Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier

A type of rectifier which is designed by using two diodes as well as a center tapped transformer for
converting the whole AC signal to DC is called center tapped FWR. This is called as “full wave center
tapped” because there are two full cycles in one complete cycle of AC voltage. This means that it
produces twice as much DC voltage as a half-wave rectifier would produce from an equivalent AC
source.

Centre Tap Full Wave Rectifier Circuit

The circuit diagram of the center tap full wave rectifier circuit is shown below. This rectifier circuit can
be designed with an AC source, two diodes, a load resistor & a center tapped transformer. As shown in
the following circuit diagram, the two diodes are connected to the two ends of a center-tapped
transformer.

Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier Circuit

The AC source within the circuit is given to the center-tapped transformer’s main winding. A center tap
or extra wire which is connected at the center of the secondary (minor) winding will divide the i/p voltage
into 2 parts.

The secondary winding’s higher portion is coupled to the ‘D1’ diode whereas the lower portion is coupled
to the ‘D2’ diode. Both the diodes are simply connected to a load resistor (RL) using a center tapped
transformer. Usually, the center tap is considered as the ground point or zero voltage reference.

How Does a Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier Works?

The operation of the center tapped full wave rectifier is, once i/p voltage (Vin) is applied to the
rectifier, then the center-tapped transformer’s secondary winding will divide this applied voltage into 2
parts positive & negative.

Throughout the +ve half i/p voltage cycle, the ‘A’ end turns into positive & ‘B’ end turns into negative.
Therefore, the D1 diode will become forward biased & D2 diode will become reverse biased. These two
D1 and D2 diodes will conduct at the same time. So, once the D1 diode conducts, then the D2 diode will
not conduct. Whenever the ‘D1’ diode is conducting, the flow of current ‘I’ will be throughout this diode
D1 and load resistor ‘RL’.

Throughout the -ve half-cycle of the i/p voltage, the ‘B’ end will become positive whereas the ‘A’ end
will become negative to make the ‘D2’ diode forward biased & ‘D1’ diode reverse biased. The flow of
current throughout the load resistor ‘RL’ is in a similar direction throughout both the +ve & the -ve half
cycle of the applied i/p voltage. Therefore, the DC o/p voltage like Vout = i RL can be obtained across the
RL

The waveforms for the applied input voltage, the flow of current throughout the load & the o/p voltage
obtained across the load. The center tapped full wave rectifier waveforms are shown below.

Waveforms

Please refer to this link to know more about: the Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier with Capacitor Filter.

Difference between Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier Vs Bridge Rectifier

The difference between center tapped full wave rectifier and bridge rectifier includes the following.

Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier Bridge Rectifier

 In center tapped FWR, two diodes are used. In the bridge rectifier, four diodes are
used.
Its Peak inverse voltage (PIV) is 2 Vs max. Its Peak inverse voltage (PIV) is Vs max.
The transformer is used for center tapping. The transformer is not required.
The voltage drop is less across the diode. The voltage drop is high because of the
four diodes.
The TUF (transformer utilization factor) is 0.691 The TUF (transformer utilization factor) is
0.814
Its voltage regulation is better. Its voltage regulation is good.
It has less circuit complexity. It has more circuit complexity.
These rectifiers are not economical as compared to the These rectifiers are economical.
bridge rectifier.

Characteristics

The characteristics of the center tapped full wave rectifier include ripple factor, rectifier efficiency,
PIV, DC o/p current, DC o/p voltage, RMS, VRMS, and form factor.

Efficiency

The efficiency of this rectifier specifies how the rectifier efficiently changes from AC to DC. Once the
rectifier efficiency is high then the rectifier is said to be good whereas if the rectifier efficiency is low
then the rectifier is said to be inefficient.

So, the efficiency of the rectifier is the ratio of direct current (DC) o/p power & the AC i/p power which
is written like the following.

η = output PDC / input PAC

The efficiency of a center-tapped FWR is approximately 81.2%.

As compared to HWR, the FWR efficiency is double. So this rectifier is very efficient.

Ripple Factor (RF)

The RF or ripple factor is very helpful in measuring the ripples available within the output DC signal.
Once the ripple factor (R.F) is high then it specifies a maximum pulsating DC signal whereas if a ripple
factor (R.F) is low then it specifies a minimum pulsating DC signal. The ripple factor (RF) is the ratio of
the ripple voltage and the clean DC voltage. This can be measured by using the following formula.

γ = √ (Vrms/VDC)2 -1

Peak Inverse Voltage or PIV

The term PIV stands for “Peak inverse voltage” which is the highest voltage one diode can resist within
the condition of reverse bias. Once the voltage applied is higher as compared to the PIV, then the diode in
the circuit will be damaged permanently.

The PIV or peak inverse voltage of center tapped full wave rectifier is 2Vsmax
DC O/P Current

When the flow of current throughout both the diodes like D1 & D2 is in a similar direction at the o/p load
resistor (RL) then the o/p flow of current is the amount of D1 & D2 currents. So the flow of current
generated from the D1 diode is Imax / π & the current generated from the D2 diode is Imax /π.

So, the o/p current IDC = 2Imax / π.

Here, ‘Imax’ is the max DC load current

DC O/P Voltage

The DC o/p voltage which is available at the ‘RL’ can be given as

VDC = 2Vmax /3.14

Where ‘Vmax’ is the max secondary voltage

VRMS

The RMS value ‘VRMS’ is the o/p load voltage. So the VRMS for a center tapped full wave rectifier is
VRMS = IRMS RL => (Im/√2) RL

IRMS

‘IRMS’ is the root mean square value for the load current. So the RMS value of load current is

IRMS = Im/√2

Form factor (F.F)

Form factor (FF) is the ratio of the value of RMS for current & the DC o/p current. So mathematically it
can be written as

Form Factor = The value of RMS for current/DC o/p current

For a center tapped FWR, the F.F (form factor) value is 1.11.

Advantages and Disadvantages

The advantages of center-tapped FWR include the following.

High efficiency & outputs are high because an AC supply provides power throughout both half cycles.

 Less power loss.

 Less ripple factor as compared to HWR.
 The DC load current & DC o/p voltage are double as compared to HWR.
 The rectification efficiency is double as compared to a half-wave rectifier.
The center tapped full wave rectifier disadvantages include the following.

 These are expensive.

 Every diode uses simply one-half of the supply voltage which is developed within the secondary
of the transformer; thus the obtained DC o/p is small.
 For the tapping, it is not easy to place the center on the secondary.
 The diode utilized in the circuit should be capable of bearing high PIV (peak inverse voltage) as
PIV coming across every diode is double the highest voltage across the half of the minor winding.

Applications

The applications of center-tapped FWR include the following.

 This rectifier is used to convert high input AC voltage to low DC voltage.

 These types of rectifiers are used as basic components within the power supply units due to their
high efficiency.
 These are used to provide power to motors, LEDs, etc.

Thus, center tapped FWR is one kind of full wave rectifier that makes unidirectional current flow through
the load in the complete input voltage cycle. This rectifier uses two diodes which are connected across the
center-tapped transformer’s terminals. So once one diode conducts mainly for +ve half cycle then another
diode will conduct for a -ve half cycle of the input supply. Consequently, a unidirectional current flow is
maintained throughout the load resistance. Here is a question for you, what is the purpose of a center
tapped transformer?

Rectification of a Three Phase Supply using Diodes

We saw in the previous tutorial that the process of converting an AC input supply into a fixed DC supply
is called Rectification with the most popular circuits used to perform this rectification process is one that
is based on solid-state semiconductor diodes.

In fact, rectification of alternating voltages is one of the most popular applications of diodes, as diodes are
inexpensive, small and robust allowing us to create numerous types of rectifier circuits using either
individually connected diodes or with just a single integrated bridge rectifier module.

Single phase supplies such as those in houses and offices are generally 120 Vrms or 240 Vrms phase-to-
neutral, also called line-to-neutral (L-N), and nominally of a fixed voltage and frequency producing an
alternating voltage or current in the form of a sinusoidal waveform being given the abbreviation of “AC”.

Three-phase rectification, also known as poly-phase rectification circuits are similar to the previous
single-phase rectifiers, the difference this time is that we are using three, single-phase supplies connected
together that have been produced by one single three-phase generator.

The advantage here is that 3-phase rectification circuits can be used to power many industrial applications
such as motor control or battery charging which require higher power requirements than a single-phase
rectifier circuit is able to supply.
3-phase supplies take this idea one step further by combining together three AC voltages of identical
frequency and amplitude with each AC voltage being called a “phase”. These three phases are 120
electrical degrees out-of-phase from each other producing a phase sequence, or phase rotation of:
360o ÷ 3 = 120o as shown.

Three-phase Waveform

The advantage here is that a three-phase alternating current (AC) supply can be used to provide electrical
power directly to balanced loads and rectifiers. Since a 3-phase supply has a fixed voltage and frequency
it can be used by a rectification circuit to produce a fixed voltage DC power which can then be filtered
resulting in an output DC voltage with less ripple compared to a single-phase rectifying circuit.

THREE-PHASE RECTIFICATION

Having seen that a 3-phase supply is just simply three single-phases combined together, we can use this
multi-phase property to create 3-phase rectifier circuits.

As with single-phase rectification, three-phase rectification uses diodes, thyristors, transistors, or

converters to create half-wave, full-wave, uncontrolled and fully-controlled rectifier circuits transforming
a given three-phase supply into a constant DC output level. In most applications a three-phase rectifier is
supplied directly from the mains utility power grid or from a three-phase transformer if different DC
output level is required by the connected load.

As with the previous single-phase rectifier, the most basic three-phase rectifier circuit is that of an
uncontrolled half-wave rectifier circuit which uses three semiconductor diodes, one diode per phase as
shown.

Half-wave Three-phase Rectification

So how does this three-phase half-wave rectifier circuit work. The anode of each diode is connected to
one phase of the voltage supply with the cathodes of all three diodes connected together to the same
positive point, effectively creating a diode-“OR” type arrangement. This common point becomes the
positive (+) terminal for the load while the negative (-) terminal of the load is connected to the neutral (N)
of the supply.

Assuming a phase rotation of Red-Yellow-Blue (VA – VB – VC) and the red phase (VA) starts at 0o. The
first diode to conduct will be diode 1 (D1) as it will have a more positive voltage at its anode than diodes
D2 or D3. Thus diode D1 conducts for the positive half-cycle of VA while D2 and D3 are in their reverse-
biased state. The neutral wire provides a return path for the load current back to the supply.

120 electrical degrees later, diode 2 (D2) starts to conduct for the positive half-cycle of VB (yellow phase).
Now its anode becomes more positive than diodes D1 and D3 which are both “OFF” because they are
reversed-biased. Similarly, 120o later VC (blue phase) starts to increase turning “ON” diode 3 (D3) as its
anode becomes more positive, thus turning “OFF” diodes D1 and D2.

Then we can see that for three-phase rectification, whichever diode has a more positive voltage at its
anode compared to the other two diodes it will automatically start to conduct, thereby giving a conduction
pattern of: D1 D2 D3 as shown.

Half-wave Three-phase Rectifier Conduction Waveform

From the above waveforms for a resistive load, we can see that for a half-wave rectifier each diode passes
current for one third of each cycle, with the output waveform being three times the input frequency of the
AC supply. Therefore, there are three voltage peaks in a given cycle, so by increasing the number of
phases from a single-phase to a three-phase supply, the rectification of the supply is improved, that is the
output DC voltage is smoother.

For a three-phase half-wave rectifier, the supply voltages VA VB and VC are balanced but with a phase
difference of 120o giving:

VA = VP*sin(ωt – 0o)

VB = VP*sin(ωt – 120o)

VC = VP*sin(ωt – 240o)

Thus the average DC value of the output voltage waveform from a 3-phase half-wave rectifier is given as:

As the voltage supplies peak voltage, VP is equal to VRMS*1.414, it therefore follows that VRMS is equal to
VP/1.414, or 0.707*VP as 1/1.414 = 0.707. Then the average DC output voltage of the rectifier can be
expressed in terms of its root-mean-squared (RMS) phase voltage as follows:

3-PHASE RECTIFICATION
Example No1

A half-wave 3-phase rectifier is constructed using three individual diodes and a 120VAC 3-phase star
connected transformer. If it is required to power a connected load with an impedance of 50Ω, Calculate,
a) the average DC voltage output to the load. b) the load current, c) the average current per diode. Assume
ideal diodes.

a). The average DC load voltage:

VDC = 1.17*Vrms = 1.17*120 = 140.4 volts

Note that if we were given the peak voltage (Vp) value, then:

VDC would equal 0.827*Vp or 0.827*169.68 = 140.4V.

b). The DC load current:

IL = VDC/RL = 140.4/50 = 2.81 amperes

c). The average current per diode:

ID = IL/3 = 2.81/3 = 0.94 amperes

One of the disadvantages of half-wave 3-phase rectification is that it requires a 4-wire supply, that is three
phases plus a neutral (N) connection. Also the average DC output voltage is low at a value represented by
0.827*VP as we have seen.

This is because the output ripple content is three times the input frequency. But we can improve on these
disadvantages by adding three more diodes to the basic rectifier circuit creating a three-phase full-wave
uncontrolled bridge rectifier.

Full-wave Three-phase Rectification

The full-wave three-phase uncontrolled bridge rectifier circuit uses six diodes, two per phase in a similar
fashion to the single-phase bridge rectifier. A 3-phase full-wave rectifier is obtained by using two half-
wave rectifier circuits. The advantage here is that the circuit produces a lower ripple output than the
previous half-wave 3-phase rectifier as it has a frequency of six times the input AC waveform.

Also, the full-wave rectifier can be fed from a balanced 3–phase 3-wire delta connected supply as no
fourth neutral (N) wire is required. Consider the full-wave 3-phase rectifier circuit below.

Full-wave Three-phase Rectification

As before, assuming a phase rotation of Red-Yellow-Blue (VA – VB – VC) and the red phase (VA) starts at
0o. Each phase connects between a pair of diodes as shown. One diode of the conducting pair powers the
positive (+) side of load, while the other diode powers the negative (-) side of load.

Diodes D1 D3 D2 and D4 form a bridge rectifier network between phases A and B, similarly diodes D 3 D5
D4 and D6 between phases B and C and D5 D1 D6 and D2 between phases C and A.

Diodes D1 D3 and D5 feed the positive rail. The diode which has a more positive voltage at its anode
terminal conducts. Likewise, diodes D2 D4 and D6 feed the negative rail and whichever diode has a more
negative voltage at its cathode terminal conducts.

Then we can see that for three-phase uncontrolled rectification the diodes conduct in matching pairs with
each conduction path passing through two diodes in series. Thus a total of six rectifier diodes are required
with commutation of the circuit taking place every 60o, or six times per cycle.

If we start the pattern of conduction at 30o, this gives us a conduction pattern for the load current of: D1-4
D1-6 D3-6 D3-2 D5-2 D5-4 and return again to D1-4 and D1-6 for the next phase sequence as shown.

Full-wave Three-phase Rectifier Conduction Waveform

In 3-phase power rectifiers, conduction always occurs in the most positive diode and the corresponding
most negative diode. Thus as the three phases rotate across the rectifier terminals, conduction is passed
from diode to diode.

Then each diode conducts for 120o (one-third) in each supply cycle but as it takes two diodes to conduct
in pairs, each pair of diodes will conduct for only 60o (one-sixth) of a cycle at any one time as shown
above.

Therefore we can correctly say that for a 3-phase rectifier being fed by “3” transformer secondaries, each
phase will be separated by 360o/3 thus requiring 2*3 diodes.

Note also that unlike the previous half-wave rectifier, there is no common connection between the
rectifiers input and output terminals. Therefore it can be fed by a star connected or a delta connected
transformer supply.
So the average DC value of the output voltage waveform from a 3-phase full-wave rectifier is given as:

Where: VS is equal to (VL(PEAK) ÷ √3) and where VL(PEAK) is the maximum line-to-line voltage (VL*1.414).

3-phase Rectification Example No2

A 3-phase full-wave bridge rectifier is required to fed a 150Ω resistive load from a 3-phase 127 volt,
60Hz delta connected supply. Ignoring the voltage drops across the diodes, calculate: 1. the DC output
voltage of the rectifier and 2. the load current.

1. the DC output voltage:

The RMS (Root Mean Squared) line voltage is 127 volts. Therefore the line-to-line peak voltage (V L-
L(PEAK)) will be:

As the supply is 3-phase, the phase to neutral voltage (VP-N) of any phase will be:

Note that this is basically the same as saying:

Thus the average DC output voltage from the 3-phase full-wave rectifier is given as:

Again, we can reduce the maths a bit by correctly saying that for a given line-to-line RMS voltage value,
in our example 127 volts, the average DC output voltage is:
2. the rectifiers load current.

The output from the rectifier is feeding a 150Ω resistive load. Then using Ohms law the load current will
be:

Uncontrolled 3-phase rectification uses diodes to provide an average output voltage of a fixed value
relative to the value of the input AC voltages. But to vary the output voltage of the rectifier we need to
replace the uncontrolled diodes, either some or all of them, with thyristors to create what are called half-
controlled or fully-controlled bridge rectifiers.

Thyristors are three terminal semiconductor devices and when a suitable trigger pulse is applied to the the
thyristors gate terminal when its Anode–to-Cathode terminal voltage is positive, the device will conduct
and pass a load current.

So by delaying the timing of the trigger pulse, (firing angle) we can delay the instant in time at which the
thyristor would naturally switch “ON” if it were a normal diode and the moment it starts to conduct when
the trigger pulse is applied.

Thus with a controlled 3-phase rectification which uses thyristors instead of diodes, we can control the
value of the average DC output voltage by controlling the firing angle of the thyristor pairs and so the
rectified output voltage becomes a function of the firing angle, α.

Therefore the only difference to the formula used above for the average output voltage of a 3-phase
bridge rectifier is in the cosine angle, cos(α) of the firing or triggering pulse. So if the firing angle is zero,
(cos(0) = 1), the controlled rectifier performs similar to the previous 3-phase uncontrolled diode rectifier
with the average output voltages being the same.

An example of a fully-controlled 3-phase bridge rectifier is given below:

Fully-controlled 3-phase Bridge Rectifier

Three-phase Rectification Summary

We have seen in this tutorial that three-phase rectification is the process of converting a 3-phase AC
supply into a pulsating DC voltage as rectification converts the input power supply of a sinusoidal voltage
and frequency into a fixed voltage DC power. Thus power rectification changes an alternating supply into
a unidirectional supply.

But we have also seen that 3-phase half-wave uncontrolled rectifiers, which use one diode per phase,
require a star connected supply as a fourth neutral (N) wire to close the circuit from load to source. The 3-
phase full-wave bridge rectifier which use two diodes per phase requires just three mains lines, without
neutral, such as that provided by a delta connected supply.

Another advantage of a full-wave bridge rectifier is that the load current is well balanced across the
bridge improving efficiency (the ratio of output DC power to input power supplied) and reducing the
ripple content, both in amplitude and frequency, as compared to the half-wave configuration.

By increasing the number of phases and diodes within the bridge configuration it is possible to obtain a
higher average DC output voltage with less ripple amplitude as for example, in 6-phase rectification each
diode would conduct for only one-sixth of a cycle.

Also, multi-phase rectifiers produce a higher ripple frequency means less capacitive filtering and a much
smoother output voltage. Thus 6, 12, 15 and even 24-phase uncontrolled rectifiers can be designed to
improve the ripple factor for various applications

Power Smoothing?

Power smoothing is the process of minimizing or eliminating fluctuations (also known as ripple)
from the DC voltage output after rectification. When AC voltage is converted to DC using a
rectifier (like a full-wave or half-wave rectifier), the output isn't a pure, flat line—it still contains
peaks and valleys. These rapid up-and-down movements in voltage can damage or affect the
performance of electronic devices. Smoothing techniques are applied to "flatten" these
variations, resulting in a cleaner and more stable DC supply that resembles a straight line as
closely as possible.

Smoothing is especially important in devices that require stable voltages, such as

communication systems, medical electronics, computers, and audio equipment. Without
smoothing, the performance of these devices may degrade, or they may fail entirely due to
unstable voltage.

Common Power Smoothing Methods

a) Capacitor Filter (C-Filter)

 How it works: A large-value capacitor is placed in parallel with the rectifier output (just
before the load).
  Charging and discharging: When the rectified voltage increases, the capacitor charges
up and stores energy. When the voltage starts to drop, the capacitor discharges, releasing
its stored energy and preventing the voltage from dropping too low.
 Effect: This creates a more constant output voltage by "filling in" the valleys between the
voltage peaks.
 Common use: Capacitor filters are widely used in power adapters, phone chargers,
radios, and most DC power supplies.
 Key tip: The bigger the capacitor, the smoother the output. Typical values range from
470µF to 2200µF or more, depending on current and voltage requirements.

b) Inductor Filter (L-Filter)

 How it works: An inductor is placed in series with the output current.

 Current smoothing: Inductors resist sudden changes in current. When the current tries
to increase or decrease too quickly, the inductor "slows it down" by storing and releasing
magnetic energy.
 Effect: This results in a more stable current flow, reducing the variations in voltage as
well.
 Used in: High-current or high-frequency applications, such as switching power supplies.
 Advantage: Inductors handle high current better than capacitors and don’t lose energy as
quickly.

c) Capacitor-Inductor (LC) Filter

 How it works: Combines both a capacitor and an inductor to filter both voltage and
current.
 Arrangement: Usually, the inductor is in series with the load and the capacitor is in
parallel.
 Effectiveness: This dual filtering approach results in superior smoothing compared to
using either component alone.
 Application: Found in high-performance power supplies, such as audio amplifiers,
industrial controllers, or lab-grade DC supplies.
 Benefit: Excellent for reducing high-frequency ripple and ensuring a very clean DC
output.

d) Resistor-Capacitor (RC) Filter

 How it works: A resistor is placed in series and a capacitor is placed in parallel, forming
a low-pass filter.
 Simple but effective: This setup reduces high-frequency ripple by allowing only the
lower (DC) frequencies to pass to the load.
 Used in: Low-current applications where power efficiency is not critical, such as signal
conditioning or sensor circuits.
 Limitation: Since the resistor drops voltage and generates heat, RC filters are not ideal
for high-current systems.
🔎 Real-World Example

Let’s say you have a transformer that steps down 240V AC to 12V AC. You use a full-wave
rectifier to convert that AC to DC. After rectification, the DC voltage has a "bumpy" waveform
that pulses up and down with the AC frequency (50Hz or 60Hz, depending on your country).

To smooth this waveform:

 You add a 1000µF capacitor in parallel with the load.

 The capacitor charges during the peaks and discharges during the dips.
 As a result, the pulsating waveform becomes much flatter, resembling a steady DC
voltage.
 The more you increase the capacitor size (e.g. to 2200µF or 4700µF), the less ripple
remains.

Summary of Smoothing Methods

Method Placement Best For Main Effect

Capacito Parallel to load General applications Reduces voltage ripple
r
Inductor Series to load High-current applications Smooths current flow
LC Filter Series & Precision and sensitive Combines voltage and current
parallel circuits smoothing
RC Filter Series & Low-power, low-cost circuits Simple smoothing, some voltage drop
parallel

ower Regulation?

Power regulation is the process of maintaining a constant and stable output voltage or current
from a power supply, even when there are changes in input voltage or load conditions. The goal
is to ensure that electronic devices receive a steady, reliable power source so they operate
correctly and safely.

Without proper regulation, voltage could fluctuate wildly, causing devices to malfunction,
behave unpredictably, or even get damaged.

🧰 Common Power Regulation Methods

1. Linear Voltage Regulation

  How it works: Linear regulators use an active device (usually a transistor) controlled by
feedback circuitry to maintain a constant output voltage.
 The regulator continuously adjusts its resistance to drop excess voltage, so the output
voltage stays fixed.
 Example: The popular 7805 voltage regulator provides a steady +5V output.
 Advantages:
o Simple design
o Low output noise and ripple
o Quick response to load changes
 Disadvantages:
o Inefficient for large voltage drops (wastes energy as heat)
o Requires heat sinks for high current applications

2. Switching Voltage Regulation

 How it works: Instead of dropping excess voltage as heat, switching regulators rapidly
switch the input voltage on and off and use inductors, capacitors, and diodes to convert it
into a stable output voltage.
 Types:
o Buck Converter: Steps down voltage.
o Boost Converter: Steps up voltage.
o Buck-Boost Converter: Can increase or decrease voltage.
 Advantages:
o High efficiency (often 80-95%)
o Generates less heat
o Suitable for battery-powered devices
 Disadvantages:
o More complex circuitry
o Generates switching noise (can require filtering)

3. Zener Diode Regulation

 How it works: A Zener diode is connected in reverse bias and maintains a constant
voltage across itself when it reaches its breakdown voltage.
 Used in simple, low-current voltage regulation circuits.
 Often combined with a series resistor to limit current.
 Advantages:
o Very simple and low-cost
o Good for reference voltages or low-power loads
 Disadvantages:
o Not suitable for high currents
o Inefficient as it wastes power in the series resistor
4. Shunt Regulation

 How it works: A device (like a transistor or Zener diode) is connected in parallel with
the load and “shunts” excess current away to maintain a stable voltage.
 Common in low-power applications.
 Advantages:
o Simple and effective for small loads
 Disadvantages:
o Inefficient at high currents since excess current is wasted

5. Series Regulation

 How it works: A transistor or regulator device is placed in series with the load. It
controls the current flowing to the load by varying its resistance.
 Most linear regulators use this method.
 Advantages: Efficient voltage control and better thermal management.
 Disadvantages: Same as linear regulation limitations.

6. Integrated Circuit Regulators

 These are pre-packaged regulator ICs (like the 78xx and 79xx series for linear regulation,
or specialized switching regulator ICs).
 They simplify design, provide built-in protection, and maintain reliable output voltage.
 Many ICs have features like thermal shutdown, short-circuit protection, and overload
protection.

Why Power Regulation Matters

 Protects Sensitive Electronics: Prevents damage from voltage spikes or drops.

 Improves Performance: Ensures devices operate within designed voltage limits.
 Increases Reliability: Reduces system crashes and errors caused by unstable power.
 Extends Equipment Life: Stable power means less stress on components.

Summary Table of Power Regulation Methods

Method Principle Advantages Disadvantages Typical Use

Linear Voltage drop with Simple, low noise Inefficient, wastes Low power
Regulation transistor heat devices, IC supplies
Switching High-frequency High efficiency, Complex, Batteries, laptops,
Regulation on/off switching less heat generates noise phones
Zener Diode Constant voltage in Cheap, simple Low current, Reference
breakdown inefficient voltages, sensors
Shunt Parallel shunt Simple Inefficient at high Small loads
Regulation current current
Series Variable resistance Precise control Heat dissipation Linear regulators
Regulation in series issues
Power Supply Protection Methods

What is Power Supply Protection?

Power supply protection refers to the techniques and devices used to safeguard power supplies
and electronic circuits from electrical faults, overloads, short circuits, and other dangerous
conditions. These protections help prevent damage to both the power supply and the devices it
powers, ensuring reliability and safety.

Why is Protection Important?

 Prevents damage to expensive components and equipment.

 Avoids fire hazards caused by overheating or electrical faults.
 Increases the lifespan of devices and power supplies.
 Ensures user safety by preventing electric shocks or accidents.
 Keeps systems reliable and stable during power fluctuations.

Common Power Supply Protection Methods

1. Fuses

 A fuse is a simple safety device that breaks (blows) when the current flowing through it
exceeds a certain safe limit.
 It contains a thin wire that melts if the current is too high, stopping the flow of electricity.
 Once blown, the fuse must be replaced.
 Use: Protects circuits from overloads and short circuits

2. Circuit Breakers

 Circuit breakers are like reusable fuses.

 They automatically trip and open the circuit if the current is too high.
 Can be reset manually without needing replacement.
 Often used in home electrical panels and industrial systems.

3. Overvoltage Protection

 Protects circuits from voltage spikes or surges, which can occur from lightning,
switching, or faulty equipment.
 Devices used:
o Metal Oxide Varistors (MOVs): Absorb high voltage spikes and clamp voltage.
o Transient Voltage Suppression (TVS) diodes: Respond very quickly to voltage
spikes.
o Zener diodes: Clamp voltage to safe levels in some circuits.
4. Overcurrent Protection

 Protects against currents that are higher than what the circuit or device can safely handle.
 Can be implemented using fuses, circuit breakers, or current limiting circuits.

5. Thermal Protection

 Protects against overheating, which can damage components or cause fires.

 Includes:
o Thermistors: Change resistance with temperature to reduce current if it gets too
hot.
o Thermal switches: Open the circuit when temperature exceeds safe limits.
o Heat sinks and cooling fans: Remove heat to keep components safe.

6. Reverse Polarity Protection

 Protects circuits if the power supply connections are accidentally reversed.

 Can be done using:
o Diodes: Placed in series or parallel to block reverse current.
o MOSFET-based circuits: Provide more efficient protection with less voltage
drop.

7. Short Circuit Protection

 Detects and prevents damage when a short circuit occurs (when positive and negative
terminals connect directly).
 Power supplies with built-in short circuit protection will shut down or limit current to
avoid damage.

8. Surge Protection

 Protects from sudden surges or spikes in electrical power.

 Often used in power strips or surge protectors for home and office equipment.
 Protects computers, TVs, and other sensitive electronics.

Summary Table of Protection Methods

Protection Method What it Protects How it Works Typical Use Case

Fuse Overcurrent and short Melts wire to break circuit Small devices,
circuit electronics
Circuit Breaker Overcurrent and short Trips to open circuit, Home wiring,
circuit resettable industrial
Overvoltage Voltage spikes and Clamps or absorbs voltage Sensitive electronics
Protection surges spikes
Overcurrent Excessive current Limits or breaks current flow Power supplies,
Protection batteries
Thermal Protection Overheating Opens circuit or reduces Power transistors,
current motors
Reverse Polarity Wrong connection Blocks reverse current Battery-powered
polarity circuits
Short Circuit Short circuits Detects and shuts down or Power supplies
Protection limits current