

The region above about 500 km is called the exosphere. It contains mainly oxygen and
hydrogen atoms, but there are so few of them that they rarely collide - they follow "ballistic"
trajectories under the influence of gravity, and some of them escape right out into space.

The Magnetosphere

The earth behaves like a huge magnet. It traps electrons (negative charge) and protons
(positive), concentrating them in two bands about 3,000 and 16,000 km above the globe - the
Van Allen "radiation" belts. This outer region surrounding the earth, where charged particles
spiral along the magnetic field lines, is called the magnetosphere.

Classification of air pollutants

 The air pollutants can be classified in many ways as shown below:-

1. According to origin: The air pollutants are classified into:

Primarypollutants:
The pollutants that are emitted directly from identifiable sources produced by
natural events
( eg: dust storms and volcanic eruptions) and human activities (eg: emissions from
vehicles, industries etc.) are called primary pollutants. Eg: smoke, dust, oxides of
sulphur & nitrogen, hydrocarbons and particulate matter etc.
Secondarypollutants:
The pollutants that are formed in the atmosphere by chemical interactions between
primary pollutants and atmospheric constituents are known as secondary pollutants.
Eg. Sulphur trioxide, ozone, ketones, sulphuric acid, nitric acid, carbonic acid etc.

2. According to state of matter: The pollutants are classified into:-

Gaseousairpollutants:
These pollutants exist in a gaseous state at normal temperature and pressure. They
are carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulphur oxides etc.
Particulate air pollutants:
These are not gaseous substances. They are suspended droplets, solid particles or
mixtures of the two.

3. According to sources: Pollutants originate from

Naturalsources:
These include volcanic eruptions, deflation of sand and dust, forest or wild fires of
natural vegetation, sulphur springs, natural geysers, organic and inorganic decays,
vegetative decays, marsh gases, cosmic dust, pollen grains of flowers,
photochemical reactions, soil debris etc.
Man-madesources:
These include human activities such as industries, factories, urban centres, aircraft,
nuclear experiments, automobiles, agriculture, domestic burning of wood and
burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, mining, waste treatment plants and power
plants.

Effects of Air Pollutants:

There are Various Harmful Effects of the air Pollutants:

1. Respiratory and heart problems: The effects of Air pollution are alarming. They are known
to create several respiratory and heart conditions along with Cancer, among other threats to
the body. Several millions are known to have died due to direct or indirect effects of Air
pollution. Children in areas exposed to air pollutants are said to commonly suffer from
pneumonia and asthma.

2. Global warming: Another direct effect is the immediate alterations that the world is
witnessing due to Global warming. With increased temperatures world wide, increase in sea
levels and melting of ice from colder regions and icebergs, displacement and loss of habitat
have already signaled an impending disaster if actions for preservation and normalization
aren’t undertaken soon.
3. Acid Rain: Harmful gases like nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides are released into the
atmosphere during the burning of fossil fuels. When it rains, the water droplets combines
with these air pollutants, becomes acidic and then falls on the ground in the form of acid rain.
Acid rain can cause great damage to human, animals and crops.

4. Effect on Wildlife: Just like humans, animals also face some devastating affects of air
pollution. Toxic chemicals present in the air can force wildlife species to move to new place
and change their habitat. The toxic pollutants deposit over the surface of the water and can
also affect sea animals.

5. Depletion of Ozone layer: Ozone exists in earth’s stratosphere and is responsible for
protecting humans from harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays. Earth’s ozone layer is depleting due to
the presence of chlorofluorocarbons, hydro chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere. As ozone
layer will go thin, it will emit harmful rays back on earth and can cause skin and eye related
problems. UV rays also have the capability to affect crops.

6. On Plants: Air pollutants affect plants by entering through stomata (leaf pores through
which gases diffuse), destroy chlorophyll and affect photosynthesis. During the day time the
stomata are wide open to facilitate photosynthesis. Air pollutants during day time affect
plants by entering the leaf through these stomata more than night. Pollutants also erode waxy
coating of the leaves called cuticle. Cuticle prevents excessive water loss and damage from
diseases, pests, drought and frost. Damage to leaf structure causes necrosis (dead areas of
leaf), chlorosis (loss or reduction of chlorophyll causing yellowing of leaf) or epinasty
(downward curling of leaf), and abscission (dropping of leaves).

Causes of Air pollution

1. Burning of Fossil Fuels: Sulfur dioxide emitted from the combustion of fossil fuels like
coal, petroleum and other factory combustibles is one the major cause of air pollution.
Pollution emitting from vehicles including trucks, jeeps, cars, trains, airplanes cause immense
amount of pollution. We rely on them to fulfill our daily basic needs of transportation. But,
there overuse is killing our environment as dangerous gases are polluting the environment.
Carbon Monooxide caused by improper or incomplete combustion and generally emitted
from vehicles is another major pollutant along with Nitrogen Oxides, that is produced from
both natural and man made processes.

2. Agricultural activities: Ammonia is a very common by product from agriculture related

activities and is one of the most hazardous gases in the atmosphere. Use of insecticides,
pesticides and fertilizers in agricultural activities has grown quite a lot. They emit harmful
chemicals into the air and can also cause water pollution.

3. Exhaust from factories and industries: Manufacturing industries release large amount of
carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, organic compounds, and chemicals into the air thereby
depleting the quality of air. Manufacturing industries can be found at every corner of the
earth and there is no area that has not been affected by it. Petroleum refineries also release
hydrocarbons and various other chemicals that pollute the air and also cause land pollution.
4. Mining operations: Mining is a process wherein minerals below the earth are extracted
using large equipments. During the process dust and chemicals are released in the air causing
massive air pollution. This is one of the reason which is responsible for the deteriorating
health conditions of workers and nearby residents.

5. Indoor air pollution: Household cleaning products, painting supplies emit toxic chemicals
in the air and cause air pollution. Have you ever noticed that once you paint walls of your
house, it creates some sort of smell which makes it literally impossible for you to breathe.
Suspended particulate matter popular by its acronym SPM, is another cause of pollution.
Referring to the particles afloat in the air, SPM is usually caused by dust, combustion etc.

Control of Air Pollution:

1. Use public mode of transportation: Encourage people to use more and more pu blic modes
of transportation to reduce pollution. Also, try to make use of car pooling. If you and your
colleagues come from the same locality and have same timings you can explore this option to
save energy and money.

2. Conserve energy: Switch off fans and lights when you are going out. Large amount of
fossil fuels are burnt to produce electricity. You can save the environment from degradation
by reducing the amount of fossil fuels to be burned.

3. Understand the concept of Reduce, Reuse and Recycle: Do not throw away items that are
of no use to you. In-fact reuse them for some other purpose. For e.g. you can use old jars to
store cereals or pulses.

4. Emphasis on clean energy resources: Clean energy technologies like solar, wind and
geothermalare on high these days. Governments of various countries have been providing
grants to consumers who are interested in installing solar panels for their home. This will go a
long way to curb air pollution.

5. Use energy efficient devices: CFL lights consume less electricity as against their
counterparts. They live longer, consume less electricity, lower electricity bills and also help
you to reduce pollution by consuming less energy

6. Vehicular pollution can be checked by regular tune-up of engines; replacement of more

polluting old vehicles; installing catalytic converters; by engine modification to have fuel
efficient (lean) mixtures to reduce CO and hydrocarbon emissions; and slow and cooler
burning of fuels to reduce NOx emission. Using low sulphur coal in industries. Minimise or
modify activities which cause pollution e.g. transportation and energy production.

Global Warming and Greenhouse Effect

The history of the greenhouse effect and global warming was first of all, predicted by Svante
Arrhenius, a Swedish scientist that was the first to claim in 1896 that fossil fuel combustion
may eventually result in enhanced global warming. He proposed a relation between
atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and temperature. When we burn organic materials
(i.e. carbon-containing) fuels, or organic matter decomposes, carbon dioxide is released into
the air. It is transparent to incoming solar radiation, but opaque to some wavelengths of heat
radiated from the warmed surface of the Earth, and so traps heat, leading eventually to a
warming of the lower atmosphere” This is known as the greenhouse effect, as in principle,
the atmosphere behaves in a similar manner to a garden greenhouse, it allows sunlight to
penetrate, but heat is trapped within the atmosphere in the same way that it is trapped within
the glass walls of a greenhouse. This trapped hot air is causing the earth to heat up, resulting
in global warming, and ultimately climate change. Greenhouse gases include naturally
occurring gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane, and even water vapour. In fact, water
vapour is the most abundant greenhouse gas. However, human activities, such as burning of
coal, exhaust fumes from vehicles, and burning of trees during deforestation activities, are
contributing huge amounts of additional greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, where they
enhance the greenhouse effect further and contribute to global warming.

Greenhouse Gases

Our planets contain many gases which surface a layer and prevent unwanted radiations to
reach the surface. These gases are in certain proportions breaking which, the components get
disturbed. The greenhouse gas absorbs and emits these radiations within the range which
ultimately causes the greenhouse effect.

The common greenhouse gases in Earth’s atmosphere are: 1. Water vapour (H2O) 2. Carbon
dioxide (CO2) 3. Methane (CH4) 4. Nitrous oxide (N2O) 5. Ozone (O3) 6.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Causes of Global warming

With the coming of Industrial revolutions, the use of chemicals and fuel in the factories has
increased to a dangerous amount. Along with it, deforestation due to industrial or economic
purposes and the excess burning of fossil fuels like natural gas, oil, and coal, has increased
the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide from 315 ppm (part per million by volume)
to about 363 ppm since 1958. These are some of the primary reasons for which the heat gets
trapped in the atmosphere thus causing global warming. The greenhouse effect is caused by
the interaction of the sun's energy with greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrous oxide and fluorinated gases in the Earth's atmosphere. The ability of these gases to
trap heat is what causes the greenhouse effect. Greenhouse gases are made of three or more
atoms. This molecular structure makes it possible for these gases to trap heat in the
atmosphere and then re-emit it towards the surface which further warms the Earth. This
continuous cycle of trapping heat leads to an overall increase in global temperatures. This
process, which is very similar to the way a greenhouse works, is why the gases that can
produce this effect are collectively known as greenhouse gases.

The principal gases of the greenhouse effect are:

Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N2O), Fluorinated gases, Carbon
dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and the fluorinated gases are all well-mixed gases in the
atmosphere that do not react to changes in temperature and air pressure, so the levels of these
gases are not affected by condensation. Water vapour on the other hand, is a highly active
component of the climate system that responds rapidly to changes in conditions by either
condensing into rain or snow, or evaporating to return to the atmosphere.

Consequences of Global warming

On average, the Earth’s temperature will become warmer than earlier, while some places will
get warm while others may not

The rise of sea level: Due to global warming, the glaciers and ice sheets of Greenland and
Atlantic will melt which will add water to the sea level, thus causing many disasters like
Tsunami. A rise in sea level will also have an economic impact especially on the low-lying
coastal areas and islands causing unavoidable soil erosion.

Agricultural impact: According to multiple experiments, with the high concentration of CO2
in the atmosphere, the growth of crops is twice than the normal growth. At the same time, the
shifting of the climatic pattern may change the areas where crops grow faster and better thus
affecting the normal amount of agricultural production.

Environmental effect; The greenhouse effect is a major factor in keeping the Earth warmer
because it keeps some of the planet's heat that would otherwise escape from the atmosphere
out to space. In fact, without the greenhouse effect the Earth's average global temperature
would be much colder and life on Earth would not be possible

OZONE LAYER AND ITS DEPLETION

The ozone layer sits in the lower region of the stratosphere from about 20-30 kilometers
above the surface of the earth. The thickness of the ozone layer is about 3 to 5 mm, but it
pretty much fluctuates depending on the season and geography. Ozone layer is a deep layer in
earth’s atmosphere that contain ozone which is a naturally occurring molecule containing
three oxygen atoms. These ozone molecules form a gaseous layer in the Earth’s upper
atmosphere called stratosphere. This lower region of stratosphere containing relatively higher
concentration of ozone is called Ozonosphere. The Ozonosphere is found 15-35 km (9 to 22
miles) above the surface of the earth. The concentration of ozone in the ozone layer is usually
under 10 parts per million while the average concentration of ozone in the atmosphere is
about 0.3 parts per million. The thickness of the ozone layer differs as per season and
geography. The highest concentrations of ozone occur at altitudes from 26 to 28 km (16 to 17
miles) in the tropics and from 12 to 20 km (7 to 12 miles) towards the poles. The ozone layer
forms a thick layer in stratosphere, encircling the earth, that has large amount of ozone in it.
The ozone layer protects life on earth from strong ultraviolet radiation that comes from the
sun. Ultraviolet rays are harmful rays that can drive up the risk of deadly disorders like skin
cancer, cataracts and damage the immune system. Ultraviolet rays are also capable of
destroying single cell organism, terrestrial plant life, and aquatic ecosystems. The ozone layer
was discovered in 1913 by the French physicists Charles Fabry and Henri Buisson. The
ozone layer has the capability to absorb almost 97-99% of the harmful ultraviolet radiations
that sun emit and which can produce long term devastating effects on humans beings as well
as plants and animals.

Composition

Ozone is an extraordinary kind of oxygen composed of 3 oxygen atoms instead of the normal
2 oxygen atoms. Ozone layer normally develops when a few kinds of electrical discharge or
radiation splits the 2 atoms in an oxygen(O2) molecule, which then independently reunite
with other types of molecules to form ozone. The ozone layer has been shielding life on
planet earth for billions of years, but it’s now being worn out by human activities

Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion

Credible scientific studies have substantiated that the cause of ozone layer depletion is human
activity, specifically, human-made chemicals that contain chlorine or bromine. These
chemicals are widely known as ODS, an acronym for Ozone-Depleting Substances. The
scientists have observed reduction in stratospheric ozone since early 1970’s. It is found to be
more prominent in Polar Regions. Ozone-Depleting Substances have been proven to be eco-
friendly, very stable and nontoxic in the atmosphere below. This is why they have gained
popularity over the years. However, their stability comes at a price; they are able to float and
remain static high up in the stratosphere. When up there, ODS are comfortably broken down
by the strong UV light and the resultant chemical is chlorine and bromine. Chlorine an d
bromine are known to deplete the ozone layer at supersonic speeds. They do this by simply
stripping off an atom from the ozone molecule. One chlorine molecule has the capability to
break down thousands of ozone molecules. Ozone-depleting substances have stayed and will
continue to stay in the atmosphere for many years. This, essentially, implies that a lot of the
ozone-depleting substances human have allowed to go into the atmosphere for the previous
90 years are still on their journey to the atmosphere, which is why they will contribute to
ozone depletion.

The chief ozone-depleting substances include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), carbon

tetrachloride, hydro chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and methyl chloroform. Halons,
sometimes known as brominated fluorocarbons, also contribute mightily to ozone depletion.
However, their application is greatly restricted since they are utilized in specific fire
extinguishers. The downside to halons is they are so potent that they are able to deplete the
ozone layer 10 times more than ozone-depleting substances

SMOGS

 Smog = smoke + fog (smoky fog) caused by the burning of large amounts of coal,
vehicular emission and industrial fumes (Primary pollutants).
 Smog contains soot particulates like smoke, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and
other components.
 At least two distinct types of smog are recognized: sulfurous smog and photochemical
smog.

Sulfurous smog

 Sulfurous smog is also called “London smog,” (first formed in London).

 Sulfurous smog results from a high concentration of SULFUR OXIDES in the air
and is caused by the use of sulfur-bearing fossil fuels, particularly coal (Coal was
the mains source of power in London during nineteenth century. The effects of coal
burning were observed in early twentieth century).
  This type of smog is aggravated by dampness and a high concentration of
suspended particulate matter in the air.

Photochemical smog

 Photochemical smog is also known as “Los Angeles smog”.

 Photochemical smog occurs most prominently in urban areas that have large numbers of
automobiles (Nitrogen oxides are the primary emissions).
 Photochemical (summer smog) forms when pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (primary
pollutant) and organic compounds (primary pollutants) react together in the presence
of SUNLIGHT. A gas called OZONE (Secondary pollutant) is formed.

Nitrogen Dioxide + Sunlight + Hydrocarbons = Ozone (Ozone in stratosphere it is

beneficial, but near the earth’s surface it results in global warming as it is a greenhouse
gas)

 The resulting smog causes a light brownish coloration of the atmosphere, reduced
visibility, plant damage, irritation of the eyes, and respiratory distress

Causes Photochemical Smog

The components of photochemical smog were established during the 1950s. This type of air
pollution is formed through the reaction of solar radiation with airborne pollutants like
nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds. These compounds, which are called primary
pollutants, are often introduced into the atmosphere through automobile emissions and
industrial processes. Ultraviolet light can split nitrogen dioxide into nitric oxide and
monatomic oxygen; this monatomic oxygen can then react with oxygen gas to form ozone.
Products like ozone, aldehydes, and peroxyacetyl nitrates are called secondary pollutants. The
mixture of these primary and secondary pollutants forms photochemical smog.

The following substances are identified in photochemical smog:

1. Nitrogen Dioxide ( NO2 ) from vehicle exhaust, is photolyzed by ultraviolet (UV)

radiation ( hν ) from the sun and decomposes into Nitrogen Oxide ( NO and an oxygen
radical:

NO2+hν→NO+O.------------------(1)

2. The oxygen radical then reacts with an atmospheric oxygen molecule to create ozone, O3:
O.+O2→O3-------------------------(2)

3. Under normal conditions, O3 reacts with NO, to produce NO2 and an oxygen molecule:
O3+NO→O2+NO2--------------------------(3)

This is a continual cycle that leads only to a temporary increase in net ozone production. To
create photochemical smog on the scale observed in Los Angeles, the process must include
Volatile organic compounds (VOC's).
Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act (1981) of India!
It is also a comprehensive legislation with more than fifty sections. It makes provisions, for

Central and State Boards, power to declare pollution control areas, restrictions on certain

industrial units, authority of the Boards to limit emission of air pollutants, power of entry,
inspection, taking samples and analysis, penalties, offences by companies and Government

and cognizance of offences etc..

The Act specifically empowers State Government to designate air pollution areas and to

prescribe the type of fuel to be used in these designated areas. According to this Act, no

person can operate certain types of industries including the asbestos, cement, fertilizer and

petroleum industries without consent of the State Board.

Why was the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981 passed?
The effects of climate change caused by all forms of pollution became all too apparent in the
early 1970s. To mitigate their harmful effects it was believed that nations would need to pass
their own laws. Thus during the United Nations General Assembly on Human Environment
held in Stockholm in June 1972, a resolution was passed which implored the nations of the
world to preserve natural resources such as air.
India itself had issues regarding air pollution due to a wide variety of factors such as stubble
burning, improper industrial practices, environmental factors etc. To combat these factors a
special law was enacted under the Constitution of India, which was the Air (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act of 1981.

What are the definitions under the Air Act?

The following are the definitions under the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act.

 Section 2(a) defines an ‘air pollutants’ as any solid liquid or gaseous substance which
may cause harm or damage the environment, humans, plants, animals or even damage
property. A 1987 amendment to the act also added ‘noise’ in the list of harmful
substances.
 The air act defines ‘air pollution’ as the presence of any dangerous pollutant that
makes the air unbreathable
Section 2 (g) of the Act also set up the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) whose
powers extended to the whole of India. To carry out the directives of the CPCB the act also
called for the setting up of the State Pollution Control Board (SPCB) for the individual states
of India

The main objectives of the Act are as follows:

(a) To provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution.
(b) To provide for the establishment of central and State Boards with a view to implement the

Act.

(c) To confer on the Boards the powers to implement the provisions of the Act and assign to

the Boards functions relating to pollution.

Air pollution is more acute in heavily industrialized and urbanized areas, which are also

densely populated. The presence of pollution beyond certain Limits due to various pollutants

discharged through industrial emission is monitored by the PCBs set up in every state.

Composition, Powers and Functions of the Central Pollution Control Board The CPCB
will consist of a full-time Chairman with a scientific knowledge of environmental protection
along with a secretary appointed by the Central Government. It shall also have five members
nominated by the Central Government chosen among the members of the state government
The functions of the CPCB is as follows:
● The CPCB will make efforts for the prevention and control of air pollution in India and
advise the government on how to carry out such measures.
● It shall plan and implement a nationwide programme for the prevention and control of air
pollution
● The board will lead technical assistance to in carrying out research relating to ail pollution.
● The board shall plan and implement training programmes compile and publish statistical
data relating to air pollution and shall also prepare manuals, codes or guides relating to
measures to combat air pollution.
The powers of the Central Pollution Control Board are as follows:
● The CPCB can declare an area as an ‘air pollution area after consultation with the state
government.
● The Central, as well as the State Pollution Control Board, have the power to prohibit the
sale or use of any fuel that may cause air pollution
● Power to give restrictions for ensuring standards for emissions from automobile
● Restrictions on use of certain industrial plants.
● The Air Act empowers the State and Central Pollution Control Boards to carry out
inspections of equipment, industrial plants or any other object which is believed to be the
cause of air pollution. The person in charge will have to assist the board in their inspection
and in refusing to do so will be considered an offence

Penalties and Procedure under the Air Act

1. As per Section 37 of the act, any failure to comply with the directions issued by the CPCB
or acts resulting in noncooperation with its authorities will be face imprisonment of 1 year
and 6 months. The sentence can be extended for six years with a fine should the directives not
be carried out with an additional fine of 5000 Rs per day.

2. Sections 42 to 46 cover procedures. Section 42 states that no suit, prosecution or another

legal proceeding shall lie against the government, any officer of the government or any
member, employee or officer of the Board, where the actions are done by such body or
persons are done or intended to be done in good faith in pursuance of this Act.

3. Section 43 states that the Court shall take cognizance of only those offences where the
complaint is made by-

● A Board or any officer authorised under it

● Any person who has given notice of not less than sixty days, of the alleged offence and his
intention to make a complaint to the Board or an officer authorised by it.
 Unit IV

Water pollution

The contamination of water bodies due to various anthropogenic activities (human activity)
which adds various toxic pollutants in water and makes it unfit for the flora and fauna can be
defined as water pollution. Water pollution occurs when pollutants are discharged directly or
indirectly into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds. Point
source pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway through a discrete conveyance,
such as a pipe or ditch. Examples of sources in this category include discharges from a
sewage treatment plant, a factory, etc.

Sources of water pollution

1. Sewage and Domestic Wastes:

Domestic sewage contains mostly organic wastes such as domestic garbage detergent, waste
food, paper, cloth, toiletries and human excreta runoff water due to bathing, laundering, food
processing, house-hold washing etc. About 75% of water pollution is caused by sewage and
domestic wastes. Domestic sewage mostly contains organic wastes. When these are released
to water bodies, they consume lot of oxygen to be digested. The amount of oxygen consumed
to digest them is called as Biological Oxygen Demand (B.O.D.).

2. Industrial Wastes and Effluents:

Industries produce a lot of organic and inorganic wastes which ultimately comes to water
bodies and cause water pollution. The toxicity of aquatic environment not only affect the fish
population but also accumulate at the bottom of water bodies and poison the bottom dwellers.
Resistant objects like cans, tyres, metals, polythene and plastic wares add further pollutants to
the water bodies.

3. Pesticides:
These are synthetic chemicals used for pest control. The runoff from the agricultural fields is
a major source of pesticide pollution of rivers, streams and lakes. Some pesticides also enter
inland waters from the industries. Pesticides adversely affect a wide range of aquatic
organisms including insects and fishes.

4. Detergent and Fertilizers:

The washing materials are commonly called as detergents. They are composed of complex
phosphates which break down into phosphates and other chemicals. The phosphates are used
by aquatic plants and ultimately cause an increase in phosphorus in sewage effluents. Fishes
and aquatic invertebrates are affected by the detergents.

5. Toxic Metals:
Mining operations and metallurgical laboratories are responsible for release of various heavy
metals such a lead, mercury, arsenic, chromium, carmium, copper, zinc etc. Mercuric
compounds in water are converted into monomethyl and dimethyl mercury using methane
released from anaerotric decomposition of organic wastes.

6. Suspended Solids:
These are physical water pollutants. For example, silt is a fine sediment carried to rivers by
number of ways including surface run off. Silt increases the turbidity of water which affects
the productivity of an aquatic environment and the growth of fishes.

Effect of Water Pollution:

i. Disorders: Some pollutants like sodium can cause cardiovascular diseases, while mercury
and lead cause nervous disorders.
ii. Toxic Substances: DDT is toxic material which can cause chromosomal changes. Some of

these substances like pesticides, methyl mercury etc., move into the bodies of organisms from

the medium in which these organisms live. These substances tend to accumulate in the

organism’s body from the medium food. This process is called bioaccumulation or bio

concentration. The concentration of these toxic substances builds up at successive levels of

food chain. This process is called bio magnifications.

iii. Water Pollution: Fluoride pollution causes defects in teeth and bones, a disease called

fluorosis while arsenic can cause significant damage to the liver and the nervous system. In

addition to all these, organic compounds present in the polluted water facilitate the growth of

algae and other weeds, which in turn use more oxygen dissolved in the water. This reduces

the amount of oxygen dissolved in the water and the consequent shortage of oxygen for other

aquatic life.

iv. Asbestos: This pollutant is a serious health hazard and carcinogenic. Asbestos fibers can

be inhaled and cause illnesses such as asbestosis, mesothelioma, lung cancer, intestinal

cancer and liver cancer.

v. Mercury: This is a metallic element and can cause health and environmental problems. It

is a non-biodegradable substance so is hard to clean up once the environment is

contaminated. Mercury is also harmful to animal health as it can cause illness through

mercury poisoning.

vi. Phosphates: The increased use of fertilizers means that phosphates are more often being

washed from the soil and into rivers and lakes. This can cause eutrophication, which can be

very problematic to marine environments.

vii. Oils: Oil does not dissolve in water; instead it forms a thick layer on the water surface.

This can stop marine plants receiving enough light for photosynthesis. It is also harmful for

fish and marine birds.

viii. Petrochemicals:
This is formed from gas or petrol and can be toxic to marine life.
ix. Organic matter which reaches water bodies is decomposed by micro-organisms present in

water. For this degradation, oxygen dissolved in water is consumed. Dissolved oxygen (DO)

is the amount of oxygen dissolved in a given quantity of water at a particular temperature and

atmospheric pressure.
Control of Water Pollution:
The following points may help in reducing water pollution from non-point sources.

(i) Judicious use of agrochemicals like pesticides and fertilizers which will reduce their

surface run-off and leaching. Use of these on sloped lands should be avoided.

(ii) Use of nitrogen fixing plants to supplement the use of fertilizers.

(iii) Adopting integrated pest management to reduce greater reliance on pesticides.

(iv) Prevent run-off of manure. Divert such run-off to basin for settlement. The nutrient rich

water can be used as fertilizer in the fields.

(v) Separate drainage of sewage and rain water should be provided to prevent overflow of

sewage with rain water.

(vi) Planting trees would reduce pollution by sediments and will also prevent soil erosion.

BOD and COD to characterise wastewater

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) are two of the
most important parameters to characterise (measure the degree of pollution) of wastewater.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (B.O.D.):

The organic wastes are water bodies utilize dissolved oxygen for their degralation BOD is the
amount of oxygen used for biochemical oxidation by microorganisms in unit volume of
water. The demand of oxygen is directly related to increase input of organic wastes. So BOD
is a measure of oxygen required by aerobic decomposers for the biochemical degradation of
organic materials (biodegradable materials) in water. BOD value is directly correlated with
the amount of oxidisable organic matter. Therefore, BOD is used as a measure of degree of
water pollution.

BOD Test Procedures

1. To ensure proper biological activity during the BOD test, a wastewater sample:
o Must be free of chlorine. If chlorine is present in the sample, a dechlorination
chemical (e.g, sodium sulfite) must be added prior to testing.
 o Needs to be in the pH range of 6.5-7.5 S.U. If the sample is outside this range,
then acid or base must be added as needed.
o Needs to have an existing adequate microbiological population. If the
microbial population is inadequate or unknown, a "seed" solution of bacteria is
added along with an essential nutrient buffer solution that ensures bacteria
population vitality.
2. Specialized 300 mL BOD bottles designed to allow full filling with no air space and
provide an airtight seal are used. The bottles are filled with the sample to be tested or
dilution (distilled or deionized) water and various amounts of the wastewater sample
are added to reflect different dilutions. At least one bottle is filled only with dilution
water as a control or "blank."
3. A DO meter is used to measure the initial dissolved oxygen concentration (mg/L) in
each bottle, which should be a least 8.0 mg/L. Each bottle in then placed into a dark
incubator at 20°C for five days.
4. After five days (± 3 hours) the DO meter is used again to measure a final dissolved
oxygen concentration (mg/L), which ideally will be a reduction of at least 4.0 mg/L.
5. The final DO reading is then subtracted from the initial DO reading and the result is
the BOD concentration (mg/L). If the wastewater sample required dilution, the BOD
concentration reading is multiplied by the dilution factor.

Chemical Oxygen Demand (C.O.D.):

It is the amount of oxygen required by organic matter in a water oxidant for its oxidation by a
strong chemical oxidant. It is a measure of pollution load in water. This is a measure of
oxygen equivalent of the requirement for oxidation of total organic matter (i.e., biodegradable
and non-biodegradable) present in water.

This value is a poor measure of strength of organic matter, as oxygen is also consumed in the
oxidation of inorganic matter such as nitrates, sulphates, reduced metal ions and some
organic molecules such as benzene, pyridine that are not oxidised by this process.

COD Test Procedures

1. Prior to completing the COD test, a series of known standards are prepared using
KHP (potassium hydrogen phthalate). Most wastewater samples will fall in the high
range, so standards of 100, 250, 500 and 1000 mg/L are typically prepared. COD
standards can also be purchased.
2. A COD reactor/heating (150°C) block and a colorimeter are turned on so that both
instruments are allowed to stabilize.
3. Pre-prepared low-range (3-50 ppm) or high-range (20-1500 ppm) vials are selected
for the COD test based on expected results. Both ranges can be used if expected
results are unknown.
4. One vial is marked as a “blank,” and three or four vials are marked with known
standard levels. Two vials are then marked for the wastewater sample to make a
duplicate run. Note: If multiple wastewater samples are being run, at least 10% of
samples are duplicated.
5. 2 mL of liquid are added to each vial. In the case of the “blank,” 2 mL of DI water are
added. 2 mL of each standard are added to the corresponding vials. If the wastewater
 sample is tested at full strength, then 2 mL is added to the corresponding vial. If
dilution is required, then serial dilutions are performed and 2 mL of the diluted
sample are added to the corresponding vial.
6. Each vial is mixed well and placed into the reactor block for two hours. After two
hours, the vials are removed from the block to a cooling rack for about 15 minutes.
7. The colorimeter is set and calibrated per the specific instructions for that unit (i.e.,
proper wavelength, blank and standards) and each vial is placed in the unit and the
COD concentration read.
8. If the sample was diluted, the corresponding multiplication is made.

What is Potable Water?

Only 10% of the water on this planet is free of water pollution, yet access to this water is limited.
And the water which is accessible is called as ‘Potable Water. Therefore, potable water is
defined as the water that can be considered safe for drinking. Potable water which is available has
already passed through the water purification process by factories or by treating it with chemicals
to remove the harmful microorganisms.

MUNICIPAL WATER
A public water supply system or water supply network including water treatment facilities,
water storage facilities (reservoirs, water tanks and water towers) and a pipe network for
distributing the treated water to customers including residential, industrial, commercial or
institutional establishments.

Water purification methods/Disinfection

a) Chlorine:

Water purification is also done using household liquid chlorine bleach. This kind of bleach
contains 5-6% of chlorine which is enough to kill the harmful disease-causing bacteria and
viruses. But while using this one needs to keep in mind about the expiration date of the bleach
being used and should be used in little quantity only.

b) Treatment of water using iodine:

Water purification is also done using iodine; since iodine kills most of the hazardous
microorganisms present in freshwater sources.

c) Use of Solar Energy to purify water:

Here solar energy is used to disinfect the dirty water and killing the microbes. The three main
components responsible for water purification by solar energy are- heat, electric water purifier,
and UV purification.
d) Reverse Osmosis:
Reverse Osmosis is the removal of inorganic materials such as salt from a solution by the
applying osmotic pressure. This is a method universally used by water purifier companies and
for purification of seawater.

e) Sedimentation:
Sedimentation is a water treatment process wherein is used gravity to remove suspended
materials from the water. This method is primarily used for sewage treatment.

Characteristics of wastewater

Introduction

Wastewater is defined as any water that has been negatively affected in quality by humans.
Wastewater is comprised of liquid and solid waste that is discharged from domestic
residences, commercial properties, industrial plants, and agriculture facilities or land.
Wastewater contains a wide range of contaminants at various concentrations.
The three main characteristics of wastewater are classified below.

1. Physical Characteristics

· Turbidity

· Color

· Odor

· Total solids

· Temperature

2. Chemical Characteristics due to Chemical Impurities

· Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

· Total Organic Carbon (TOC)

· Nitrogen

· Phosphorus

· Chlorides

· Sulfates

· Alkalinity

· pH

· Heavy Metals

· Trace Elements

· Priority Pollutants
3. Biological Characteristics due to Contaminants

· Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

· Oxygen required for nitrification

· Microbial population

Primary and secondary waste water treatment

Primary treatment:
In the primary sedimentation stage, sewage flows through large tanks, commonly called

“primary clarifiers” or “primary sedimentation tanks.” The tanks are used to settle sludge

while grease and oils rise to the surface and are skimmed off.

Primary settling tanks are usually equipped with mechanically driven scrapers that

continually drive the collected sludge towards a hopper in the base of the tank where it is

pumped to sludge treatment facilities. Grease and oil from the floating material can

sometimes be recovered for saponification.

The dimensions of the tank should be designed to effect removal of a high percentage of the

floatables and sludge. A typical sedimentation tank may remove from 60 to 65 per cent of

suspended solids, and from 30 to 35 per cent of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) from the

sewage.

Secondary treatment:
Secondary treatment is designed to substantially degrade the biological content of the sewage

which is derived from human waste, food waste, soaps and detergent. The majority of

municipal plants treat the settled sewage liquor using aerobic biological processes. To be

effective, the biota requires both oxygen and food to live.

The bacteria and protozoa consume biodegradable soluble organic contaminants (e.g. sugars,

fats, organic short-chain carbon molecules, etc.) and bind much of the less soluble fractions

into floe. Secondary treatment systems are classified as fixed-film or suspended-growth

systems.
Fixed-film or attached growth systems include trickling filters and rotating biological

contactors, where the biomass grows on media and the sewage passes over its surface.

Suspended-growth systems include activated sludge, where the biomass is mixed with the

sewage and can be operated in a smaller space than fixed-film systems that treat the same

amount of water.

However, fixed-film systems are more able to cope with drastic changes in the amount of

biological material and can provide higher removal rates for organic material and suspended

solids than suspended growth systems.

Rainwater Harvesting
Rainwater harvesting is the method of storing rainwater and thereby increasing the recharge
of groundwater. As India since the very beginning was primarily an agricultural country, the
need to harness water was felt. This is also due to fact that rainfall in our country occurs only
for two to three months; therefore, water needs to be conserved for its use throughout the
year. Even the ancient civilizations like Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, etc. provide excellent
examples of water harvesting through a network of tanks and reservoirs. Some of the old forts
like Jaigarh Fort near Jaipur and Fatehpur Sikri near Agra, also provide good examples of
water storage through rainwater harvesting.

Several techniques are in practice to recharge groundwater. One method is to manage

rainwater in such a way that it is used at the source. If as much water as possible is collected
and stored, it can be used after the rainy season is over. This method has been traditionally
practiced in dry areas. Simple local techniques such as ponds and earthen embankments can
help in the harvesting and storage of rainwater. Rural and urban water use, restoration of
streams for recreation, fresh water fisheries and natural ecosystems, etc. need rainwater
harvesting. Local practices for rainwater harvesting can provide sufficient amount of water.

Broadly there are two ways of harvesting rainwater

1. Surface runoff harvesting
2. Roof top rainwater harvesting
Rainwater harvesting is the collection and storage of rainwater for reuse on-site, rather than
allowing it to run off. These stored waters are used for various purposes such as gardening,
irrigation etc. Various methods of rainwater harvesting are described in this section.

1. Surface runoff harvesting

In urban area rainwater flows away as surface runoff. This runoff could be caught and used
for recharging aquifers by adopting appropriate methods.

2. Rooftop rainwater harvesting

It is a system of catching rainwater where it falls. In rooftop harvesting, the roof becomes the
catchments, and the rainwater is collected from the roof of the house/building. It can either be
stored in a tank or diverted to artificial recharge system. This method is less expensive and
very effective and if implemented properly helps in augmenting the groundwater level of the
area.

Watershed management
Watershed is defined as a geohydrological unit draining to a common point by a system of
drains. All lands on earth are part of one watershed or other. Watershed is thus the land and
water area, which contributes runoff to a common point.

Or
A watershed is an area of land that drains all the streams and rainfall to a common
outlet such as the outflow of a reservoir, mouth of a bay, or any point along a stream channel.
The watershed consists of surface water--lakes, streams, reservoirs, and wetlands--and all the
underlying groundwater.

Management
Watershed management involves the judicious use of natural resource with active
participation of institutions, organizations, peoples participation in harmony with the
ecosystem.
The watershed management implies, the judicious use of all the resources i.e. land, water,
vegetation in an area for providing an answer to alleviate drought, moderate floods, prevent
soil erosion, improve water availability and increase food, fodder, fuel and fiber on sustained
basis. Watershed to achieve maximum production with minimum hazard to the natural
resources and for the well being of people. The management should be carried out on the
watershed basis. The task of watershed management includes the treatment of land by using
most suitable biological and engineering measures in such a manner that, the management
work must be economic and socially acceptable
Components Of Watershed Management
The three main components in watershed management are land management, water
management and biomass management.
1. Land Management
2. Water Management
3. Biomass Management

Important aspects of water management include:

(i) Hydrosphere

(ii) Hydrological cycle

(iii) Exchange of water

(iv) Transportation of water and irrigation.

Objectives of Watershed Management:

Rational utilization of land and water sources for optimum production causing minimum

damage to the natural resources is known as watershed management.

The main goal of Watershed Management is to implant the sustainable management of

natural resources to improve the quality of living for the population is to be accomplished by

the following objectives:

1. Improvement and restoration of soil quality and thus, raising productivity rates.

2. Supply and securing of clean and sufficient drinking water for the population.

3. Improvement of infrastructure for storage, transport and agricultural marketing.

4. To manage the watershed for beneficial developmental activities like domestic water

supply, irrigation, hydropower generation etc.

5. To minimize the risks of floods, droughts and landslides.

6. To develop rural areas in the region with clear plans for improving the economy of the

regions.

Water pollution and control act

Water is an essential element of human living. It is very useful only when it is unpolluted. It
is in short supply since 97% of world’s water constitutes seawater, which is unfit for
consumption. Polluted or contaminated water is injurious to health. In order to prevent and
control the pollution of water, the Indian Parliament passed the Water Act, 1974. The main
purpose of the Water Act, as enshrined in its preamble is:
 To prevent and control the pollution of water;
 To maintain and restore the wholesomeness of water;
 The establishment of Boards for prevention and control of water pollution; and
 To confer on such Boards, powers to prevent and control water pollution and to
maintain or restore the wholesomeness of water.

As the above objects pertain to State List, the Parliament has no power to legislate in this
regard except under Arts. 249, 250 and 252. However, the States of Assam, Bihar, Gujarat,
Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Tripura and West Bengal passed a resolution under Art. 252(1), requesting the
Parliament to enact a law for prevention and control of water pollution. Consequently, the
Parliament passed the Water Act in 1974.
Salient Features of the Water Act:
The Water Act comprises of 64 sections divided into 8 Chapters. Chapter-I deals with
Preliminary aspects.
Chapter-II deals with Central and State Boards for Prevention and Control of Water pollution.
Chapter-Ill deals with Joint Boards.
Chapter-IV contains powers and Functions of Boards.
Chapter-V deals with Prevention and Control of Water Pollution. Chapter-VI contains the
provisions relating to Funds, Accounts and Audit.
Chapter-VII lays down Penalties and Procedure.
Chapter-VIII contains the Miscellaneous Provisions.
Section-I speaks about the short title, application and commencement of the Water Act.
Section 2 defines: (a) Board, (b) Central Board, (c) Member, (d) Occupier, (e) Pollution, (g)
Sewage effluent, (h) State Board, (i) State Govt., (k) Trade effluent etc.
Central Pollution Control Board: Constitution and functions
Constitution or the Central Pollution Board:
Section 3 of the Water Act, provides for the constitution of Central Board. The Central Govt.
within 6 months from the commencement of the Water Act, by notification in Official
Gazette, may appoint, constitute a Board called as the Central Pollution Control Board in the
States of Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir,
Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tripura, West Bengal and in the Union
Territories. It exercises such powers and functions as provided for under the Water Act (Sec.
3(1)).
Powers and Functions of Central Board:
The main function of the Central Board shall be to promote cleanliness of streams and wells
in the State. According to Sec.16 (1), the Central Board may perform all or any one of the
following functions:-
 To advise the Central Govt. on any matter, concerning prevention and control of
water pollution;
 Coordinate the activities of the State Boards and resolve disputes among them;
 Provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards, carry out and sponsor
investigations and research for prevention and control of water pollution;
 Plan and organise the training of persons engaged in programmes for the prevention,
control or abatement of water pollution;
 Organise through mass media a comprehensive programme for prevention and control
of water pollution;
 Perform such of the functions of any State Board as may be specified in an order
made under Sec. 18(2);
 To collect statistical data relating to water pollution and to take necessary steps for its
effective prevention;
 Lay down, modify or annul in consultation with the State concerned the standards for
a stream or well;
 Plan and cause to be executed, a nationwide programme for the prevention, control or
abatement of water pollution;
 Perform such other functions as may be prescribed (Sec. 16(2)).

Constitution or State Pollution Control Boards:

Section 4 of the Water Act, 1974 provides for the constitution of State Pollution Control
Boards. The State Govt. shall (with effect from such date as it may deem fit) by notification
in the Official Gazette appoint, constitute a State Pollution Control Board, to exercise the
powers conferred on and perform the functions assigned to that Board under the Water Act
(Sec. 4(1)).
According to Sec. 4(2) Of the Water Act, a State Board shall consist of the following
members, namely:-
 1. A Chairperson, nominated by the State Govt. having special knowledge and practical
experience in environmental matters. He may be either whole-time or part member of
the State Board;
2. Not more than five members to be nominated by the State Govt. to represent the State
Govt.;
3. Not more than five members to be nominated by the State Govt. from amongst the
members of the local authorities functioning within the State;
4. Non-official members, not exceeding three to be nominated by the State Govt. to
represent the interests of agriculture, fishery or industry or trade or any other interest,
which in the opinion of the State Govt. ought to be represented;
5. Two persons, nominated by the State Govt. to represent the companies or corporations
owned, managed or controlled by the State Govt.;
6. A full-time member-secretary, possessing qualifications, knowledge and experience
of scientific engineering or management aspects of pollution control, to be appointed
by the State Govt.
Penalties

1. If any person fails to comply with the orders of the board under subsection 2 and 3
of Section 20 then in that case on conviction he is punishable for imprisonment for
3 months or fine or both.
2. If the person fails to comply with orders of the board under clause e of subsection
1 of Section 32 or with subsection 2 of Section 33 then, in that case, the person
would be punishable with imprisonment for 6 months extending to 6 years or a
fine or both.
3. Apart from the above-mentioned penalties. Section 42 mentions penalties for
different kinds of Acts namely:

1. If any person removes, destroys or pull down any notice put up by the board.
2. If someone obstructs the member of the board or any other person who is Acting
under the board.
3. If a person fails to produce any information as required by the member of the
board for the performance of his duties.
4. Or if he gives any information to the members which he knows to be false.
Then In all the above Acts if the person is convicted he would be punishable by
imprisonment for a maximum period of 3 months or fine that may extend up to 10,000 rupees
or both.