Yashwantrao BBA 2076

Chavan
Maharashtra
Open University

Computer Application
Author: Rajashri Sonawane
UNIT 1: Introduction to Computers and Data Representation
UNIT 2: Problem Analysis and Algorithm Design
UNIT 3: Introduction to Programming Languages
UNIT 4: Programming in C++
UNIT 5: Measures, Metrics, and Indicators in Software Engineering
UNIT 6: User Interface Design in Software Engineering
UNIT 7: Introduction to MS Word
UNIT 8: Advanced Features of MS Word
UNIT 9: Introduction to MS Excel
UNIT 10: Advanced Features of MS Excel
UNIT 11: Introduction to MS PowerPoint
UNIT 12: Advanced Features of MS PowerPoint
UNIT 13: Database Management Systems (DBMS)
UNIT 14: Cybersecurity and Data Protection
UNIT 15: Cloud Computing
UNIT 16: Emerging Technologies in Computing

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YASHWANTRAO CHAVAN MAHARASHTRA OPEN UNIVERSITY, NASHIK.
VICE-CHANCELLOR: PROF.SANJEEV SONAWANE
PRO-VICE-CHANCELLOR: DR. JOGENDRASINGH BISEN
DIRECTOR, SCHOOL OF COMMERCE AND MANAGEMENT- DR. SURENDRA PATOLE
STATE LEVEL ADVISORY COMMITTEE
Dr. Surendra Patole Dr. Latika Gaikwad
Director, Associate Professor,
School of commerce and Management School of commerce and Management
YCMOU, Nashik-422222. YCMOU, Nashik-422222

Prof. Dr. Deepak Raverkar Prof. Dr. Prashant Sathe

Principal, Sundarrao More Arts, Brihan Maharashtra College of
Commerce & Science Commerce (BMCC), Pune
College,Poladpur Dist.Raigad

Prof. Dr. Anjali Ramteke Prof. Dr. L.N.Ghatage

School of Management, Ex.Vice principal
IGNOU, Delhi D.G. college of Commerce
Satara Pin-415001

Prof. Dr. Veena Humbe Dr. (CS) Lalita Mutreja

I/C Dean & Head, Department of Commerce I/c. Principal, Sahyadri Shiskhan Seva
Dr.Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada Mandal's Arts and Commerce College
University, Aurangabad Naigaon, Mumbai

Dr. Sanjay Kalmkar Dr. Manish Madhav Deshmukh

Vice Principal and Head Head, Department of Commerce
Department of Commerce &Management Sonopant Dandekar Arts,V.S Commerce
New Art's, Commerce & Science College & M.H. Mehata Sicence College, Palghar
(Autonomous), Ahmednagar. 414001 Dist. Thane

Author Editor
Rajashri Sonawane Dr. Prashant Suresh Salve
Brahmdevdada Mane Institute of Technology, B. A. College, Pathardi,
Solapur Ahmednagar

Instructional Technology Editing and Programme Co-ordinator

Dr. Surendra Patole
Director,
School of commerce and Management
YCMOU, Nashik-422222.
Production
Shri. Vilas Badhan
Head, Printing and Production center, YCMOU, Nashik
Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open University, Nashik
(First edition of developed under DEB development grant)
 First Publication: Publication Code:
 Type Setting: Cover Design:
 Printed by:
 Publisher:

ISBN NO: BBA 2076

BLOCK I: FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS AND DATA
REPRESENTATION

UNIT 1: Introduction to Computers and Data Representation

1.1 Binary Number System
1.1.1 Conversion of Binary to Decimal and Vice-Versa
1.1.2 Binary Arithmetic
1.2 Introduction to Boolean Algebra
1.3 Computer Codes
1.3.1 BCD (Binary Coded Decimal)
1.3.2 ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)
1.3.3 EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code)
1.3.4 Unicode
1.3.5 Parity Codes
1.4 Evolutionary Software Process Models
1.4.1 The Incremental Model
1.4.2 The Spiral Model
1.5 Overview of Computer Architecture

BLOCK II: PROBLEM ANALYSIS AND PROGRAMMING

UNIT 2: Problem Analysis and Algorithm Design

2.1 Problem Analysis
2.2 Algorithm Design
2.2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Algorithms
2.3 Flowcharts
2.3.1 Symbols Used in Flowcharts
2.4 Coding and Testing
2.4.1 Software Testing Techniques
2.4.1.1 White-Box Testing
2.4.1.2 Basis Path Testing
2.4.1.3 Cyclomatic Complexity
2.4.2 Control Structure Testing
2.5 Pseudocode and Its Applications

UNIT 3: Introduction to Programming Languages

3.1 Types of Programming Languages
3.1.1 Machine Language
3.1.2 Assembly Language
3.1.3 High-Level Language
3.2 Language Translators
3.2.1Compilers
3.2.2 Assemblers

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 3.2.3 Interpreters
3.2.4 Editors
3.3 Introduction to Scripting Languages

UNIT 4: Programming in C++

4.1 Introduction to C++
4.2 Basic Syntax and Structure
4.3 Variables and Data Types
4.4 Control Structures (if-else, loops)
4.5 Functions and Arrays
4.6 Object-Oriented Programming Concepts

BLOCK III: SOFTWARE ENGINEERING AND USER INTERFACE DESIGN

UNIT 5: Measures, Metrics, and Indicators in Software Engineering

5.1 Importance of Measures and Metrics
5.2 Common Software Metrics
5.3 Indicators in Software Engineering
5.4 Software Quality Assurance

UNIT 6: User Interface Design in Software Engineering

6.1 Principles of User Interface Design
6.2 User-Centered Design
6.3 Prototyping and Usability Testing
6.4 Human-Computer Interaction

BLOCK IV: MICROSOFT OFFICE APPLICATIONS

UNIT 7: Introduction to MS Word

7.1 Creating Simple Documents
7.2 Editing Text
7.3 Working with Tables and Graphics
7.4 Formatting Documents
7.5 Using Tools (Spell-Check, Hyphenation, Mail-Merge)
7.6 Printing Documents, Envelopes, and Labels
7.7 Document Collaboration Features

UNIT 8: Advanced Features of MS Word

8.1 Styles and Templates
8.2 Macros and Automation
8.3 Collaboration Features (Track Changes, Comments)
8.4 Advanced Table Features
8.5 Advanced Document Formatting

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UNIT 9: Introduction to MS Excel
9.1 Understanding Workbooks and Worksheets
9.2 Opening and Saving Workbooks
9.3 Basic Formulas and Functions
9.4 Formatting Cells and Data
9.5 Data Sorting and Filtering

UNIT 10: Advanced Features of MS Excel

10.1 Creating and Printing Workbooks/Sheets
10.2 Using Advanced Formulas and Functions
10.3 Creating Graphs and Charts
10.4 Data Analysis Tools (PivotTables, Data Validation)
10.5 Conditional Formatting and Advanced Charting

UNIT 11: Introduction to MS PowerPoint

11.1 Creating Presentations
11.2 Inserting and Formatting Text and Images
11.3 Using Slide Layouts and Themes
11.4 Adding Animations and Transitions
11.5 Basics of Slide Design

UNIT 12: Advanced Features of MS PowerPoint

12.1 Creating Master Slides
12.2 Incorporating Multimedia (Audio, Video)
12.3 Advanced Animation Techniques
12.4 Delivering and Printing Presentations
12.5 Interactive Presentations

BLOCK V: ADVANCED TOPICS IN COMPUTING

UNIT 13: Database Management Systems (DBMS)

13.1 Introduction to DBMS
13.2 Types of Databases
13.3 Database Models
13.4 SQL Basics and Applications
13.5 Database Design Principles

UNIT 14: Cybersecurity and Data Protection

14.1 Introduction to Cybersecurity
14.2 Common Cyber Threats and Attacks
14.3 Data Protection Techniques
14.4 Best Practices in Cybersecurity
14.5 Legal and Ethical Issues in Cybersecurity

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UNIT 15: Cloud Computing
15.1 Introduction to Cloud Computing
15.2 Types of Cloud Services (IaaS, PaaS, SaaS)
15.3 Benefits and Challenges of Cloud Computing
15.4 Applications of Cloud Computing
15.5 Cloud Security and Compliance

UNIT 16: Emerging Technologies in Computing

16.1 Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML)
16.2 Internet of Things (IoT)
16.3 Blockchain Technology
16.4 Future Trends in Computing
16.5 Quantum Computing

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 Unit 1: Introduction to Computers and Data Representation

Learning Outcomes:
 Students will be able to define the binary number system.
 Students will be able to describe the process of converting binary to decimal and
vice versa.
 Students will be able to perform binary arithmetic operations.
 Students will be able to apply Boolean algebra in binary arithmetic.
 Students will be able to analyze the differences and applications of various
computer codes.
Structure:
1.1 Binary Number System
1.1.1 Conversion of Binary to Decimal and Vice-Versa
1.1.2 Binary Arithmetic
1.2 Introduction to Boolean Algebra
 Knowledge Check 1
 Outcome-Based Activity 1
1.3 Computer Codes
1.3.1 BCD (Binary Coded Decimal)
1.3.2 ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)
1.3.3 EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code)
1.3.4 Unicode
1.3.5 Parity Codes
1.4 Evolutionary Software Process Models
1.4.1 The Incremental Model
1.4.2 The Spiral Model
 Knowledge Check 2
 Outcome-Based Activity 2
1.5 Overview of Computer Architecture
1.6 Summary
1.7 Keywords
1.8 Self-Assessment Questions
1.9 References / Reference Reading

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1.1 Binary Number System
Number systems are used in digital electronics to represent and manipulate numerical
data. The most commonly used number systems are binary, decimal, and hexadecimal.
Binary is the most fundamental number system in digital electronics, representing
digital signals in computers and electronic devices. Decimal is the number system most
commonly used in everyday life, while hexadecimal is often used in computer
programming and digital electronics.
1.1.1 Conversion of Binary to Decimal and Vice-Versa
For putting down the value of a number, most number systems follow the same pattern:
A predetermined number of values can be represented with a single numerical character,
followed by a new column that counts how many times the greatest value in the
counting system has been attained. The number of numerical values that the system
employs is referred to as the system's base. The decimal system, for example, includes
ten number characters and so a base of 10:
0123456789
When writing numerals bigger than 9, a second column is added to the left, with 10
times the value of the column to its right.
Because the base values of the number systems typically utilised in digital electronics
differ from those of the decimal system, they appear less recognisable yet function
roughly the same.
Decimal, (base 10)
Decimal, also known as base 10, is a numerical system that uses ten digits to represent
numbers: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9.
Each digit in a decimal number represents a power of 10. For example, in the number
235, the digit 5 represents 5 units, the digit 3 represents 3 groups of 10 units, and the
digit 2 represents 2 groups of 100 units.
Binary, (base 2)
Binary, also known as base 2, is a numerical system that uses only two digits, 0 and 1,
to represent numbers.
For instance:
1010 denotes the decimal value ten. (1 ten + 0 units)
102 denotes the binary value two. (1 two + 0 units)
Converting Binary to Decimal

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To convert from binary to decimal, write down the binary number with the correct
'weighting,' i.e. the value of the columns, starting with one for the right-hand (least
important column or LEAST SIGNIFICANT BIT) column. As you proceed left, give
each column double the value of the preceding column.

Example:
To convert the binary number 01000102 to decimal, follow these steps:
1. Write down the binary number and assign a weight to each bit based on its position.
2. Sum the values of the columns that have a bit of 1, ignoring the columns with a bit
of 0.

Applying the appropriate weighting to0100010 gives (0 × 2⁶) + (1 × 2⁵) + (0 × 2⁴) + (0

× 2³) + (0 × 2²) + (1 × 2¹) + (0 × 2⁰) = (34)₁₀
Therefore: 01000102 = 3410

How to Convert Decimal Numbers to Binary Numbers

There are several ways they can be converted, such as the division method.
Here is how to convert a decimal number to binary using the division method: This is
a procedure on how to convert decimal number to binary using division method:
1. Divide the Decimal Number by 2: Now it is time to divide the given decimal number
with the divisor ‘2’. Let us record the quotient and the remainder.
2. Determine Remainder for Even Numbers: If the even decimal number is divided by
one, it will give you another whole figure, and the remainder will be zero.
3. Determine Remainder for Odd Numbers: When the decimal number is odd, the
division is not rounded off to zeroes, and the quotient contains one recurring
decimal figure of the number one.
4. Record the Remainders: Each time you do a divide, write down the remainders
beginning from the first division you did first. When aligning it to get the binary
value, arrange it in order, starting from the LSB at the top and MSB at the bottom.
1.1.2 Binary Arithmetic: Binary arithmetic is one of the basic subjects that pupils are
expected to learn about digital electricity and calculation. It involves performing
arithmetic operations using the binary number system, which consists only of two

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digits. Regarding the randomised parameter, the attribute has two possible states, which
include 0 and 1. This system is applied in computation in digital computers in the same
way that the decimal system is used in computers.
Binary Number System: In the binary system of numbering, each digit forms a power
of 2 and starts with the digit at the right as equal to 2 zero. For example, the binary
number 1101 can be converted to decimal as follows: For instance, converting the
binary number 1101 to decimal, we get the following:
\[ 1 \times 2^3 + 1 \times 2^2 + 0 \times 2^1 + 1 \times 2^0 = 8 + 4 + 0 + 1 = 13 \]

Basic Binary Arithmetic Operations

1. Binary Addition
Binary addition is similar to decimal addition, though there are fewer rules because
there are only two digits. The rules are:
-0+0=0
-0+1=1
-1+0=1
- 1 + 1 = 10 (which is 0 with a carry of 1)
Example:
1011
+ 1101
------
11000
2. Binary Subtraction
Binary subtraction also employs borrowing in the same way it is done in the decimal
system. The rules are:
-0-0=0
-1-0=1
-1-1=0
- 0 - 1 = 1 (with a borrow of 1)
Example:
1011
- 0101
------
0110

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3. Binary Multiplication
Binary multiplication is straightforward, following the same principles as decimal
multiplication, with simpler rules: Binary multiplication is straightforward, following
the same principles as decimal multiplication, with simpler rules:
-0×0=0
-0×1=0
-1×0=0
-1×1=1
Example:
101
× 11
-----
101
+1010
------
1111
4. Binary Division
It is similar to that for long division in decimals that involve comparison and repeated
subtraction. It follows these steps:
- Place the divisor on the leftmost digits of the dividend.
- Especially since sometimes you can compare and, in this case, subtract some
numbers.
- In this case, move the digit over to the right side and perform the above steps
again.
Example:
1101 ÷ 10 = 110 R 1

1.2 Introduction to Boolean Algebra

Boolean algebra is a branch of higher mathematics that helps to study and control the
changes in logical expressions. It deals with variables that can take on two possible
values: represented by 1 when the statement is true and 0 when the statement is false.
Incorporated by the mathematician who was called George Boole, Boolean algebra is
one of the most significant branches in the field of digital electronics, computer science,
and logic design. Here is an introduction to Boolean algebra:

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1. Variables: In Boolean algebra, three types of variables are used to represent logical
propositions or conditions. These variables can only have two possible values: in
outcome, ‘true’ can be equal to 1 and ‘false’ can be equal to 0. For instance, a
variable ( A ) can stand for “It is raining. ”
2. Logical Operators: Boolean algebra divides several logical operators that work on
variables into four main groups. The basic operators include:
- AND ((and)): Stands for the joining of two statements. The given result can be
true only if both propositions are true.
- OR ((or)): Used to depict a logical connection of a proposition and the negation
of a proposition. This is true inasmuch as at least the truth of one of the
propositions under consideration is sufficient to warrant the resultant truth.
- NOT ((not)): Denotes the not of a proposition. It negates it and changes its truth
value to the opposite of the given proposition.
3. Truth Tables: Truth tables depict how logical operators operate, taking into
consideration all feasible possibilities of the input variables. The rows of the truth
table represent all potential input variable conditions, and the column represents the
output of the operation with the current logical operator.
4. Boolean Expressions: Boolean expressions are algebraic terms that are formed
from variables and also logical operators. They present logical relationships and
conditions in a compact, organised manner regularly. For instance, ( A and B )
means the joining of proposition (A) and proposition (B).
5. Properties of Boolean Algebra: Boolean algebra follows a number of algebraic
laws, and these are:
i. Commutative: The first two formulated equations are ( A and B = B and A ) and
( A or B = B or A ).
- Associative: The associative order is ( (A and B) and C = A and (B and C) )
and ( (A or B) or C = A or (B or C) ).
ii. Distributive: ( A and (B or C) = (A and B) or (A and C) ) and ( A or (B and C) =
(A or B) and (A or C) )

 Knowledge Check 1
Fill in the blanks
1. In binary arithmetic, each digit is called a ___. (bit)
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 2. According to the addition rule between binary numbers, if one adds one to
one, the result in binary is ___, with a carry of __. (10, 1)
3. Supposing that there is a subtraction of a larger digit from a smaller digit, it
involves borrowing, for instance, ___-1. (0)
4. In binary multiplication, each digit of the multiplier is multiplied by each digit
of the ___. (multiplicand)

 Outcome-Based Activity 1
To convert the binary number 0100102 to decimal and vice-versa.

1.3 Computer Codes

Computer codes are the techniques of encoding characters, symbols with digital form,
and control codes. Every code gives number sequences to the various characters, which
makes it possible for computers to display text and other information formats. Here's a
brief overview of some commonly used computer codes:
1.3.1 BCD (Binary Coded Decimal)
BCD, or Binary-Coded Decimal, is a system of encoding decimal numbers in binary
form. In BCD, each decimal digit is represented using four bits in binary form. For
instance, the decimal number 123 will be represented by the following: BCD 0001 0010
0011.
1.3.2 ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)
ASCII, also known as the American standard code for information interchange, is the
most common character encoding standard. It utilises 7 or 8 bits to represent text
characters. Developed for the English language, ASCII assigns numbers to each
character, including letters, digits, punctuation signs, and control signs. For example,
the ASCII value of the capital letter A is 65.
1.3.3 EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code)
EBCDIC is a coded character set that IBM invented for use in mainframe computers.
EBCDIC, more than ASCII, has 8 bits and contains some characters compatible with
IBM mainframes.
1.3.4 Unicode
Unicode is a character encoding specification that strives to be used to support all the
text characters of all the world’s current and potential writing scripts. It has a code that

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allocates each character, alphabets, number symbols, emojis, and special signs. There
are many forms of Unicode, and a few of them are UTF-8, UTF-16, and UTF-32.
1.3.5 Parity Codes
Parity is a technique used to detect errors in transmitted data. In parity checking, an
additional bit (the parity bit) is added to the data to ensure that the total number of bits
set to 1 in the data, including the parity bit, is always odd (odd parity) or even (even
parity). An error is detected if the number of bits set to 1 does not match the expected
parity.

1.4 Evolutionary Software Process Models

The evolutionary software process models are the effective models of the software
development process that comprise the iteration and increments as a development
approach. These models presuppose that requirements and solutions are not static and
try to incorporate change at any stage of development. Here are some notable
evolutionary software process models:
1. Prototyping Model:
o The Prototyping Model focuses on first constructing a basic form of the software
(prototype) in order to receive responses for fine-tuning the demands.
o Concerning the end user’s feedback, the user iterates the prototype in order to get
the final product that needs to be developed.
2. Incremental Model:
o The Incremental Model breaks the software development process into incremental
steps and is mostly used when the development process is large and complex.
o Each increment provides a part of the functionality and is to be delivered and
reviewed by the stakeholders.
o Gradually, the previous incarnations also acquired new features and innovations
that were added from time to time.
3. Iterative Model:
o The Iterative Model divides the construction of software into cycles or iterations.
o Each cycle consists of requirements analysis, design, implementation, testing, and
deployment cycle.
o Ideas from one cycle feed into the other, making the process build on itself; in other
words, feedback is used to make adjustments.
4. Agile Model:
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o Methodologies such as Scrum, Kanban, and Extreme Programming are known to
have their major focuses on flexibility, collaboration, and customer involvement.
o Scrum teams work in a particular period called sprints and repeatedly provide a new
functioning product in small periods.
o Agile focuses on values like working on change rather than the plan and helps place
teams at a point where they can be able to work according to the changing needs
and demands of clients and markets.
5. Spiral Model:
o The second type of SDLC, the Spiral Model, integrates iterative models with risks
and prototypes.
o Testing and again planning, risk appraisal, modelling, building and assessment are
included as repeatable cycles.
o The latter is important to note since each Cycle to be mentioned as spirals underlines
the previous one and encompasses feedback and the proposed risks
These evolutionary software process models provide changeable strategies for the
development of software to facilitate teams in managing risks and changes and
efficiently producing high-quality software. The option of a particular model depends
on the state of affairs of the project, the team, the customer, and other conditions.
1.4.1 The Incremental Model
The Incremental Model is a model of software development that divides the
development process into small principles or increments. Each increment provides a
part of the functionality, enabling the delivery of the required solution to stakeholders
in portions and receiving feedback. The Incremental Model follows a series of steps. It
includes:
1. Requirements Gathering:
o The general necessities of the software system are identified and aggregated.
o The requirements are then arranged according to their value and the achievability
of implementation.

2. Initial Planning:
o A coarse-grained plan to define the project’s extent and the increments is
established.
3. Increment Development:

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o It starts with the first increment, which lies in the development of the first set of
features of the system.
4. Increment Delivery:
o Stakeholders are given an increment that has been developed and tested and asked
to give their views on it.
5. Feedback Incorporation:
o It also involves incorporating the changes that the users in the software have
identified to improve it.
6. Iterative Development:
o The development process is cyclical, and each subsequent increment is added to the
existing structure.
7. Incremental Integration:
o When new increments are being developed, they are built to work with the
previously delivered increments in order to support compatible and coordinated
systems.
o This is done to ensure that the increments are fully integrated since integration
testing is the process used to test the integrated software components.
8. Final Delivery:
o The incremental model reaches its final stage in the delivery of the final increment,
which contains all the proposed features and improvements.
o The developed software system is deployed for use in production or delivered to
the user, consumer or client.
1.4.2 The Spiral Model
This can also be best described as the software development process model that
incorporates the risk management technique as well as the prototyping in stages.
Developed by Barry Boehm in 1986, this model is more suitable for large and complex
software development projects with high risks and a high level of unpredictability. The
development process is in the form of a spiral, which means that each cycle depicts a
phase of the lifecycle. Here are the key characteristics and phases of the Spiral Model:

1. Planning:
o Learning: Define the objectives of the project, as well as the constraints and risks
that are likely to be encountered.
o Identify the prospects of the project and draw a rough working plan.

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2. Risk Analysis:
o It is necessary to define and evaluate the possible risks of the project
implementation.
o Risks are to be assessed and ranked depending on their consequences and their
probability.
o Formulate the techniques on how to handle risk factors and contingency plans.
3. Engineering:
o The steps include the following: acquire, collate, and record the requirements of the
software.
o Design and build the system structure.
o Develop prototypes to assess the so-defined and designed system requirements.
4. Evaluation:
o Discuss with the team members and evaluate the accomplishments made and the
software’s readiness and quality.
o Ask stakeholders and the end-users to point out what they think needs to be
changed.

 Knowledge Check 2
Fill in the Blanks
1. The Prototyping Model involves the development of ___ of the software in
order to obtain feedback. (prototypes)
2. Scrum and Kanban are some of the most used Agile methodologies that focus
on ___ rather than on schedules. (deliverables)
3. The Iterative Model basically discusses the development process in terms of
___ cycles or iterations. (repeated)
4. The Spiral Model integrates features of iterative development with ___
management and prototyping. (risk)
 Outcome-Based Activity 2
Create a PowerPoint presentation on Evolutionary Software Process Models.

1.5 Overview of Computer Architecture

Computer architecture is a concept that describes computer systems, the designs
implemented in the hardware constituents of computers, and how they are integrated to

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perform a particular function. It combines the management of the central processing
unit (CPU), memory, input/output (I/O) devices, and communication between them.
Computer architecture is a field that deals with designing computing systems to be
faster, more efficient, and scalable. This involves developing processors that can
perform instructions at high speeds, managing data storage and access mechanisms
within memory, and establishing other control mechanisms between the several
components of the computer’s hardware.
Some of the concepts of computer architecture are instruction set architecture (ISA),
which is the set of instructions that a CPU can execute, and micro-architecture, which
is the implementation of ISA using hardware components like registers, arithmetic and
logic units, and control unit.
Computer architects must compromise aspects like performance, power usage, costs,
and compatibility while designing computer systems. Technological enhancements and
the emergence of new computing models and structures always lead to research in
computer organisation to build better, quicker, and more powerful systems.

1.6 Summary
 Number systems are mainly employed in digital electronics to denote or work with
number values.
 There are three known number systems, namely, binary, decimal, and hexadecimal.
Binary is the simplest form of the number system used in digital electronics since it
is used to carry out digital signals on computers and other digital equipment.
 Boolean algebra is the algebraic technique used in the formal analysis of logic
expressions. It deals with variables that can take on two possible values: Real
numbers that are assigned to the Boolean logic include true, represented by the
numeric digit one (1) and false, represented by the numeric digit zero (0).
 Computer codes are special forms of encoding that are used to represent characters,
symbols, and control codes on computers. Each code sets specific binary patterns
to various characters so that computers can analyse and send text and other
information.
 Evolutionary software process models are more of a life cycle approach to
developing software and are characterised by flexibility and iteration.

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 The Incremental Model is a software development technique that divides a project
into small and more manageable phases or iterations.
 The Spiral Model is a SDP process model that combines iteration, risk management,
and prototyping following a specific pattern. This model was formulated by Barry
Boehm in 1986 and is most useful when the software development project is
immense and unpredictable.

1.7 Keywords
 Spiral Model: This is the development of software that incorporates risk
management, iteration and prototyping.
 Boolean algebra: It is a branch of mathematics that deals with the logical
calculation of propositions or statements
 Computer codes: Computer codes are sets of symbols used to represent characters,
symbols, and control codes in the digital format.

1.8 Self-Assessment Questions

1. Explain the concept of place value in the binary number system.
2. Provide a detailed description of how to perform multiplication and division
operations in binary.
3. Explain with examples what Boolean algebra is and its role in the design of digital
logic circuits.
4. Explain what computer codes are and what they do concerning characters and
symbolisation.
5. ASCII, EBCDIC, and Unicode are some of the most used encoding schemes; briefly
explain their differences.

1.9 References / Reference Reading

 Mano, Morris M., and Charles R. Kime. Logic and Computer Design
Fundamentals. 4th ed., Pearson, 2008.
 Rajaraman, V., and T. Radhakrishnan. An Introduction to Digital Computer Design.
5th ed., PHI Learning, 2018.
 Floyd, Thomas L. Digital Fundamentals. 11th ed., Pearson, 2014.

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 Balagurusamy, E. Fundamentals of Computers. 6th ed., McGraw Hill Education,
2014.
 Bartee, Thomas C. Digital Computer Fundamentals. 6th ed., McGraw Hill, 1991.

Unit 2: Problem Analysis and Algorithm Design

Learning Outcomes:

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 Students will be able to identify steps in problem analysis.
 Students will be able to explain the importance of algorithms in problem-solving.
 Students will be able to create flowcharts using standard symbols.
 Students will be able to differentiate between various software testing techniques.
 Students will be able to design pseudocode for given problems.

Structure:
2.1 Problem Analysis
2.2 Algorithm Design
2.2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Algorithms
 Knowledge Check 1
 Outcome-Based Activity 1
2.3 Flowcharts
2.3.1 Symbols Used in Flowcharts
2.4 Coding and Testing
2.4.1 Software Testing Techniques
2.4.1.1 White-Box Testing
2.4.1.2 Basis Path Testing
2.4.1.3 Cyclomatic Complexity
2.4.2 Control Structure Testing
 Knowledge Check 2
 Outcome-Based Activity 2
2.5 Pseudocode and Its Applications
2.6 Summary
2.7 Keywords
2.8 Self-Assessment Questions
2.9 References / Reference Reading

2.1 Problem Analysis

One of the major components of problem-solving in computer science is understanding
and defining the problem one wants to solve before finding a solution. This stage is

20
quite important in software development and system design processes. Here's a detailed
look at the key components and steps involved in problem analysis:
1. Problem Definition
- Clear Statement of the Problem: First, the problem should be defined in its simplest
terms to help develop understanding. Make sure all the stakeholders have a clear
understanding of the problem.
- Objectives and Goals: Specify the objectives of the solution, or in other words, what
do you want to accomplish with it? As part of the planning, it follows the specifics
of the objectives as well as key success factors.
2. Requirements Gathering
- Functional Requirements: Determine the specific tasks for the system. This could
involve data processing or the interactions of the users with the systems and the
subsequent responses.
- Non-functional Requirements: Some of these include performance, security,
usability, and reliability. These are critical because they help prove that the system
is functional in the actual environment.
- Stakeholder Input: Involve users, clients and developers in order to elicit all
necessary information from them.
3. System Context and Constraints
- System Boundaries: State what the system will cover and what will not be included
in the system. This reduces cases of scope inflation and guarantees developmental
concentration.
- Constraints: Determine any constraints in advance, such as technology constraints,
budget constraints, time constraints, legal constraints, and constraints of the current
system.
4. Use Case and User Story Templates
- Use Cases: Define scenarios/freeware descriptions to explain how the system will
be utilised. In each use case, the description should be created from the user’s point
of view and should include the actions related to a particular function.
- User Stories: Develop use case scenarios to record specific requirements from the
perspective of the user. These are formed in the structure of ‘Given [user], I want to
[act] in order to [accomplish an objective].’
5. Data Requirements

21
- Data Inputs: Determine the input data that the system will need. Determine where
data is going to be collected and how it will be obtained or captured.
- Data Outputs: Identify the outcomes that the system should generate: What kind of
reports, notifications, and other outputs are expected?
- Data Storage and Management: Consider how data will be saved, accessed, sorted
out, and even deleted. This involves aspects of DB design such as, data organisation
and protection issues as well as data integrity.
6. Analysis Models
- Diagrams and Models: Employ flowcharts, ERDs, class diagrams, and any other
model that will be useful in describing the problem and the intended solutions.
- Process Flows: Audit the processes and activities that are performed to determine
system performance and inefficiencies.
7. Risk Analysis
- Identify Risks: Enumerate possible threats that might affect the project including
technical issues, shortages of resources, and organisational opposition.
- Risk Mitigation: Formulate actions to control the identified risks, which include
having action plans in case of specified risk and preventive measures.
8. Documentation and Review
- Documentation: Develop a detailed record of all the problem analysis and findings,
requirements, models, and feasibility studies.
- Review and Validation: Carry out interviews with the stakeholders to confirm the
findings of the problem analysis. Ensure that all the specified requirements are
credible, covering all the necessary aspects, and have been mutually understood by
the stakeholders.

2.2 Algorithm Design

Algorithm design is one of the key computer science concepts dedicated to inventing
algorithms for particular tasks. It involves elements of both critical thinking,
brainstorming and calculations to arrive at the solution. Here’s a detailed guide on the
key components and steps involved in algorithm design:
1. Understanding the Problem
- Problem Definition: Describe the situation before its improvement. When
identifying the problem at hand, an important step is to describe the situation before

22
 the solution is applied. It is important to clarify the input, the expected results and
the limitations.
- Examples and Edge Cases: It is crucial to think about regular instances and
situations that are as close to the extremes as possible to understand the problem
thoroughly and in all its aspects.
2. Analysing the Problem
- Input Size and Constraints: Determine the size of input data and limitations on time
and space. This assists in selecting an appropriate strategy.
- Properties of the Problem: Check whether the problem to be solved has
characteristics, for example, whether it is an optimal substructure or has overlapping
subproblems this informs you whether to implement dynamic programming or
greediness.
3. Choosing an Approach
- Brute Force: Be precise and focused to identify straightforward strategies that
consider all of them. Good for rather small inputs but less suitable for larger data
sets, for various reasons.
- Divide and Conquer: Divide the problem into simpler problems, solve the
subordinate problems and then integrate the solutions. Some are merge sort and
quick sort.
- Greedy Algorithms: Make the best decision at the local level and always expect to
get the best overall solution. Appropriate for problems such as knapsack problems
and some graph problems.
- Dynamic Programming: Use when the problem can be divided into several similar
problems that are more manageable than the original problem. This is because while
solving a problem, solutions to subproblems are also generated, and when solving
another problem that has similar subproblems, it is always better to retrieve the
solutions from the database and use them than to retrieve them. Some of the real-
life applications are the Fibonacci sequence and the shortest path.
- Backtracking: Try every possible move and return to the previous state when it turns
out to be nonvalid. VERY useful in CSPs like N-Queens problem and Sudoku.
- Heuristic and Approximation: Employ when it is impossible to obtain an exact
solution to the given problem. They give adequate solutions within a reasonable
time.
4. Designing the Algorithm
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- Pseudocode: The algorithm should be written in pseudocode in order to explain the
strategy clearly and briefly. This is useful in the visualisation of the steps and the
structure.
- Data Structures: Select proper data structures that enable fast operations on data and
easy access to data. For instance, arrays, linked lists, hash tables, trees, and graphs.
- Algorithm Steps: To implement the algorithm it is essential to divide it into certain
easily understandable steps. Make sure that from one step you go to the next one
and the links between the steps are reasonable.
5. Optimisation
- Improving Efficiency: Try to avoid having a high time and space complexity. This
might mean improving loops, employing better data structures, or employing
higher-level algorithms.
- Avoiding Redundancy: Reduce redundant calculations and use memoisation, or
improve the logic to avoid repeating calculations.
6. Implementation
- Coding: Convert the pseudocode into the actual code of a programming language.
Concentrate on such things as variable names, comments, and coding style.
- Testing: Thoroughly check its efficiency in several cases, including the worst and
the best ones, and use various inputs.
7. Verification and Validation
- Proof of Correctness: Also, make use of mathematical proofs or formal approaches
to make sure the algorithm responds to the problem in the right way.
- Empirical Testing: Check the correctness of the algorithm with the help of some
sample data for which the correct result is known and test the algorithm on the real
dataset.
8. Documentation
- Clear Description: Explain what the algorithm is, why it is used and what the
process of algorithm steps looks like.
- Complexity Analysis: Record the time and space complexity analysis.
- Usage Instructions: State how the algorithm is to be used, the input format of data
and what result is expected.
9. Review and Refinement
- Code Review: Allow other students to look at the work done on the algorithm and
at its implementation to point out mistakes and such.

24
- Refinement: Reapply the algorithm with feedback and the results of the testing as
well as performance metrics acquired.

2.2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Algorithms

Advantages of Algorithms
1. Efficiency:
- Time Efficiency: Complex algorithms can take a lot of time before they solve a
certain problem but that time can be reduced by coming up with a well-designed
algorithm. More efficient algorithms enable the program to process large datasets
and solve more complicated problems in less time.
2. Reusability:
- Modularity: Algorithms are usually developed to be of general forms that may be
used in different programs due to modularity. This modularity makes code
maintainability and reusability a lot easier.
3. Scalability:
- Handling Large Inputs: Ideal algorithms can go up a couple of notches in
complexity while managing the same amount of input data.
4. Predictability and Reliability:
- Consistent Results: Algorithms are very reliable in their operations because they
offer the same solution for the same problem.
5. Automation:
- Reduced Human Effort: Computational methods can efficiently use the sequences,
requiring less human input and fewer errors.
Disadvantages of Algorithms
1. Complexity:
- Design Complexity: Finding better algorithms is another big challenge because this
process is very time-consuming. It involves knowledge of the problem and the
principles of designing the algorithm to solve the problem at hand.

2. Resource Intensive:
- High Computational Resources: Certain algorithms, especially if they are to solve
intricate challenges, are likely to be resource-intensive and not feasible for low-
power gadgets.
3. Specialisation:
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- Domain-Specific Algorithms: There are algorithms that can only be used to solve
specific problems and cannot be used for other problems. This makes them
somewhat useful in one area but not very much in other areas.
4. Assumptions and Constraints:
- Rigid Assumptions: It can be noted that most of the time algorithms are designed
under certain assumptions such as the input is sorted, a certain data structure is used
etc. If these assumptions do not hold, the algorithm may fail or fail.
5. Development Time
- Long Development Cycles: Algorithms development and tuning may take a long
time and may slow down project completion.

 Knowledge Check 1
Fill in the Blanks
1. ___________ in computer science involves understanding and defining the
problem that needs to be solved before designing a solution. (Problem analysis)
2. _____________ involves a combination of problem-solving skills, creativity,
and mathematical rigor. (Algorithm design)
3. ___________ is the one of the Advantage of Algorithms. (Efficiency)
4. Disadvantages of Algorithms are ________ & ___________. (complexity &
time consumption)

 Outcome-Based Activity 1
Discuss on the advantages & disadvantages of algorithms in class room

2.3 Flowcharts
Flowcharts are diagrams that can be used to illustrate the processes or algorithms that
are inherent in a system. It is used in computer science, business and engineering to
reduce comprehension and interpretational problems and aid in the communication of
information and ideas. Here’s a detailed overview of flowcharts:
 Components of a Flowchart
1. Start/End (Terminator):
- Symbolised with the oval sign.
- Refs to the starting and or ending phases of a process.

26
2. Process (Action or Operation):
- It is illustrated by the rectangle.
- Defines a stage where an action is done.
3. Decision:
- The shapes used to represent them include;
- Signals that a decision is made and depending on yes/no or true/false the
program goes to a new branch.
4. Input/Output:
- Symbolised by a parallelogram.
- Shows where data is inputted into or outputted from the process.
5. Flow Lines (Arrows):
- Represented by arrows.
- Indicate the direction of flow from one step to another.
6. Connector:
- Represented by a small circle or a labeled circle.
- Used to connect flowchart segments too large to fit on one page or simplify
complex diagrams.
7. Sub-process (Predefined Process):
- Represented by a rectangle with double lines on each side.
- Denotes a set of actions that are defined elsewhere, allowing for modularity and
reuse.
 Creating a Flowchart
1. Define the Process:
- Clearly define the process or algorithm you want to represent.
- Identify the start and end points, major steps, decisions, inputs, and outputs.
2. List the Steps:
- List all the steps involved in the process in chronological order.
- Include any decisions that need to be made and the possible outcomes of each
decision.
3. Choose Flowchart Symbols:
- Select the appropriate symbols for each step, decision, input, and output.
- Ensure you use standard symbols to maintain clarity and consistency.
4. Draw the Flowchart:
- Begin with the start symbol and connect each subsequent step using arrows.
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- Clearly label each step and decision.
- Use decision symbols to split the flow based on outcomes, ensuring each branch is
properly connected.
5. Review and Refine:
- Check the flowchart to see if it is mapped correctly in the process.
- Ensure no steps are missing, the correct symbols are used, and the arrows are
positioned correctly.
- Explain where measures are needed to make it easier for people to read.

2.3.1 Symbols Used in Flowcharts

Many standardised symbols are used to represent the action, decision, and process in
flowcharts. Here’s a detailed look at the common symbols used in flowcharts:
Common Flowchart Symbols
1. Terminator (Start/End)
- Shape: Oval or Pill Shape
- Description: Points to the beginning as well as the end of the process.
- Usage: They are the starting and the finishing point of the flowchart.
2. Process (Action or Operation)
- Shape: Rectangle
- Description: Is a process, task, or operation.
- Usage: Applied to describe a stage whereby certain computations or alterations are
carried out on some data.
3. Decision
- Shape: Diamond
- Description: Is a kind of decision point that enables the flow to split based on a
yes/no or true/false question.
- Usage: Ends with a question and arrows that point to the various directions
depending on the answer.
4. Input/Output
- Shape: Parallelogram
- Description: Shows the flow of data either fed into the process or produced by the
process.
- Usage: Employed to indicate where data is input or where the results are obtained.
5. Flow Lines (Arrows)
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- Shape: Arrows
- Description: Label each arrow to show from which step one is coming from and
going to another step.
- Usage: Join symbols to illustrate the steps in the manner of sequence.
6. Connector
- Shape: Small Circle or Labeled Circle
- Description: Links one part of a flowchart to the other, commonly used where the
flowchart is lengthy and may be extended to several pages.
- Usage: It assists to prevent drawing lines and makes the flowchart clean.

2.4 Coding and Testing

Coding and testing are essential activities that are carried out during the software
development life cycle SDLC. They make sure that an application created meets a given
need and functions as it is supposed to and as optimally as possible.
Coding (Implementation)
# 1. Coding Standards
- Consistency: Compliance with these standards means that the code is easily
understandable, and any developer can easily work on the code.
# 2. Choosing the Right Programming Language
- Suitability: Choose a language that will be perfect for the project needs concerning
Web development, system programming, mobile apps, etc.
# 3. Code Development
- Modularisation: Divide the given application into much smaller sub-modules or
functions that can be tackled easily. This makes the code easier to write, debug, and
update as required in the future also the project is easy to scale.
- Version Control: Suggested to use version control systems such as Git that help with
managing changes to the codebase and the history of changes and collaborating with
other team members.
# 4. Code Documentation
- Inline Comments: Be sure to add commentaries on the code; these will enable other
persons to understand the logic you applied in the code.
- External Documentation: For an application, write an informative paper containing
information about the general layout, a detailed description of the modules, the API
reference, and how to use it.

29
# 5. Code Reviews
- Peer Review: Peer code review: Other members of the development team should
review the code to find problems and share good practices.
Testing
# 1. Types of Testing
Unit Testing:
- Focus: Checks the units or subparts of the software.
- Tools: Java: JUnit; Python: pytest; .NET: NUnit.
- Automation: Generally done automatically to guarantee that the individual unit
operates effectively on its own.
Integration Testing:
- Focus: This is a test of the interaction of different modules or components that are
present in the software.
- Purpose: Checks that partially completed sections of the application function as
anticipated with full sections.
- Tools: JUnit (Java), pytest (Python), TestNG.
System Testing:
- Focus: Involves testing the total system end-to-end.
- Scope: Confirms that the whole application complies with the stated standards.
- Tools: There are a few tools that are mostly used: Selenium, JMeter, and
LoadRunner.
Acceptance Testing:
- Focus: Verify the software meets the user specifications.
- Types: User Acceptance Testing (UAT) and Business Acceptance Testing (BAT) are
other similar tests that are performed at the end of the software development life
cycle.
- Tools: Cucumber, FitNesse.

2.4.1 Software Testing Techniques

2.4.1.1 White-Box Testing
White-box testing, also known as clear-box or glass-box testing, involves testing an
application's internal features. The tester has complete information about the code and
can, as such, conduct comprehensive control and data flow testing and check for logic.
# Key Concepts in White-Box Testing
30
Techniques
1. Code Coverage:
- Types:
- Statement Coverage: This guarantees that each statement in a given code runs
through the computer at least once.
- Branch Coverage: Check for coverage of each branch of the code to guarantee that
every decision has been executed at least once.
- Path Coverage: Makes sure that every possibility or the dynamic path of the code
is tested.
- Condition Coverage: Makes sure that each condition in the decision statements is
tested to a true state as well as to a false state.
2. Unit Testing:
- Focus: Verification of individual entities of the software or sub-modules of the
software.
- Tools: Java, JUnit; C#, NUnit; Python, pytest.
3. Control Flow Testing:
- Objective: Verifies that the program is logically constructed and will run from start
to completion.
- Techniques:
- Control Flow Graphs (CFG) are Diagrams that depict all possible routes that might
be followed in a program when it is running.

4. Data Flow Testing:

- Objective: Analyzes the movement of data through the program.
- Techniques:
- Def-Use Chains: Defines the variables and the progressive uses of the identified
definitions.

2.4.1.2 Basis Path Testing

Basis Path Testing is a white box testing technique whose main goal is to test each code
path. It assists in defining all the executable paths and guarantees that the paths are run
at least once.
# Steps in Basis Path Testing
1. Create a Control Flow Graph (CFG): Create a Control Flow Graph (CFG):
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- This means that we should represent the program’s control structure using nodes
(representing processing tasks) and edges (representing control flow).
2. Calculate Cyclomatic Complexity:
- Cyclomatic complexity (CC) is a metric that can be used to determine the
quantitative measure of the logical complexity of the program.
- Formula: \( V(G) = E - N + 2 \)
- \( E \): This is the total number of arcs in the CFG of the language.
- \( N \): Total nodes in the CFG.
3. Determine Independent Paths:
- The number of independent paths through the program should be determined.
Independent paths are the paths that add at least one edge, which is not present on
any other path.
4. Design Test Cases:
- To create test cases, it is necessary to ensure that at least one passage of each
independent path is tested.
2.4.1.3 Cyclomatic Complexity
Cyclomatic Complexity is a metric used to measure the complexity of a program. It
indicates the number of linearly independent paths through a program's source code. It
helps determine the number of test cases needed for thorough testing.
# Calculation of Cyclomatic Complexity:
1. Using Control Flow Graph (CFG):
- Formula: \( V(G) = E - N + 2 \)
- \( E \): Number of edges (transitions between nodes).
- \( N \): Number of nodes (decision points).
2. Alternative Formula (for simpler structures):
- \( V(G) = D + 1 \)
- \( D \): Number of decision points in the program (e.g., if statements, loops).

# Interpretation:
- Complexity Levels:
- 1-10: Simple program, low risk.
- 11-20: Moderate complexity, moderate risk.
- 21-50: Complex, high risk.
- >50: Very complex, very high risk.

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2.4.2 Control Structure Testing
Control structure testing is a white-box testing technique that focuses on testing a
program's control flow. It involves designing test cases to ensure that all possible
control flow paths within the program are exercised at least once. This technique aims
to evaluate decision points (e.g., conditions, loops) and ensure that the program behaves
as expected under different conditions.
Key Concepts in Control Structure Testing:
1. Control Flow Graph (CFG):
- A graphical representation of the control flow within a program.
- Nodes represent program statements, and edges represent possible transitions
between statements.
- Helps visualize all possible paths through the program.
2. Nodes:
- Represent specific program statements or decision points (e.g., if statements, switch
cases, loops).
- Each node in the CFG corresponds to a specific point in the program where control
flow decisions are made.
3. Edges:
- Represent the possible transitions between nodes.
- Arrows connecting nodes indicate the flow of control from one statement to another.

4. Decision Coverage:
- A measure of the percentage of decision outcomes (true/false) that the test cases
have exercised.
- Ensures that all decision points in the program have been evaluated under both true
and false conditions.

 Knowledge Check 2
Fill in the Blanks.
1. __________ are visual diagrams that represent the steps and decision points
within a process or algorithm. (Flowcharts)
2. The oval in the flowchart is represented by ________. (start/end)
3. White-box testing, also known as ________. (glass-box testing)
33
 4. Control structure testing is a ________ testing technique. (white-box)
 Outcome-Based Activity 2
Make a PowerPoint presentation on the symbols used in the flowchart.

2.5 Pseudocode and Its Applications

Pseudocode is a high-level description of an algorithm or a program, written in plain
language and not bound by specific syntax rules of any particular programming
language. It is the stage that follows the problem-solving stage but is done before the
coding stage. Here's an example of pseudocode for a simple sorting algorithm:

Applications of pseudocode include:

1. Algorithm Design: Pseudocode is beneficial in that it helps one describe the
algorithm to be used in the actual programming before one starts the process of
coding. It assists in comprehending the process that is carried out in solving a
particular task.
2. Teaching and Learning: To sum up, pseudocode should be used in teaching as it
enables the learners to concentrate on problem-solving without becoming
overwhelmed by language specifics.
3. Documentation: Pseudocode can be used to comment on how algorithms and
programs are designed and what they do. It gives a more general perspective that is
less technical than code.
4. Collaboration: When using or creating a team, pseudocode can act as a universal
language for communication and planning of algorithms and the program’s logical
flow, especially in the case of different programming language preferences.

34
2.6 Summary
 Problem analysis in computer science refers to the process of ascertaining and
describing the problem that requires a solution before designing one. This is a very
important phase in software development as well as in system design.
 Detailed requirements, constraints analysis, and feasibility assessment help teams
create systems that fit users’ needs and organisational objectives, minimise risks,
and work within the constraints.
 Algorithm design can be described as a highly systematic and iterative activity that
presupposes profound problem analysis and meticulous planning and validation.
 Process maps are helpful in the analysis of processes and are a vital part of designing
and managing companies’ processes. They provide direction, enhance information
sharing, and help solve conflicts.
 Coding and testing are crucial activities that fall in the system development life
cycle (SDLC).
 Basis Path Testing is a white box testing technique that focuses on testing all paths
in the program. It assists in defining all the execution paths and guaranteeing that
they are run at least once.
 Cyclomatic complexity is a measurement tool that is used to determine the level of
complexity that surrounds a program. It points to the static value derived from the
number of linearly independent paths that exist in a program’s source code.
 Control structure testing, also known as white-box testing, specialises in controlling
program flow. It requires the creation of test cases that cover all branches of a
program or application.

2.7 Keywords
 Problem analysis - Problem analysis in computer science involves understanding
and defining the problem that needs to be solved before designing a solution. This
stage is crucial for successful software development and system design.
 Cyclomatic Complexity—Cyclomatic Complexity is a metric used to measure
a program's complexity. It indicates the number of linearly independent paths
through a program's source code and helps determine the number of test cases
needed for thorough testing.

35
 Flowcharts - Flowcharts are powerful tools for visualising and understanding
processes. They offer clarity, improve communication, and facilitate problem-
solving.

2.8 Self-Assessment Questions

1. What are the key components and steps involved in problem analysis?
2. Explain Algorithm Design.
3. What are the Components of a Flowchart?
4. What are the Key Concepts in Control Structure Testing?
5. What are the different Software Testing Techniques?

2.9 References / Reference Reading

 Balagurusamy, E. "Programming with Java: A Primer." 6th ed., McGraw Hill
Education, 2019.
 Dasgupta, Sanjoy, Christos Papadimitriou, and Umesh Vazirani. "Algorithms."
McGraw Hill Education, 2006.
 Dromey, R. G. "How to Solve It by Computer." Pearson Education India, 2006.
 Jaiswal, Aditya and Rajesh Kumar Shukla. "Algorithm Design: An Introduction."
Wiley India, 2020.
 Srivastava, Amit, and Srivastava, Sumit. "Data Structures and Algorithms." BPB
Publications, 2021.
Unit 3: Introduction to Programming Languages

Learning Outcomes:
 Students will be able to list different types of programming languages.
 Students will be able to describe the functions of language translators.
 Students will be able to compare machine language, assembly language, and high-
level languages.
 Students will be able to interpret code snippets written in scripting languages.
 Students will be able to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of using
different

Structure:

36
3.1 Types of Programming Languages
3.1.1 Machine Language
3.1.2 Assembly Language
3.1.3 High-Level Language
 Knowledge Check 1
 Outcome-Based Activity 1
3.2 Language Translators
3.2.1 Compilers
3.2.2 Assemblers
3.2.3 Interpreters
3.2.4 Editors
 Knowledge Check 2
 Outcome-Based Activity 2
3.3 Introduction to Scripting Languages
3.4 Summary
3.5 Keywords
3.6 Self-Assessment Questions
3.7 References / Reference Reading

3.1 Types of Programming Languages

Programming languages can be categorised into several types based on their
characteristics, design philosophies, and intended use. Here are some common types of
programming languages:
1. Low-Level Languages:
a. Machine Language:
- Description: Consists of binary code understood directly by the computer's
hardware.
- Characteristics: Written in 0s and 1s, specific to the computer architecture, difficult
for humans to read and write.
b. Assembly Language:

37
- Description: Uses mnemonic codes to represent machine instructions, providing a
more readable format than machine language.
- Characteristics: It translates directly to machine code and is platform-specific,
offering low-level control over hardware.
2. High-Level Languages:
a. Procedural Languages:
- Description: Focuses on procedures or routines that perform specific tasks.
- Examples: C, Pascal, Fortran.
b. Object-Oriented Languages:
- Description: Organises code into objects that contain data and methods to
manipulate that data.
- Examples: Java, C++, Python.
c. Scripting Languages:
- Description: Used for scripting tasks, automation, and rapid development.
- Examples: JavaScript, Python, Ruby.
3. Declarative Languages:
a. Markup Languages:
- Description: Used to annotate text with structural and semantic information.
- Examples: HTML, XML, Markdown.
b. Query Languages:
- Description: Often used for structuring and retrieving information from a database.
- Examples: SQL (Structured Query Language).

3.1.1 Machine Language

Machine language, also known as machine code, is the lowest level of programming
language that the computer understands in terms of the Central Processing Unit (CPU).
It consists of a sequence of 0s and 1s binary digits that correspond to precise instructions
aimed at the CPU. Every binary sequence relates to a specific operation or activity that
the CPU performs, which puts machine language at the lowest level of programming.
Characteristics of Machine Language:
1. Binary Representation: Both instructions and data are binary values, which have
only two states: 0 and 1.

38
2. Hardware Specific: Machine language instructions are closest to the computer’s
CPU architecture and instruction set. Machine language programs cannot be easily
transferred to other computer platforms or operating systems.
3. Low-Level: Machine language gives users direct access to the computer
architecture by allowing manipulation of memory, registers, and input/output
devices.
4. Difficult for Humans to Read and Write: Machine language instructions are not
easily readable by humans because they are in binary form; hence, they are not
easily writable and can be directly understood by the computer.
Example of Machine Language Instruction: Example of Machine Language Instruction:
01001011 00000001
In this example:
- `01001011` may contain a binary opcode for the identified operation (for example,
loading data from memory).
- `00000001` is the binary operand which defines the address in the memory from
where the data is to be fetched.
Usage of Machine Language:
1. Bootstrapping: The computer's firmware or bootloader utilises machine language to
start the hardware and download other higher-level software.
2. Operating Systems: An operating system’s low-level components are typically
written in machine language to communicate directly with the hardware.
3. Device Drivers: Device drivers that help in communication between the operating
system and the hardware devices may include machine language code for efficiently
handling crucial operations.

3.1.2 Assembly Language

Assembly is a group of instructions for a computer that is close to machine code and,
at the same time, more understandable for a human. It incorporates alphabets and
numbers to symbolise the instructions of the machine and locations in memory space,
making it easier for the programmer to work with them. Being at the middle level of
the software hierarchy, assembly language allows programmers to have fine-grained
control over the computer hardware while at the same time limiting direct access to
them.
Characteristics of Assembly Language:
39
1. Mnemonic Representation: Assembly language instructions are provided in words
instead of numbers. For instance, instead of writing 000101, an assembly language
will use the mnemonic MOV for the move, and instead of 001001, it will use the
mnemonic ADD for addition.
2. Symbolic Names: The information stored in memory can be named (i.e., variables
and labels) instead of using plain addresses, making the code easier to read and
modify.
3. One-to-One Mapping: The instructions in assembly language are often one-to-one
with the instructions in the machine code, making it easy to translate from one to
the other.
4. Low-Level Control: Programs compiled in assembly language allow easy
manipulation of hardware resources, including memory, registers, and I/O devices,
hence providing a level of resource optimisation.
Example of Assembly Language Instruction: Example of Assembly Language
Instruction:
assembly
MOV AX, 5
In this example:
- “MOV” is the abbreviation in code form for the move instruction.
- `AX` is a register to where the data is moved.
- `5` is a direct value moved into the `AX` register.
Usage of Assembly Language:
1. System Programming: Due to the fine-grained control it provides, assembly
language is often used in system programming, writing device drivers, operating
system kernels, and BIOS firmware.
2. Embedded Systems: Assembly language is used more frequently in embedded
systems applications, where size and efficiency are paramount.
3. Performance-Critical Applications: Video games, graphics rendering, and real-time
signal processing applications may include assembly language since certain
performance-critical applications require low-level optimisation.
3.1.3 High-Level Language
High-level languages are relatively easy to write, read, and maintain and are easily
understandable by anyone compared to low-level languages like assembly and machine
language. They offer simple interfaces that prevent the software developer from

40
worrying about the underlying hardware and come with features and constructs that can
be used in software development. High-level languages enable the programmer to write
a program without concern with the specifics of the low-level format.
Characteristics of High-Level Languages:
1. Abstraction: High-level languages are more abstract than low-level languages and
enable the programmer to write algorithms and logic in a manner that is easier to
understand.
2. Readable Syntax: High-level languages are similar to English in syntax and usage
of meaningful words; hence, coded form is more understandable.
3. Portability: High-level language programs are generally platform and architecture-
independent because compilers or interpreters are available to translate them.
4. Rich Standard Libraries: High-level languages also have large standard libraries and
frameworks that contain many pre-implemented solutions to commonly
encountered problems.
5. Automatic Memory Management: High-level languages include built-in tools like
garbage collectors, which help manage memories and allocate and de-allocate them.
Examples of High-Level Languages:
1. Python: Popular for its easy coding and understanding; it is used in web
development, data analysis, artificial intelligence, and automation.
2. Java: A resourceful language for developing desktop, web, and mobile applications
as well as high-end business software applications.
3. C++ provides both system- and application-level features and is used in system
programming, game development, and high-performance computing.
4. JavaScript: Primarily used in web design, JavaScript works both on the client and
server-side and helps create web applications.
5. C#: Created by Microsoft, C# is widely used for assembling Windows applications,
games, and business software using the .NET framework.

 Knowledge Check 1
Fill in the Blanks
1. __________ is also called native or machine code. (Assembly language)
2. The lowest-level programming language is called __________. (machine
language)

41
 3. As a result of this, high-level programming languages that are intended for use
by humans are________. (abstract)
4. Interpreters are very instrumental in the ___________ process. (execution)
 Outcome-Based Activity 1
Make a PowerPoint presentation on High-level programming languages & Low-
level programming languages

3.2 Language Translators

Compiler design involves language translators, which are important parts of the
compiler that are used to translate source code in a high-level language to a form that
is either machine code or equivalent. There are three main types of language translators
used in the compilation process: There are three main types of language translators used
in the compilation process:
Compiler:
- Description: A whole program in a high-level language is translated into either
object code or byte code by a compiler.
- Process: Compiler passes through the lexical pass, syntactic pass, semantic pass,
optimisation pass, and code generation pass.
- Output: It generates executable machine code or intermediate code that can run
directly on the target platform or is further compiled by an interpreter or run time
system.
Interpreter:
- Description: An interpreter compiles and executes the source code one line at a time
or one statement at a time without forming the object file.
- Process: It provides a line-by-line analysis of the source code; it understands the
line of code and performs the corresponding operations at that very instance.
Assembler:
- Description: An assembler translates assembly language into a machine language.
- Process: It translates mnemonic instructions and symbols into the binary form of
those instructions and symbols.
- Output: The output is object files, including machine code instructions and
symbolic addresses.
Translation Process:
1. Lexical Analysis:
42
- Divide the source code into tokens (such as keywords, identifiers, operators, etc.),
excluding white space and comments.
2. Syntax Analysis:
- Ensures that tokens generated from the source code conform to the proper syntax
of the language by parsing them according to the grammar rules.
3. Semantic Analysis:
- Finds semantic mistakes and ensures compliance with rules particular to certain
languages (e.g., type checking or scope resolution).
4. Code Optimisation:
- Contains different procedures that improve the code and the resulting binary code
(e.g., loop optimisation, constant folding).
5. Code Generation:
- Translates the language in which the source code is written into machine code or
other code which can be executed directly on the target hardware or a virtual
machine.
3.2.1 Compilers
- Translation Process: Compilers translate entire source code files from high-level
languages like C, C++, Java, etc., into machine code or bytecode for the target
platform/CPU. This process is normally done in stages such as lexical analysis,
syntax analysis, semantic analysis, optimisation, and code generation.
- Optimisation: Compilers often pursue optimisations in a bid to improve the
efficiency of the machine code produced. Optimisations may include removing
duplicated code, rearranging instructions so that they run faster, or utilising specific
processor characteristics to make the speed faster and the use of memory more
efficient.
- Output: A compiler's result usually includes an executable file or object code, which
can be run directly on the computer’s CPU without the need for the source code.
3.2.2 Assemblers
- Low-Level Language Translation: Assemblers are intended to convert an assembly
language code into machine code. Assembly language is the symbolic language that
uses assembler language to represent machine code instructions, and a mnemonic
language represents each instruction.
- Direct Translation: Unlike compilers that translate source code in a high-level
language to the intermediate forms, assemblers directly translate the assembly code

43
 into the machine code. As for assembly language, each of the instructions in
assembly language exactly matches a particular machine instruction.
- Output: An assembler usually generates an object file or an executable, which
includes machine code that the CPU can run.
3.2.3 Interpreters
- Line-by-Line Execution: Interpreters run programs immediately while translating
the source code into machine code that does not require compilation line by line.
They look at each line of code and understand what it means before running the
code simultaneously.
- Dynamic Typing: Interpreted languages may feature dynamic typing, which means
that variable type may be changed during the program’s execution. In contrast, with
this flexibility, it becomes easy to program, but if it is not well managed, one
becomes a victim of runtime errors.
- Portability: Interpreters are usually more portable than compiled programs that the
interpreter directly runs. The interpreter itself must be installed on the target
platform, but the same source code can be run on any platform supported by the
interpreter.
- Examples: Interpreted languages are widely used, and languages such as Python,
JavaScript, and Ruby are commonly used.
3.2.4 Editors
- Text Manipulation: Text editors are application software that allows users to create,
modify, and manage text documents, including source codes.
- Features: Current text editors provide numerous functionalities which are specific
to programming, like syntax highlighting, which colours the code to make it easier
to read; intelligent suggestion, which includes code snippets or variable names; and
code collapsing, which hides or shows the sections of the code to work on them
separately.
- Integration: Some editors are interfaced with compilers, interpreters, or version
control tools, through which developers can compile and test their code within the
editor and efficiently control the code's versions.
- Customisation: Most text editors are very flexible. For example, one can download
additional extensions or adjust the current parameters according to one’s needs.

 Knowledge Check 2
44
 Fill in the Blanks
1. Compilers directly convert entire source code files of a high-level language into
__________. (machine code)
2. ____________ are intended to convert Assembly language to Machine
language. (Assemblers)
3. ___________ run source code directly, with the help of which the code is
executed line by line without compilation. (Interpreters)
4. Text editors offer ___________and ___________. (syntax highlighting and
auto-completion)

 Outcome-Based Activity 2
Compare Assemblers & Interpreters in class.

3.3 Introduction to Scripting Languages

These programming languages are particularly developed to facilitate scripting,
otherwise known as automating. They include scripts that are usually interpreted, not
compiled, which implies that an interpreter runs the code and does not need to be
compiled first. Here's an introduction to scripting languages:
1. Interpreted Execution: Scripting language is interpreted, and the interpreter reads
the source code line by line and executes the code. This enables one to develop and
test quickly because modifications to the code can be run without going through the
process of compiling it.
2. Dynamic Typing: Dynamic typing is popular among most scripting languages. It
determines the type of a variable while the script is running. This makes coding
easier, but if not handled well, it can result in run-time errors.
3. High-Level Abstractions: Scripting languages usually have more simplified forms
of operations. They can have certain pre-included libraries containing different
functions, such as file operations, string operations, and network operations. This
makes them well-suited for automation, web development, and system
administration-related jobs.
4. Scripting vs. Programming: Although scripting languages are used more
frequently in small and specific applications, they can perform rather complex
calculations while simultaneously being capable of handling large-scale
applications. While the differences between scripting and programming languages
45
 are slowly fading away, the extended features and capabilities of scripting
languages are becoming more and more similar to the programming ones.
5. Examples of Scripting Languages: Some of the widely used scripting languages
are Python, JavaScript, Perl, Ruby, and Shell scripting languages such as Bash.
These languages are different, and each has its advantages and can be applied to
specific tasks or fields.
6. Scripting in Various Domains: It is extensively used in web development using
Javascript or Python with frameworks such as Django or Flask, system
administration using Shell scripting, data analysis and machine learning using
Python with libraries such as NumPy and TensorFlow, and automation using tools
such as Selenium for web automation or Ansible for system configuration
management.

3.4 Summary
 As for syntax, semantics, and their purpose, programming languages differ greatly
from each other. Regardless of the type being low level or high level or procedural
or functional, every kind of language is useful in some programming job and has its
features and advantages.
 Machine language or machine code is the lowest level of programming language
that can be executed directly by the CPU of a computer. It is a combination of linear
binary digits, 0 and 1, that hold specific instructions for the CPU.
 Machine language can, therefore, be described as the basic mode of communication
between the software and the hardware in a computer system.
 Assembly language is a type of low-level language that has a different
representation of the instructions given to the computer. It incorporates alphabets
and numbers to indicate the machine instructions and memory locations compared
to machine language.
 These are languages that are written in clear form with detailed instructions that are
easily understandable to the programmer and are relatively simpler to write and
debug than low-level languages such as assembly language and machine language.
 Compiler design is distinguished by language translators who are called upon to
translate source codes written in high-level programming languages into target

46
 codes, which are essentially machine codes or other forms of equivalent
representation.

3.5 Keywords
 Machine language: Machine language or machine code is the raw form of
language that is directly understandable by the CPU of a computer.
 Assembly language: Assembly language is the closest language to machine code
but in a format that is easier for a human to understand.
 High-level languages for programming: High-level languages are easier for
humans to understand, write, and maintain than low-level languages such as
assembly and machine code.

3.6 Self-Assessment Questions

1. What are Assemblers?
2. Explain Interpreters.
3. What do you mean by Machine language?
4. Describe Assembly language.
5. Justify High-level programming languages offer a balance between abstraction and
efficiency.

3.7 References / Reference Reading

 Balagurusamy, E. Programming in ANSI C. 8th ed., McGraw Hill Education, 2021.
 Gottfried, Byron S. Programming with C. 3rd ed., McGraw Hill Education, 2019.
 Kanetkar, Yashavant. Let Us C. 18th ed., BPB Publications, 2020.
 Silberschatz, Abraham, Peter B. Galvin, and Greg Gagne. Operating System
Concepts. 10th ed., Wiley India, 2018.
 Python Software Foundation. Python Programming: A Comprehensive Guide to the
Language of the Future. BPB Publications, 2021.

47
 Unit 4: Programming in C++

Learning Outcomes:
 Students will be able to define basic concepts of C++.
 Students will be able to explain the syntax and structure of C++ programs.
 Students will be able to demonstrate the use of variables and data types.
 Students will be able to apply control structures in C++ programs.
 Students will be able to develop programs using object-oriented programming
concepts.

Structure:
4.1 Introduction to C++
4.2 Basic Syntax and Structure
 Knowledge Check 1
 Outcome-Based Activity 1
4.3 Variables and Data Types

48
4.4 Control Structures (if-else, loops)
4.5 Functions and Arrays
 Knowledge Check 2
 Outcome-Based Activity 2
4.6 Object-Oriented Programming Concepts
4.7 Summary
4.8 Keywords
4.9 Self-Assessment Questions
4.10 References / Reference Reading

49
4.1 Introduction to C++
C++ is a fast and efficient language that was created as an improved version of C.
Developed by Bjarne Stroustrup in the early 1980s, it is based on the structure of C but
adds object-oriented programming concepts. It is also used in most kinds of software
development.
 Key Features of C++
1. Object-Oriented Programming (OOP):
C++ supports OOPS, a feature for developing objects and classes. This approach
enhances modularity and code reusability by means of principles like inheritance,
polymorphism, encapsulation, and abstraction.
2. Standard Template Library (STL):
The STL is a rather large library containing many template classes and functions. It
offers structs known as vectors, lists, stacks, algorithms, and iterators, which make
many programming operations easier.
3. Low-Level Manipulation:
As for C, C++ also gives direct access to the hardware and memory of a computer. This
capability makes it perfect for use in system/software development for operating
systems, game engines, and performance-oriented software.
4. Rich Library Support:
C++ also boasts extensive libraries that help in development, including raw codes for
I/O operations, calculations, data manipulation, and many others.
5. Multi-Paradigm Support:
C++ supports multiple programming paradigms, including procedural, object-oriented,
and generic paradigms. This means that a developer can use the most suitable strategy
to address particular issues.
 Basic Concepts in C++
1. Variables and Data Types:
As it has been pointed out, C++ has many data types, such as primitive data types such
as int, char, float, and double, and user-defined data types such as classes and enums.
2. Control Structures:
Control structures are control statements that determine the program's flow. They
include `if`, `else`, `for`, `while`, and `switch`.
3. Functions:

50
Functions in C++ make coding more manageable since it can be divided into
manageable parts that can be called as many times as wanted. They can accept
parameters and provide back a value.

4.2 Basic Syntax and Structure

some fundamental knowledge of C++ syntax and structures is central to the production
of efficient and error-free programs. Here’s a breakdown of the fundamental
components of C++ syntax and structure: Here’s a breakdown of the fundamental
components of C++ syntax and structure:
1. Program Structure
A typical C++ program has the following structure:

- Preprocessor Directives: All lines that start with “ are preprocessor directives. They
tell the compiler to precompile files or constants before the real compilation process
begins.
- Main Function: The `main()` function is a starting or initial function for any C++
program, and it is already defined. Execution begins from the `main()` function.
2. Basic Syntax Elements
Comments:
- Single-line comment: `// This is a comment`
- Multi-line comment: `/* This is a
multi-line comment */`
Data Types:
- Some types of data are integers such as `int`, floating point numbers such as `float`
and `double`, characters such as `char` and Boolean such as `bool`.
Variables:
- Variables are declared with a type followed by the variable name: `int age;`
Input/Output:

51
- This requires the use of ‘’’include <iostream>’’’ for input and output operations.
- `std:`cout` is used to display (print) data to the terminal.
- `std: The `System. Console ().readLine()`:cin is used to read input from the console.
To effectively write and decode C++ programs, one must fully grasp the workings and
semantics of the language. This includes understanding how to declare variables,
control structures, functions, objects from classes, arrays, define functions, and call
functions. These basics are important for preparing a good foundation for learning and
further developing C++ programs.

 Knowledge Check 1
Fill in the Blanks
1. C++ is the extended version of the ___ programming language. (C)
2. To include a standard input-output stream library in a C++ program, we use the
directive ___ at the start of the code. (#include <iostream>)
3. Every C++ program must have a main function, and that function must return
an ___ type. (int)
4. In C++, the statement `std::cout << "Hello, World!";` is used to ___ text to the
console. (print)

 Outcome-Based Activity 1
Write a C++ Program to print ‘My First Program’.

4.3 Variables and Data Types

Variables in C++ are called the data locations in which data can be stored and accessed
throughout the program. Every element in C++ is an instance of a variable that is
characterised by the type of data it can include. Here’s a comprehensive overview of
variables in C++
1. Declaration and Initialisation
All variables must be defined before they can be used in the program. A declaration
defines the variable, name and type and, where possible, the initial value of the variable.
Syntax:
type variableName;
type variableName = initialValue;

52
2. Basic Data Types
C++ provides several built-in data types: C++ provides several built-in data types:
- int: A type of variable that is used to store whole numbers and is of the integer data
type.
int count = 100;
- float: Standard floating-point type for numbers with fractional parts; single
precision.
float temperature = 36. 6;
- double: Float type for the floating-point numbers with more precision and Double
type for more extended floating-point numbers.
double pi = 3. 14159;
- char: Appeal type for single characters.
char grade = 'A';
- bool: A type of Boolean that can only filter to be either ‘true’ or ‘false’.
bool isStudent = true;
- string: Available in the standard library for a sequence of characters.
include <string>
std::string name = "Bob";
3. Variable Scope
The scope of a variable determines where it can be accessed in the code: The scope of
a variable determines where it can be accessed in the code:
- Local Variables: Program level variable that is defined within a function or a block
and is only accessible within the function or block in which it is declared.
void myFunction() {
int localVar = 10; // localVar is localised to the myFunction.
}
- Global Variables: Determined outside all functions and can be accessed from any
part of the program once they have been declared.
Int global var = 20; //, a global variable can be used in any function

void myFunction() {
globalVar = 30; // Modify globalVar inside myFunction
}

53
- Static Variables: Persist across several function calls of the control flow. Operates
with the help of the `static` keyword that is used in the declaration of variables.

void myFunction() {
static int count = 0; // count retains its value between calls
count++;
std::cout << count << std::endl;
}
Data Variables are one of the key concepts of C++ programming and are used to store
and work on the data. Knowledge about how to declare, initialize, and use variables is
crucial for effective C++ programming; it is also vital to understand the variable’s scope
and constants. Having learned these basics, you will be able to manage data and regulate
the activity of your C++ applications.

4.4 Control Structures (if-else, loops)

Conditional statements in C++ help to decide which part of the code should be executed
next in a program. Some of these structures include decision-making statements, loops,
and branches. Knowledge of control structures will enable one to write optimised and
coherent code.
1. Decision-Making Statements
if Statement:
The `if` statement is used to run a statement or set of statements only when a certain
condition is met.
Syntax:
if (condition) {
// Code to execute if the condition is true
}

Example:
int age = 20;
if (age >= 18) {
std::cout << "You are an adult." << std::endl;
}

54
If-else Statement:
The `if-else` type of statement enables one to perform one part of the code when a
certain condition is true and another part of the code if the condition is false.
Syntax:
if (condition) {
// Code to execute if the condition is true
} else {
// Code to execute if the condition is false
}
Example:
int age = 16;
if (age >= 18) {
std::cout << "You are an adult." << std::endl;
} else {
std::cout << "You are a minor." << std::endl;
}
2. Loops
for Loop:
The `for` loop is a type of looping structure that allows a portion of code to be executed
a predefined number of times.
Syntax:
for (initialisation; condition; update) {
// Code to execute on each iteration
}

While Loop:
The `while` loop continues, repeating a set of instructions until the condition being
tested is met.
Syntax:
while (condition) {
// Code to execute as long as the condition is true
}

55
Do-while Loop:
The `do-while` loop is similar to the `while` loop, except it is executed at least once
before the condition is checked.
Syntax:
do {
// Code to execute
} while (condition);
``

4.5 Functions and Arrays

Functions in C++
Functions are basically reusable codes designed to carry out a particular task in a
program. They assist in structuring code, improving its readability, and enabling
reusable code.
Syntax:
returnType functionName(parameters) {
// Function body
}

Key Concepts:
1. Function Declaration (Prototype): It states the function and its parameters,
enabling the compiler to know how the function will be used even before its definition.
int add(int, int); // Function prototype
2. Function Definition: Holds the actual code which is to be executed in the given
computer language.
int add(int a, int b) {
return a + b;
}
3. Function Call: Calls for the other function to do what it is expected to do.
int result = add(5, 3);
4. Return Statement: This is employed to pass a value back from the function being
called to the one that is called it.
return a + b;
Arrays in C++
56
The array is a list of elements of the same data type which are stored in adjacent memory
locations. They enable you to place more than one value in one variable.
Syntax:
type arrayName[arraySize];

Initialisation: int numbers[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}; Because of this, it is said to be an

example of array declaration and initialisation.
Accessing Elements:
The index, which begins at zero, is used to access the elements of an array.

int firstNumber = numbers[0] ; //get the first element

numbers[1] = 10; // This line change the second element

 Knowledge Check 2
Fill in the Blanks
1. A ___ is created to hold data that can be altered and accessed at different parts
of a C++ program. (variable)
2. The data type used to store integers in C++ is ___. (int)
3. The data type which is used to store single characters in C++ is _____. (char)
4. A ___ data type can contain a string of characters and is part of the C++
standard library. (std::string)

 Outcome-Based Activity 2
Write a program for the addition of 2 numbers.

4.6 Object-Oriented Programming Concepts

Overview of object-oriented programming (OOP) concepts using C++:Overview of
object-oriented programming (OOP) concepts using C++:
1. Classes and Objects: In C++, classes are used to define the form of how objects are
to be created. A class defines attributes and methods that act on the attributes as well as
objects that are an instance of that class. Objects are the actual occurrences of classes.
class MyClass {
private:

57
 int myData;
public:
void setData(int data) {
myData = data;
}
int getData() {
return myData;
}
};
2. Encapsulation: This is the packing of data with the functions that manipulate it into
one unit known as a class. Data members are usually declared private, while member
functions are declared public, which regulates data accessibility.
3. Inheritance: Inheritance is the process by which one of the classes can acquire
properties and behaviours from another class. This enhances code reuse and makes it
easy for one to create a class hierarchy in the application.
class DerivedClass: public BaseClass {
// DerivedClass inherits members from BaseClass
};
4. Polymorphism: Polymorphism makes using objects of different classes but of the
same superclass possible. This is done using the concept of function overloading, a case
of compile-time polymorphism, and virtual functions, a case of runtime polymorphism.
class Shape {
public:
virtual void draw() {
// base implementation
}
};
class Circle: public Shape {
public:
void draw() override {
// specific implementation for Circle
}
};

58
5. Abstraction: This can be defined as concealing a class's internal workings while
only making the class interface available to the outside world. Abstract classes have at
least one pure virtual function – this makes them a template for the derived classes to
follow.
class AbstractShape {
public:
virtual void draw() = 0; // pure virtual function
};
6. Polymorphic Behavior: Actual types can be used to vary the behaviours of objects,
which can help meet the requirements of flexibility and extensibility.

4.7 Summary
 C++ is an object-oriented, high-level programming language which was created as
an extension of the C language.
 Along with procedural and object-oriented concepts, the STL and direct hardware
access are among the most widely used languages for various purposes, including
system and game software creation.
 Before proceeding into the details of C++, it is important to start by understanding
the basics of the language and its syntax. This involves understanding how to
declare a variable, use control structures, define functions and call them objects
from classes, create arrays and manipulate them.
 Variables are important parts of C++ programming; they are used to store and
manipulate data. Declaration, initialisation, and use of variables, as well as the
scope of the variables and constants, are very important concepts when writing C++
programs.
 Control structures are very important in determining the direction or the flow of the
C++ program. Knowledge of these constructs allows you to put a lot of complex
thinking into a program and navigate its flow efficiently.
 Functions and arrays are basic concepts in C++ that increase your program’s
versatility and performance. Functions optimize your program and make it easier
for you to reuse your code, while arrays store a set of data.

4.8 Keywords

59
 Control structures: The control structures play very vital roles in regulating the
flow of a C++ program. Knowledge of these constructs makes it possible for you to
perform sophisticated operations within a program and control the flow of the
program.
 C++: is an advanced high-level language with high performance that has been
created as an evolution of C language.
 Variables: Variables are one of the basic concepts in the C++ language, providing
a means to store and use data.

4.9 Self-Assessment Questions

1. What are the Control structures?
2. Explain Functions and arrays are fundamental concepts in C++.
3. Justify C++ is a powerful, high-performance programming language.
4. Describe the OOPs concept.
5. Write a program to multiply 2 numbers. Take input from the user.

4.10 References / Reference Reading

 Balagurusamy, E. Object-Oriented Programming with C++. 8th ed., McGraw Hill
Education, 2020.
 Kanetkar, Yashavant. Let Us C++. BPB Publications, 2020.
 Lafore, Robert. Object-Oriented Programming in C++. 4th ed., Pearson Education,
2018.
 Stroustrup, Bjarne. Programming: Principles and Practice Using C++. 2nd ed.,
Addison-Wesley Professional, 2014.
 Malik, D. S. C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design. 8th
ed., Cengage Learning, 2018.

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 Unit 5: Measures, Metrics, and Indicators in Software Engineering

Learning Outcomes:
 Students will be able to define key measures and metrics in software engineering.
 Students will be able to explain why metrics are important in software projects.
 Students will be able to identify common software metrics used in the industry.
 Students will be able to apply indicators to evaluate software quality.
 Students will be able to assess the effectiveness of software quality assurance
processes.

Structure:
5.1 Importance of Measures and Metrics
 Knowledge Check 1
 Outcome-Based Activity 1
5.2 Common Software Metrics
5.3 Indicators in Software Engineering
 Knowledge Check 2
 Outcome-Based Activity 2
5.4 Software Quality Assurance
5.5 Summary
5.6 Keywords
5.7 Self-Assessment Questions
5.8 References / Reference Reading

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5.1 Importance of Measures and Metrics
Software measurement focuses on defining the size, quantity or dimension of a specific
attribute of a software product or a process. This practice is important in software
engineering to determine the software's quality.
ISO is the presiding body in determining the software measurement process; hence, the
resulting measurements are standard across the industry.
Software Measurement Principles
The process of software measurement includes five key activities:
1. Formulation: Determining the right measures and assessment model for the software
in consideration.
2. Collection: Collecting all the necessary information to compute the defined
measures.
3. Analysis: Using formalism to work out the results and mathematical methods on
the data.
4. Interpretation: Analysing the metric results to obtain information about the quality
of the developed software.
5. Feedback: Make recommendations for the metric interpretations to the software
development team.
Need for Software Measurement
Software measurement is necessary to:
- Determine the current quality of the software product or the process involved in
developing the product.
- Make predictions of future qualities of the product or process.
- Improve the quality of the developed software.
- Supervise the project status on the aspects of budget and time.
- Backing of project planning and control by an efficient system of data collection
and analysis.
- Determine problem areas and opportunities for optimisation.
- Adhere to the best practices of the industry and all the legal requirements of the
country.
- Offer means of quantifying the characteristics of software products and the quality
of the software development processes.
- Facilitate the making of the best practices of software development a continuous
process.

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Classification of Software Measurement
Software measurements can be classified into two types:
1. Direct Measurement: Gaining a quantifiable value by means of a standard scale on
the product, process or attribute being studied.
2. Indirect Measurement: Estimating other related parameters to estimate the amount
or degree of the attribute.
Software Metrics
Metric is defined as a measurement of the level to which any attribute relates to a system
product or process.
Metrics are measurements that have been assigned to an attribute of a software product
or process. Software metrics provide a quantifiable assessment of software attributes
and serve four main functions: Software metrics provide a measurable evaluation of
software attributes and serve four main functions:
1. Planning
2. Organising
3. Controlling
4. Improving
Characteristics of software Metrics
Effective software metrics should be:
- Quantitative: Capable of being quantified or having quantitative measures.
- Understandable: It is easy to compute, and there are clear definitions for it.
- Applicable: This may be applied right from the start of the first stages of creating
software.
- Repeatable: The above results are consistent when the measurements are repeated
on the same subjects.
- Economical: Economical in computation.
- Language Independent: It contains no coding and is not dependent on the use of any
particular programming language.
In the context of software engineering, measures and metrics are used to evaluate and
control several characteristics of the software development processes, products and
projects. Here's how they are utilised in this domain:

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Here's how they are utilised in this domain:
1. Process Metrics:
- Defect Density: Measures the cumulative number of defects detected for a given
software as a ratio of the size of the software product (for instance, the number of
lines of code). It assists in determining the quality and the necessity of the code
improvement.
- Lead Time: This determines the duration from the commencement of the software
development task to its completion. It assists in determining the effectiveness of the
processes and the areas that require more attention.
- Cycle Time: Records the time a given phase of development, for example, the time
between code commit and deployment takes to complete a cycle. They include help
in the evaluation of agility and responsiveness.
- Velocity: This is an estimation of the quantity of work done by the development
team in a specific cycle or sprint in agile development processes such as scrum. It
is used in planning and monitoring a project's progress.
2. Product Metrics:
- Code Coverage: Measures the ratio of the program code to the extent to which test
scripts or automated tests cover it. It assists in evaluating the performance of test
suites and pinpointing the parts of the source code that are not well-tested.
- Maintainability Index: Estimates the accessibility of software changes and
improvements by calculating characteristics such as the degree of code difficulty,
code redundancy, and code volatility. It helps evaluate the code's feasibility over a
long period.
- Performance Metrics: Calculate the real-time behavior of software, including
response time, number of transactions per unit time, and consumption of system
resources. They assist in making sure that the software meets the performance
standards and pinpoint aspects that require improvement.
- Reliability Metrics: Determine the rate of software failure and its impact, i.e., the
mean time between failure (MTBF) and mean time to repair (MTTR). These metrics
aid in determining the software's stability and how resistant or immune it is to the
above-mentioned factors.
3. Project Metrics:

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- Budget Variance: Calculates the variation between the amount of money that was
expected to be spent on a project and the amount of money that was paid. It is useful
in monitoring the project's financial status and recognising when and where the
costs exceed the set limits or how to minimize costs.
- Schedule Variance: This determines the extent to which the planned project
schedules have deviated from the actual ones. It aids in measuring how close or far
from the target a project is regarding the schedule and whether there are any
slippages or complications.
- Resource Utilisation: Assesses the extent to which resources, such as developers’
performance, server space, or tools, are effectively managed in a project. This
assists in managing resources and increases project implementation's effectiveness.

Importance of Measures and Metrics

Measures and metrics play a crucial role in software engineering for several reasons:
1. Performance Evaluation: It depicts the performance of software projects,
processes, and products by quantifying the outcome. This assists in evaluating areas
for improvement and how resources can be best used.
2. Quality Assurance: Measures assist in evaluating the quality of software by
evaluating things like the code's complexity level, the density of defects, and the
coverage of tests. This helps teams remain professional and produce a good,
dependable product at the end of the project.
3. Risk Management: By having such measures as effort, schedule, and budget
indicators related to project progress, the stakeholders can detect the threats and
work to respond to them as necessary.
4. Decision Making: Measures and metrics help obtain factual information for
decision-making throughout the system’s development cycles. They assist in
functional decision-making and resource prioritisation to ensure that all strategic
decisions are proper.
5. Process Improvement: Measures help constantly enhance the flow by pointing out
the pinches in the software-creation process. This makes it possible for teams to
effect specific changes and, hence, increase efficiency and productivity in the
organisation.

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Measures and metrics in software engineering are tools for controlling, analysing and
assessing different sides of software development, which contributes to better results
and customer satisfaction.

 Knowledge Check 1
Fill in the blanks
1. A ___________ is a characteristic of the size, quantity, amount or dimension of
a certain feature of a product or a process. (metric)
2. The software measurement process is described and regulated by __________.
(standards)
3. It is seen that the software measurement process can be characterised by
____________ & _____________ activities. (quantitative & qualitative)
4. In ____________ measurement, the product, process, or thing is measured
exactly with the help of a specific scale. (Direct)

 Outcome-Based Activity 1
Make a presentation on Measures and Metrics and discuss them in the classroom.

5.2 Common Software Metrics

Measures of software productivity are numerous and include any measure that relates
to the various aspects of software development, such as the quality of the code
produced, the efficiency of the process used, and the project and team performance.
Here are some of the most commonly used software metrics:
1. Lines of Code (LOC): Estimates the size of the codebase by getting the number of
lines in the code. Though it is simple, it gives a basic idea of code size and, hence,
the relative complexity and maintainability.
2. Cyclomatic Complexity: Measures a code's complexity level through the number
of linearly independent paths associated with a program’s source code. Higher
complexity values mean that code is complex and could be harder to test as well as
maintain.
3. Code Coverage: Calculates how much more of a program or application can be
tested with the same amount of effort and resources. It is used to evaluate the quality
of testing and to determine parts of the code that are not tested enough.

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4. Defect Density: This determines the rate at which defects or bugs occur per unit of
code, which is measured in KLOC or a thousand lines of code. It gives an idea about
the code's standard and where to focus on fixing bugs.
5. Lead Time: Determines the duration from the time work begins on a feature or a fix
until the job is done. It allows for evaluating the effectiveness of development
activities and finding ways to minimise time to market.
6. Cycle Time: Refers to the amount of time it costs to deliver one or more of the work
items, for instance, a user story or a task. Cycle time is tracked to see where there
are issues with the flow of work.
7. Velocity: Defines the speed at which a team delivers value by delivering the
assigned user stories or features within a sprint or iteration. It is used to predict
possible project schedules and evaluate the workers' efficiency.
8. Customer Satisfaction (CSAT): Obtains views from or on behalf of customers or
other consumers to assess their level of satisfaction with the software product or
service. CSAT scores are useful in understanding the user's experience and
determining areas that need improvement.

5.3 Indicators in Software Engineering

Measures in software engineering are quantitative parameters that give an idea of
different facets of the software development process, the product, or the team. Here are
some important indicators: Here are some important indicators:
1. Efficiency Indicators:
- Lead Time is the time it takes to complete a feature from its initial initiation to the
delivery time.
- Cycle Time: This is the amount of time it takes to complete one cycle of work, that
is, a single phase of work.
- Throughput: Quantifies how many work items are delivered in a given period.
2. Quality Indicators:
- Defect Density: Expresses the number of defects or bugs in terms of the lines of
code.
- Code Coverage: Estimates the code coverage ratio, which signifies the extent to
which the code has been tested.
- Code Review Effectiveness: Quantifies the amount and quality of work done with
regard to code review.

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3. Process Indicators:
- Agile Metrics (Velocity, Burndown/Burnup Charts): Plan and monitor work
progress using Agile software development methods.
- Work in Progress (WIP): This refers to the quantity of work processes or functions
that are being implemented simultaneously.
- Sprint Retrospective Actions Completed: It keeps track of an item that needs to be
accomplished following a sprint retrospective.
4. Team Performance Indicators:
- Velocity: Estimates the speed with which value is created in a team by the number
of user stories or features accomplished.
- Team Satisfaction: Solicits views from its members to determine the team's
satisfaction level with the organisational climate and the workflow.
- Employee Turnover Rate: This calculator calculates the turnover rate for team
members, which implies the rate at which team members are leaving the
organisation and may, therefore, affect the team's dynamics.
5. Customer Satisfaction Indicators:
- Net Promoter Score (NPS): This assesses the potential of the customer to endorse
the product or service to others.
- Customer Support Response Time: Measures the time taken to manage
complaints/queries or the time taken to find a solution to a particular problem.
- Customer Feedback Ratings: This process gathers information from customers to
measure their satisfaction with the developed software product or service.
6. Risk Indicators:
- Requirements Volatility: Assesses how often and to what degree requirements
change in a project.
- Technical Debt measures how much maintenance is delayed or how much of the
code was designed suboptimally.

 Knowledge Check 2
Fill in the Blanks
1. ____________ Proportionizes the degree of the program’s entangled code by
counting the number of linearly independent paths through the program’s source
code. (Cyclomatic complexity)
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 2. ___________ offers additional fundamental information about the quality of the
codebase and is useful for choosing which bugs to fix first. (Code coverage)
3. CSAT stands for ____________. (Customer Satisfaction)
4. _____________ Records the time that is taken to resolve customer complaints
and the time it takes to attend to customer queries. (Response time)

 Outcome-Based Activity 2
Do a discussion on Quality Indicators & Efficiency Indicators in the classroom.

5.4 Software Quality Assurance

Software Quality Assurance (SQA) can be referred to as involving the systematic
management and control of software products and processes to meet specified
requirements and standards from the time of their conception to when they are
delivered. Here's an overview:
1. Goal of SQA: The main purpose of SQA is to ensure that the software products
developed are correct, adequate, consistent, reliable, and delivered as planned for and
within the required time and costs.
2. Key Activities:
- Quality Planning: Creating a roadmap that details the quality assurance activities,
procedures, and measures to be adopted throughout the project.
- Quality Control: Keeping track of the software development processes to check for
compliance with the quality standards and identify defects or lack of compliance
with the requirements.
- Testing: Unit testing, integration testing, system testing, and acceptance testing to
ensure the software is right and working as it should.
- Reviews and Inspections: Code and design reviews and inspections in order to
detect faults and other defects at the early stage of software development.
- Process Improvement: Repeating the improvement of the developed processes for
software creation based on the feedback, measurements, and information received
from previous projects.
3. Principles and Standards: SQA principles include the following;
 SQA is transparent,
 SQA is accountable,
 SQA is repeatable,
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  SQA is improving.
It also follows the standards and guidelines of its kind, including ISO/IEC 25010 on
software quality models and ISO/IEC 12207 on software lifecycle processes.
4. Tools and Techniques: SQA also uses many tools to aid in quality assurance
processes, such as version control tools, testing tools, code review tools, and bug
tracking systems.
5. Roles and Responsibilities: SQA requires the involvement of various people in a
project, such as software developers, testers, managers, and quality assurance
specialists. Both roles have specific responsibilities regarding the quality of the
software at each stage of development.
6. Benefits of SQA: The literature demonstrates that SQA has an overall impact on
better software quality, lower software development costs, happier customers, and more
reliable and manageable software products.

5.5 Summary
 A measurement can be defined as a statement of a specific size, quantity, amount or
dimension of a procedure or a product.
 In software engineering, measures and metrics are used to determine and enhance
the characteristics of software development processes, products, and projects.
 Measures and metrics are essential in software engineering for the following
reasons: Performance Evaluation, Quality Assurance, and Risk Management,
among others.
 Software metrics refer to a broad range of measures that cover all aspects of the
software development process, such as code quality, workflow, project planning,
and individuals’ activity levels.
 Some of the most commonly used software metrics are measures of software
quantity: Lines of Code (LOC), Cyclomatic Complexity, Code Coverage, etc.
 Measures in software engineering are quantitative variables that can be used to
monitor different aspects of the processes, the product, and the performance of a
team involved in the software development process.
 There are principles of Software Measurement such as Formulation, Collection,
Interpretation and so on.

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5.6 Keywords
 Measurement: A measurement is a statement of a specific size, quantity, extent, or
calibre of a process or good.
 Metrics: Metrics in software engineering are quantitative parameters that offer
information regarding one or more of the aspects of the software development
process, the product, and the team.
 Net Promoter Score (NPS): This is the level to which a customer will refer others
to use a particular product or patronise a certain service.

5.7 Self-Assessment Questions

1. What are the Importance of Measures?
2. Discuss Software Measurement Principles.
3. What is the Importance of Metrics?
4. What are the commonly used software metrics?
5. Explain Indicators in Software Engineering.

5.8 References / Reference Reading

 Pressman, Roger S., and Bruce R. Maxim. Software Engineering: A Practitioner's
Approach. 9th ed., McGraw-Hill Education, 2019.
 Sommerville, Ian. Software Engineering. 10th ed., Pearson Education, 2015.
 Jalote, Pankaj. An Integrated Approach to Software Engineering. 3rd ed., Springer,
2005.
 Desikan, Srinivasan, and Gopalaswamy Ramesh. Software Testing: Principles and
Practices. Pearson Education India, 2007.

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 Unit 6: User Interface Design in Software Engineering

Learning Outcomes:
 Students will be able to define the principles of user interface design.
 Students will be able to explain the concept of user-centred design.
 Students will be able to create prototypes for user interfaces.
 Students will be able to apply usability testing methods.

Structure:
6.1 Principles of User Interface Design
 Knowledge Check 1
 Outcome-Based Activity 1
6.2 User-Centered Design
6.3 Prototyping and Usability Testing
 Knowledge Check 2
 Outcome-Based Activity 2
6.4 Human-Computer Interaction
6.5 Summary
6.6 Keywords
6.7 Self-Assessment Questions
6.8 References / Reference Reading

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6.1 Principles of User Interface Design
User interface design in software engineering, also known as Usability, is a significant
sub-discipline that deals with designing interfaces that enable interaction between users
and an application. The main objectives are centred on the concepts of form,
utilitarianism, and simplicity.
Here are the key aspects of UI design in software engineering:
1. Clarity: Interfaces should communicate information and functionality to users. This
means the simple text, icons, and any other nodes and links must be easily
understandable.
2. Consistency: The aspects of design are made uniform across the application to
improve the learnability of patterns and expectations. The consistency of colours,
fonts, and layouts enables the users to easily find what they are looking for or
perform certain tasks in the software.
3. Feedback: It will be appropriate if users are able to receive feedback for their actions
as soon as they carry them out. This could be in the form of visual stimuli (as in
underlining a button once it is clicked), audio feedback, or any other form of
positive feedback that acknowledges the user's action.
4. Efficiency: The users should be able to accomplish tasks directly and easily using
the interface. Measures that can do this include avoiding time-consuming shortcuts,
clear and easily understandable menus, and unnecessary sub-steps in any process.
5. Aesthetics: A good interface design also results in user satisfaction and engagement.
This includes the right proportions, choice of colours, and sharp and clear pictures
or graphics.
UI Design Process
1. Requirement Gathering: By interviewing the target users, administering
questionnaires or conducting user-based research.
2. User Research and Personas: Based on actual research about users, one can create
user personas and then easily design the interface to suit each user category.
3. Wireframing and Prototyping: Wireframes and prototypes are used to design the
simplest view of the layout and organisation of the interface, and interaction design
is done using prototypes. Some of the applications used in this aspect include
Sketch, Figma, and Adobe XD.

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4. Design and Development: Designing the wireframes with the help of the visual
design chosen and implementing the interactivity. This is typically a process of the
UI designers, UX designers, and developers.
5. Usability Testing: This is the process of carrying out tests with actual product users
to determine their usability problems. This assists in modifying the interface based
on users' responses.
Principles of UI design
User Interface (UI) design principles are an important set of principles that guide the
development of interfaces that look good and are effective and easy to use. Here are the
core principles of UI design: Here are the core principles of UI design:
1. Clarity
The main objective of the UI design is to ensure that interfaces are comprehensible.
Users should get a clear idea of what the interface is about and how they can operate it.
This includes:
- Clear Visual Hierarchy: Structuring items to create a visual flow that takes the user’s
glance towards the desired areas of the interface.
- Legible Text: Reading fonts, font sizes, and non-clashing colours with the text and
the background or the theme of the document.
2. Consistency
Consistency means that the users will know and be able to anticipate the way the
interface will function. This principle can be applied to: This principle can be used to:
- Design Elements: Maintaining the consistency of all the colours, fonts, and icons
used in the application.
- Behaviour: Making sure that the same thing yields the same result anywhere in the
whole interface.
3. Feedback
From our study, feedback can be defined as the information that users get concerning
the results of their actions. Effective feedback mechanisms include:
- Visual Cues: This means that an element is highlighted or differs in colour or form
when it comes to interaction (for instance, buttons’ changes).
- Audio Signals: Alerts/sounds produced in response to activities (for instance, alert
for an error).
4. Efficiency
Easy interfaces allow a person to complete a task with little effort. Key aspects include:

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- Shortcuts: Offering access keys for the power users.
- Streamlined Workflows: ensuring that the client goes through the fewest steps to
get to the result.
5. Accessibility
Here, an open interface means that all users, including the physically disabled, should
be able to use the application. This involves:
- Text Alternatives: Describing images that are used in the content to make them
accessible to impaired individuals.
- Keyboard Navigation: All features of a function are easily available on the
keyboard.
6. Flexibility
Flexibility enables the users to access this interface in the manner that they prefer. This
includes:
- Customizability: Enabling users to customise interface settings.
- Adaptability: To check that the interface is functional and looks good on different
devices and with different resolutions.
7. Simplicity
Simplicity eliminates any clutter by targeting the reduction of unnecessary components
and features. This can be achieved by: This can be achieved by:
- Minimalism: This means that simple designing is used because of the elimination
of unnecessary icons and designs.
- Focused Content: Displaying the content and services that are useful for the users
in the current context.
8. Error Prevention and Recovery
Avoiding errors as much as possible is the best policy, but should the worst happen, the
user should be able to correct the mistake quickly. This principle includes:
- Preventive Measures: Making the interface safe (e.g., preventing the choice that is
not available at the moment).
- Undo Options: Enabling users to cancel the operation they have done.
9. Feedback and Response Time
Another factor is the fast reaction of the system to the actions of a user. This includes:
- Immediate Response: It often provides real-time feedback on actions to prevent
users from becoming frustrated with the products.

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- Loading Indicators: Employing progress bars or spinners to inform the users that
the system is working on the request.

 Knowledge Check 1
Fill in the Blanks
1. Clear _______ helps users understand the interface quickly. (layout)
2. Some _______ elements act more ‘predisposedly’ to minimize the learning
effect. (design)
3. High contrast provides _______ for all the users. (clarity)

 Outcome-Based Activity 1
Students need to apply the principles of User Interface (UI) design principles to
create a user-friendly app mockup, focusing on clarity, consistency, feedback,
efficiency, and accessibility.

6.2 User-Centered Design

User-centred design (UCD) is a model and process in software engineering that aims to
understand and meet the end users’ needs in the execution of their tasks. The objective
is to develop products that are functional, effective, and pleasurable to the target
consumer. Here’s an overview of the key elements and process of UCD:
Key Elements of User-Centered Design
The following are the key elements of the user-centered design:
1. User Involvement: Some of the techniques that should be followed in the design
include interacting with the users at every stage of the design process to get their
feedback.
2. Empathy: The fundamental concept of user-centered design is the method of
focusing on the aspects that matter to users, their issues, and their visions.
3. Iterative Design: Iterative improvement of the design based on user feedback and
system testing.
4. Usability: Ways to make the product easy to use and learn and also give the users a
satisfactory experience.

The User-Centered Design Process

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1. Research and Understanding
- User Research: Carrying out research in order to identify the user, what they want,
how they interact with the system and what frustrations the user has. Some of these
are interviews, surveys and ethnographic research.
- Personas: Establishing detailed personas depicting major user groups to help make
design choices.
- User Journeys: Defining all the activities a user goes through to get to the point
where they will use the product and analysing the points in this process, which can
be critical.
2. Design and Prototyping
- Requirements Gathering: Identifying what needs to be done with a product based
on the findings from the user research.
- Wireframing: Constructing rough sketches of the interface where major divisions
and placement of objects are defined but with no concern for appearance.
- Prototyping: Building the actual models of the product to test the model in a real-
life situation. Some of the frequently used software are Figma, Sketch, Adobe XD,
and others.
3. Evaluation and Testing
- Usability Testing: This involves using real users’ interactions with the prototype to
determine its usability problems and reception. It can take the form of moderated
sessions, A/B testing, or any other remote testing tool.
- Iterative Refinement: Design modification, modification implementation, and
testing phases where changes are made in the design to fit the results obtained from
testing and then the testing is done again to make sure the new changes are effective.
4. Implementation and Deployment
- Development Collaboration: Coordinate with developers so that they can
implement the design correctly and in a user-friendly way.
- Ongoing Feedback: The ability to systematically gather feedback from users once
the application has been deployed to improve it further.
User-Centered Design and Its Application
- Early and Often User Involvement: Incorporation of the users at the initial stage of
the design process and continuous interaction with them.
- Contextual Understanding: Developing with reference to the user's context, that is,
the situation in which the product is to be used.

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- Inclusive Design: This includes accommodating many users and the disabled so that
the product can also meet their needs.
- Clear Communication: Making sure all relevant parties are well-informed of the
design decisions and the reasons behind them by documentation and proper
briefing.

6.3 Prototyping and Usability Testing

Prototyping
Prototyping in User Interface (UI) design within Software Engineering (SE) is an
imperative stage that is used to ensure that there is a link between the theoretical and
the actual. It involves the development of a first approximation of the user interface to
assess the proper design, besides making sure that the final product will be efficient for
use. Here’s a detailed overview of the role and process of prototyping in UI design
within SE:
Importance of Prototyping in UI Design
1. Visualisation of Ideas: Prototyping makes it easy for designers to contextualize their
clients' ideas by enabling them to identify the final product to be developed.
2. User Feedback: Users can be engaged in early prototypes created so that the proper
decisions can be made in the design process.
3. Iterative Improvement: Prototypes can also be used in an iterative process in which
designs are repeatedly modified according to users and stakeholders.
4. Cost-Effective: Preventive measures are cheaper than curative measures when it
comes to dealing with problems regarding design requirements.
5. Enhanced Communication: Designers, developers, and stakeholders use them as a
common reference point so that everyone is on the same page.

Types of Prototypes
1. Low-Fidelity Prototypes: These are very basic elements that may not even involve
any interaction with the user; they are mainly concerned with organisation.
- Paper Prototypes: To get first impressions, lo-fi prototypes, such as sketching on
paper or printed drawings of the screens, are used.

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- Digital Wireframes: Low-fidelity wireframes made with applications such as
Balsamiq or Moqups that position the objects in the frame without elaborating on
their design.
2. High-Fidelity Prototypes: These are realistic, tangible models that are usually three-
dimensional and possess all the characteristics of the actual product.
- Clickable Prototypes: Prototypes made with Figma, Sketch, Adobe XD, or InVision
that allow the user to move through the design.
- Functional Prototypes: These include interactive mockups and live simulations of
the final product, which can be developed using HTML/CSS/JavaScript or Framer,
etc.
Prototyping in UI Design
1. Define Objectives and Scope
- Clarify the purpose of the prototype when developing a feature, designing
prototypes, or presenting them to other interested parties.
- Establish the range to exclude elements that are not necessary while meeting all the
crucial requirements.
2. Gather Requirements
- Gather user requirements from research techniques like interviews, questionnaires,
and observations.
- It is crucial to develop user personas and scenarios that would help in design
choices.
3. Initial Design and Wireframing
- Create mockups that show the primary structure and design of the interface.
- Mainly, pay attention to the three links and their general layout.
4. Build the Prototype
- To create the prototype, the right tools should be employed depending on the initial
designs.
- Integrate recommendations from the other team members and stakeholders.

5. Testing and Iteration

- It is recommended that real users be used and usability testing performed to collect
user feedback and check for usability problems.

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- Modify the design based on the testing outcomes and adjust the prototype for better
usability and stability.
6. Refinement and Finalisation
- Gradually transition from low-fidelity to high-fidelity; include further engraved
features and limited functionality.
- Make sure that the final prototype includes all the features intended for the final
product.
Usability testing
Usability testing is one of the most important stages of user-centred design in the
process of software engineering. It involves the assessment of a product or a system
based on the users’ interaction with it. Its main purpose is to find any usability problems,
collect quantitative and qualitative data, and define a user's satisfaction level with a
certain product. Here’s an in-depth look at usability testing: Here’s an in-depth look at
usability testing:
Importance of Usability Testing
1. Identify Issues Early: It is always easier and cheaper to identify problems in
usability in the initial stages of design rather than when the product is almost
complete.
2. Improve User Satisfaction: Making the product friendly to the user also ensures that
the user is satisfied with the product and hence becomes sticky with the product.
3. Validate Design Decisions: Testing with users provides proof that some of the
design decisions made were correct.
4. Enhance Product Quality: A product with fewer usability issues and a more
satisfying user experience is usually more successful in the market.
Types of Usability Testing
1. Exploratory Testing: Typically carried out in the preliminary stage of the design
process to understand the users’ behaviour and their perception of certain design
ideas.
2. Assessment Testing: This type of testing examines a particular product or sketch of
a product to determine specific problems with usability.
3. Comparative Testing: Covers two or more designs to identify which one is superior
in the aspect of usability.
The Usability Testing Process
1. Define Objectives and Goals
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- Define the objectives of the testing, for example, if you are looking for specific
usability problems or if you aim to confirm users’ satisfaction.
2. Recruit Participants
- Recruit participants who are typical users of the targeted technologies.
- This is where different methods, such as screening questionnaires, must be applied
to ensure that participants belong to the user personas.
3. Define Test Scenarios and Tasks
- It is necessary to create realistic scenarios that the users are most likely to come
across in their day-to-day activities.
- Create scenarios that reveal functional activities that customers require to do with
the product.
4. Conduct the Test
- In the case of moderated sessions, help participants perform the tasks and analyse
their actions.
- When designing unmoderated sessions, it is recommended that clear guidelines be
given and that the testing tool be designed to collect specific information.
5. Collect Data
- It is necessary to collect qualitative data concerning users’ opinions and actions and
quantitative data regarding task performance rates and time spent on tasks.
- Try to record the sessions where possible to go over them at a later time.
6. Analyze Results
- Identify trends, problems and the areas that users have difficulties with.
- Group issues according to their severity and the frequency of occurrence.
7. Report Findings
- Prepare a comprehensive paper to present major discoveries, conclusions, and
proposed strategies.
- It is important to provide both qualitative data and quantitative results.
8. Iterate and Improve
- It is recommended that the findings be used to make design improvement decisions.
- Other additional rounds of testing should be conducted to further check the updates
and confirm the constant enhancement.

 Knowledge Check 2
Fill in the Blanks
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 1. Making a __________ version of the product assists in the process of visualising
the looks as well as the requirements of the design as well as the performance
of the functions before the final production. (Prototype)
2. Usability tests should be done using real users to enable one to discover
____________ issues and obtain user feedback that can be used to enhance the
usability of the interface. (usability)
3. Such elements are simple and frequently non-annotated diagrams such as
__________ or wireframes that highlight the layout and organisation.
(mockups)
4. These detailed and intricate models are as near as can be to the final product in
terms of design and ______. (functionality)

 Outcome-Based Activity 2
Students need to create a digital or physical prototype of their app using prototyping
tools or paper sketches.

6.4 Human-Computer Interaction

Human-computer interaction (HCI) is an interdisciplinary branch of science and
engineering that deals with the design and use of computers and their unified
environment in the production of systems to support human use. It describes the major
characteristics and phenomena of such systems.
Here's an overview:
1. User-Centered Design:
The focus of HCI is on usability and user experience. When designing interactive
systems, it involves considering the user, the actual and potential user activities, and the
context. It tries to establish methods for making the intended systems effective, easy to
use, and even enjoyable to the users.

2. Elements of HCI:
- Users: Knowledge regarding users’ characteristics, such as their mental and
physical health, cultural endowment, and inclinations.
- Tasks: Understanding the tasks and purposes that the users perform with the help of
the interactive system and creating interfaces to provide effective solutions.

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- Context of Use: The factors affecting people’s interaction with the system include
geographical location, time, and social context.
- Interfaces: Software that enables users to interact with computers through graphical
interfaces, voice commands, touch screens, and other forms of interaction with the
computer.
- Feedback and Response: Provide the user with feedback about the system's state
and/or actions and respond appropriately and promptly to the user's commands.
3. HCI Process:
- Research: People may acquire data about the users, tasks, and contexts through
interviews, questionnaires, and observation.
- Design: Designing and modelling interactive systems from the conceptual models,
actual models, and mock-up models based on user specifications and feedback.
- Evaluation: Performing assessment and usability issues on the actual interactive
systems with the actual users to improve them.
- Implementation: Designing and implementing the final prototype of the interactive
system as suggested by the design and the evaluation outcomes.
4. HCI Principles:
- Usability: A measure of the degree to which the system and the tasks performed on
it are easy to learn, fast to perform, and pleasurable to the users.
- Accessibility: Guaranteeing usability of the interactive systems for both the
conventional and the disabled ability users.
- User Experience (UX): The feelings, impressions, attitudes, and level of satisfaction
of users while they are using a particular system.
- Human Factors: Cognitive aspects that pertain to human features and constraints
when it comes to the use of interactive systems like attention and memory, as well
as motor coordination.

6.5 Summary
 In software engineering, User Interface design, also known as UI design, is a vital
discipline that deals with designing interfaces that enhance user-software
communications.

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 Designers can develop and design good user interfaces by following a standard set
of guidelines, adhering to the design process, and keeping up with current trends
and technologies.
 User interface (UI) design best practices are standard rules that guide the design of
interfaces with appealing graphics and more functional features.
 Prototyping in User Interface (UI) design within Software Engineering (SE) is an
important stage that enables the implementation of a transition from a theoretical
concept to the actual application. It involves producing mock-ups of the interface
to be used in realising the intended designs for the created application and creating
a final product that can be easily used.
 There are two categories of prototypes, namely Low-Fidelity Prototypes & High-
Fidelity Prototypes.
 Using prototypes, in this case, is an iterative approach that makes it easier to achieve
low development costs, less misunderstanding between designers and developers,
and, in the long run, a better user experience.
 Usability testing is an important activity in the user-centred design paradigm in
software engineering. It is a technique for assessing the quality of a product or a
system with the help of actual users.

6.6 Keywords
 User Interface: User interface (UI) design in software engineering is a significant
branch that strives to produce interfaces that enable users to interact with
applications.
 User-Centred Design: User-centered design (UCD) is a framework and process in
software engineering that emphasizes the end-users of systems and interfaces.
 Prototyping is a topical phase of User Interface (UI) design in Software
Engineering (SE), which aims to link the conceptual phase with the
materialisation of the concept.

6.7 Self-Assessment Questions

1. What are the principles of User Interface?
2. What do you understand about the term prototyping?
3. Explain Usability testing.

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4. Discuss User-Centered Design in detail.
5. What are the types of Prototypes?

6.8 References / Reference Reading

 Johnson, Jeff. Designing with the Mind in Mind: Simple Guide to Understanding
User Interface Design Rules. 3rd ed., Morgan Kaufmann, 2020.
 McKay, Everett N. UI is Communication: How to Design Intuitive, User-Centered
Interfaces by Focusing on Effective Communication. Morgan Kaufmann, 2013.
 Wathan, Adam, and Steve Schoger. Refactoring UI: The Book. Refactoring UI,
2018.
 Shneiderman, Ben, and Catherine Plaisant. Designing the User Interface: Strategies
for Effective Human-Computer Interaction. 6th ed., Pearson, 2017.
 Sinha, Piyush, and Sanjeev Sharma. User Interface Design and Evaluation: Theory
and Practice. Pearson Education India, 2022.

Unit 7: Introduction to MS Word

Learning Outcomes:
 Students will be able to identify the basic functions of MS Word.

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 Students will be able to explain how to create and save documents.
 Students will be able to demonstrate how to edit text in a document.
 Students will be able to apply formatting techniques to documents.
 Students will be able to utilize tools like spell-checking and mail merge in document
creation.

Structure:
7.1 Creating Simple Documents
7.2 Editing Text
7.3 Working with Tables and Graphics
 Knowledge Check 1
 Outcome-Based Activity 1
7.4 Formatting Documents
7.5 Using Tools (Spell-Check, Hyphenation, Mail-Merge)
7.6 Printing Documents, Envelopes, and Labels
 Knowledge Check 2
 Outcome-Based Activity 2
7.7 Document Collaboration Features
7.8 Summary
7.9 Keywords
7.10 Self-Assessment Questions
7.11 References / Reference Reading

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7.1 Creating Simple Documents
The beginning of Microsoft Word can be an interesting experience, especially for the
new users of the software. Here's a step-by-step guide to help you get started with
Microsoft Word and unleash your creativity:
1. Launching Microsoft Word: Microsoft Word begins with identifying the
application icon on the desktop or in the Start menu and double-clicking. When you
click on the program you created, a new document should appear, which initially is
blank.
2. Exploring the User Interface: Take some time to get to know the application's
design and features. The major parts are the Ribbon, which comprises several tabs with
related commands; the Quick Access Toolbar, which is useful for quick access to some
commands that you will be frequently using; and the workspace, the document area
where one will be composing content.
3. Creating a New Document: To design a new document, go to the home tab in the
ribbon and click on “new.” Depending on the type of document, you can start a blank
document or use the templates provided, such as a resume, letter, or report.
4. Adding and Formatting Text: Begin writing your content in the writing zone,
which is the document area. To format the text, highlight it, then click on the formatting
tool in the ribbon at the top. To set the style and size of the font, make the text bold or
italicised, align the text, and space out the paragraphs in the way you want.
5. Inserting Images and Graphics: To improve the appearance of the document,
images, illustrations, or other graphics can be added. Select the desired option in the
Insert tab of the Ribbon. Pictures can be imported from your computer or other sites,
and illustrations in the form of shapes and diagrams can also be drawn.
6. Formatting and Organising: Microsoft Word offers various formatting options
that give the document a good appearance. Headings, bullet points, and numbered lists
enhance the structure of the information you are conveying to your audience. Tables
can also be used to present information, especially when it is organised in tabular form.
7. Saving and Managing Documents: When typing work on a computer, it should
be noted that you have to save your work from time to time. To save your document,
go to the “File” tab, then choose “Save As” and a directory on your hard disk where
you’d like to save the document. Label it descriptively, and select the right file format
that would be recognisable by other applications (for instance, . docx).

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7.2 Editing Text
Editing text in Microsoft Word is one of the key skills that any user of this popular word
processor should possess. Here’s a comprehensive guide on how to effectively edit text
in MS Word:
 Basic Text Editing
Selecting Text
To make any changes, you first have to highlight the text that you want to modify. This
can be done in several ways: This can be done in several ways:
- Click and Drag: Left click at the start of the text, and hold clicking until the mouse
pointer reaches the end of the text.
- Double-Click: Double-click to select.
- Triple-Click: Select a whole paragraph by triple-clicking any of the clicking keys.
- Shift + Arrow Keys: While pressing the Shift key, use the arrow keys to expand the
selection.
Deleting Text
- Backspace Key: Erases all the characters to the left of the cursor on the screen or
the current cell, if there is one.
- Delete Key: This key erases the character to the right of the cursor on the active
sheet or within a selected cell.
- Highlight and Delete: Highlight the text you want to delete, then delete the selected
text using the backspace or delete button.
 Advanced Editing Techniques
Copy, Cut, and Paste
- Copy (Ctrl + C): Cuts the selected text to the clipboard.
- Cut (Ctrl + X): Cuts the selected text and places it on the clipboard for subsequent
pasting into any application.
- Paste (Ctrl + V): Copies the text in the clipboard, then pastes it at the cursor’s point
of location.

Find and Replace

The ‘Find and Replace’ option is helpful for finding the typed text and replacing it with
the new text.

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- Find (Ctrl + F): Toggles the navigation pane in order to search for the text.
- Replace (Ctrl + H): Opens the dialogue box for replacement, where you can search
for text to replace.
Formatting Text
Text formatting alters the style of the text. This includes:
- Font Style: It is located under the Home tab, and you can change the font type.
- Font Size: Used to increase or reduce the font size from the Home tab.
- Bold, Italic, Underline: Use these styles by clicking on the buttons on the Home tab
or by hot keys (Ctrl + B, Ctrl + I, Ctrl + U).
- Font Colour: Alter the colour of the text to the font colour option located in the
Home tab of the toolbar.
Paragraph Formatting
- Alignment: This can be done from the Home tab using the options align left, centre,
right or justified.
- Line Spacing: Change the line space from the drop-down list available in the
Paragraph group in the Home tab.
- Indentation: Use indents from the Paragraph group by either moving up or down.

7.3 Working with Tables and Graphics

Microsoft Word’s tables and graphics functions make it possible to present data
systematically and make documents more attractive. Here's a comprehensive guide on
how to work with tables and graphics:
 Tables:
1. Inserting a Table:
- Put the mouse pointer at the point where you wish to add the table.
- Move to the “Insert” located at the top of the window, and click on “Table”.
- Select how many rows and columns you want your table to have from the grid or
click on Table and then Insert Table.

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 Fig: Inserting a Table
2. Formatting a Table:
- Click on the table you want to format; you can now format it from the Table Tools
tabs in the ribbon, namely Design and Layout.
- Adjust the borders, shading, and alignment. Make the row and column sizes flexible
according to the requirements.
3. Adding and Deleting Rows/Columns:
- To insert a row, move the cursor on the specific row that is next to the place you
want to make a new row, then go to the Layout tab and click on “Insert Above” or
“Insert Below.”
- To insert a new column, you need to position the cursor on the casing column next
to the new column that is to be added and click either the “Insert Left or Insert
Right” command.
- If you wish to remove a row or a column, highlight it, then go to the right-click
options and click on ‘Delete’.
4. Merging and Splitting Cells:
- In order to merge cells, one needs to first highlight the cells that one wants to merge,
right-click, and click on the “merge cells” option.
- To split a merged cell, first select it, then go to the right-click option and choose the
option that has “Split Cells.

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 Graphics:
1. Inserting Pictures:
- Click on the ‘Insert’ tab in the ribbon and select ‘Pictures’ to insert an image from
your computer database.
- Or, click on the ‘Online Pictures’ button to find and place images on the internet,
such as Bing Image Search or OneDrive.
2. Formatting Pictures:
- Once you have placed the picture, you can format it using the picture tools tabs on
the format and picture format toolbar.
- Modify the size/position of an object and wrap text. Write and draw styles, borders,
and effects.
3. Inserting Shapes:
- Move to the “Insert” section and click on “Shapes” to insert shapes such as
rectangles, circles, arrows, etc.
- By pointing at the document, the cursor changes to a cross, and drawing the shape
requires that one click and drag it on the document. To format and customize shapes,
you can use the Drawing Tools tabs.
4. Adding SmartArt:
- SmartArt is an option available in Word that can be used to make nice-looking
graphics and designs.
- Click on the ‘Insert’ tab and then click on the ‘SmartArt’ from the available list of
SmartArt graphic choices. To create the content of the SmartArt graphic, type text.
 Wrapping Text Around Graphics:
1. Positioning Options:
- Choose the image or shape, and in the Format or Picture Format tab, click on the
“Wrap Text” option.
- Options include “In Line with Text,” “Square,” “Tight,” and so on to determine how
the text will flow around the graphic.
2. Adjusting Text Wrapping:
- To adjust the text wrapping precisely, first place the cursor on the image or shape,
right-click it and choose “Format Picture” or “Format Shape” from the drop-down
list.

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- If positioned in the Layout or Text Wrapping tab, one can set parameters such as the
distance from the text, the tightness of the objects, or the alignment.

 Knowledge Check 1
Fill in the blanks
1. ___________ is a word processing software created by the Microsoft
Corporation. (Microsoft Word)
2. The word processing software that is popular with most people is Microsoft
Word, which comes with a spell check and _____________ check. (grammar)
3. The ________ tab is related to the general appearance of the paper and its
organisation. (Page Layout)
4. Wrap Text is used for full __________ text. (justifying)

 Outcome-Based Activity 1
Open Microsoft Word, create a new document and then insert Pictures of your
college.

7.4 Formatting Documents

Formatting a document in Microsoft Word enables the user to improve the appearance
or structure of the information. Here's a comprehensive guide on formatting documents:
 Basic Formatting:
1. Font and Text Size:
- Highlight the text you would like to format, then select your desired font and change
the size from the font drop-down list in the Home tab or the formatting bar.
- You can highlight the text using the options like bold, italic and underline.
2. Paragraph Alignment:
- Left-align or justify text and numbers with left and right alignment, respectively,
centring it by going to the alignment tab or using the toolbar.
3. Line Spacing:
- Change the distance between multiple lines of text or between the paragraph and
the next line by choosing options like single, 1. 5 lines or double spacing from the
line spacing menu on the upper toolbar of the Word document.

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4. Bullets and Numbering:
- A list can be created by using bullets and numbering that are available in the ribbon
tabs. Adjust the list type and its appearance according to one’s preference.
 Page Layout:
1. Margins:
- You can change the page margins by clicking the “Layout” or “Page Layout” link
in the ribbon and choosing the margins. You can select the standard scales or
possible values or establish your own scales.
2. Orientation and Size:
- This is usually under the Layout tab under the File menu, where you can also change
the page orientation (portrait or landscape) and size from the Page Setup options.
3. Headers and Footers:
- Add headers and footers to your document to indicate the number of pages, the title
of the document, or any other data. The header and footer tools can modify these
elements.
4. Page Breaks:
- Use page breaks to specify where a new page should start. You can do the page
break from the ribbon by clicking the Page Break button, or you can manually insert
the page break using the shortcut key Ctrl + Enter.
 Advanced Formatting:
1. Styles:
- Always use styles; if you don’t have standardised ones, you create your own to
ensure that your formatting has a standard look. Some of the styles available are
headed styles, titles, and the normal body style.
2. Tables:
- Use tables to group data and information in the writing process. Subheaders can be
added to the table, and using the ribbon, one can also change the border, shading,
and positioning of the table.
3. Images and Graphics:
- You can also add pictures and shapes to your document to make it more appealing.
Shape, move, and change the image using the picture tools.

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4. Columns:
- Subdivide your document into several columns to give it the look of a newspaper
or a newsletter. Modify the settings for the respective columns from the Page Layout
tab.

7.5 Software Add-Ons (Spell-Check, Hyphenation, Mail-Merge)

 Spell-Check:
Spell-Check is one of the Microsoft Word utilities designed to assist users in detecting
miscalculations in the spelling of custom words. Here's how to use it: Here's how to use
it:
1. Automatic Spell-Check: An added advantage of Word is that it has a spell check,
which is enabled by default and checks for any spelling mistakes as you are typing.
Words that are spelt wrong are generally marked with a red wavy line below it.
2. Manual Spell-Check: In the Word interface, to start checking for spelling errors, go
to the tab labelled “Review.” Then, in the ribbon bar, click on the “Spelling &
Grammar” button or use the F7 shortcut on your keyboard. Word will also check
the document's spelling and grammar and provide options for corrections.
3. Customising Spell-Check: Depending on the settings, users can add new words to
the spelling list, switch between languages, and modify some proofing features.
 Hyphenation:
Hyphenation is a tool of Word that inserts hyphens in the words at the line ending to
enhance the flow of the text and their readability. Here's how to use it: Here's how to
use it:
1. Automatic Hyphenation: Word can also hyphenate text for you either as you are
typing or when you align the text in the document. This avoids the formation of
ugly line breaks and makes the text look better.
2. Manual Hyphenation: Users can manually hyphenate individual words or a part
of the text by selecting the text, going to the tab “Page Layout”, clicking on
“Hyphenation,” and selecting “Manual. ” Word will then suggest where
hyphenation can occur, and then the user can set the hyphenation to the desired
place.

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3. Customising Hyphenation: The user has some control over how the word
wrapping and line breaking is done through the hyphenation zone width, where
hyphenation is allowed, or even if the program is to hyphenate the text.
 Mail Merge:
Mail Merge is a Microsoft Word tool that enables users to create letters, envelopes,
labels, or even emails, all customised using data from a database or spreadsheet
combined with a template. Here's how to use it: Here's how to use it:
1. Prepare Data Source: First, you can begin with a new or existing document, such as
an Excel sheet or Outlook contacts list, containing the data to be merged into the
document (e.g., names, addresses, and email addresses).
2. Create Document Template: Create the document layout in Word, in other words,
write down the text of the document and create special fields (merge fields) where
the data from the data source should be inserted. These placeholders are usually
enclosed in chevrons << >>.
3. Start Mail Merge: Click on the “Mailings” tab in the ribbon and click on “Start Mail
Merge. ” Choose the kind of document you wish to create (letters, envelopes, labels,
etc. ) and select the document layout.

Fig: Mail Merge

4. Insert Merge Fields: Within the document template, insert merge fields that state
the point at which the content of the data source is to be incorporated.
5. Preview and Complete Merge: This will allow you to view all the merged
documents and ascertain whether everything looks good. Then, perform the merge
to get separate documents for every record in the data source.
6. Print or Send: After the merge is done, users can only print the documents or send
them directly as e-mail if the merged document is an e-mail document.

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7.6 Printing Documents, Envelopes, and Labels
It is quite easy to print documents, envelopes, and labels in the Microsoft Word program
as this tool is integrated into the program. Here's a guide on how to print each of these
items:
Printing Documents:
1. Open the Document: In the Microsoft Word application, select the document you
want to print from the list.
2. Review the Document: After completing the content of the document, it is good to
go through the document and check if everything is well positioned and if there are
mistakes.
3. Access Print Options: Click on the “File” tab located at the upper left corner of the
window, then click on “Print. ” You can also use the keyboard shortcut Ctrl + P.
4. Set Printer and Settings: In the Print dialogue box, you have a list of available
printers. Select your printer from among them. You can also change other print
options, including the number of copies, the pages to be printed, the type of paper
to be used, etc.
5. Print: To print the document, click the “Print” button. Wait for the printed characters
to come out.
Printing Envelopes:
1. Open the Envelope Template: In Microsoft Word, click at the top, look for the
“Mailings” tab and click on “Envelopes. ”
2. Enter Recipient Information: In the Envelopes and Labels dialogue box, for a
domestic address, you need to type the recipient's address in the option “Delivery
address.” You can also include your return address, depending on any need that may
arise as you send your documents.
3. Select Envelope Size: Select the size of the envelope from the drop-down list
labelled “Envelope size”. You can also change the size of the envelope by going to
“Options. ”
4. Preview and Adjust: To view how the envelope will appear, click the “Preview”
button. Then, you must make any necessary corrections to the format and position
of the text.

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5. Print: After filling out the form, click the ‘Print’ button to send the envelope to the
printer. Make sure that the envelope fits properly on the printer tray, following the
printer’s recommended instructions.

Printing Labels:
1. Open the Label Template: If you are using the Microsoft Word format, then on the
“Ribbon,” click on the “Mailings” tab, and then click on “Labels.”
2. Enter Label Information: To do this, in the Labels dialogue box, type the text that
should be printed on the labels in the Address field. You can also get data from an
Excel or any other data source of your choice and then import it into the program.
3. Select Label Type: Select the label type you are using from the label vendors list
and the product number drop-down list. If your label type is not listed, please go to
“New Label” to define your desired label size.
4. Preview and Adjust: To check how the labels will look, click “Preview.” Do not
forget to adjust the paragraphs if their format or location does not fit the rest of the
paper.
5. Print: Once done, go to the top-right of the webpage and click the “Print” button to
print the labels. Ensure that the label sheets are loaded in the printer tray
appropriately, as recommended by the printer manufacturer.

 Knowledge Check 2
Fill in the Blanks
1. __________ are the documents or files that are already prepared and from which
new documents in MS Word can be generated. (Templates)
2. ____________ in MS Word is a macro that records a set of operations that can
be repeated when a button is pressed. (Macro)
3. _________can be used in the organisation of large-scale sending of similar
messages or the preparation of messages containing individual details of
targeted recipients. (Mail merge)

 Outcome-Based Activity 2
Students should have a look at the possible use of mail merge in the context of
business letters, invitations, etc.

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7.7 Document Collaboration Features
Microsoft Word has several features that allow collaboration, such as more than one
user working on the same document at the same time. Here are some of the key
collaboration features available in MS Word: Here are some of the key collaboration
features available in MS Word:
1. Real-time Co-Authoring: Word is a collaborative application that allows users to
edit the same document simultaneously. Work done by one user can be seen by
others simultaneously, implying the continuity of users’ cooperation.
2. Comments and Track Changes: Comments and changes can be included in the
document so that users can easily review them. Instead, comments can be replied to
and resolved, and changes can be accepted or declined one by one or in a batch.
3. Version History: There is an option for version history. The Word program will save
different versions, and the user can always go back to a previous version in case
they wish to continue from where they left off. This feature allows some changes to
be made and, if they were not well received, turned down.
4. Permission Settings: Users can define the access level of other people to view, edit,
or comment on the document. Permissions may be personal or for a certain group
of collaborators.
5. Integration with OneDrive and SharePoint: Word also synchronises with OneDrive
and SharePoint from Microsoft, which means that the user can save documents
online and work with others from any location on any device.
6. @ Mentions: Both in the comments section and within the document, by typing ‘@’
followed by the name or email of the collaborator, users can tag them. This feature
informs the mentioned user and also assists in drawing the user’s attention to a
particular section in the document.

7.8 Summary
 Microsoft Word is a commonly used word processor that can be employed to write
and edit text and format documents. It has a simple design and is perfect for
anything, from creating an article to writing an essay or making a report or any
professional document.

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 The basic operations which one can perform in MS Word include starting a new
document, opening a document, saving the document for the first time, saving a
document, entering text, formatting margins, headers and footers, putting numbers
on the pages and exiting from a document. These tasks are critical in document
production, modification, and archiving.
 Mail merge is useful when one wants to produce a large number of letters, emails
or labels from a main document and a data source. Macros, on the other hand, are
used to automate the most used sequence of commands or actions in order to save
time.
 Templates allow users to have different types of documents, such as resumes,
newsletters, invoices, etc., so users do not need to prepare documents on their own.
 It is an effective word-processing application that has many features and functions
to help the user compose, modify, and design text documents. Mail merge and
macros are some of the facilities that are incorporated, which help increase
productivity, and templates that assist in creating pre-design documents.

7.9 Keywords
 Microsoft Office application: Microsoft Office includes several applications
commonly used in the business environment, including Word, Excel, and
PowerPoint.
 User Interface (UI): This is the interface between the user and the software or
application being used; hence, users are able to manipulate it.

7.10 Self-Assessment Questions

1. What is the significance of Microsoft Word as a word processing software?
2. How can you start Microsoft Word and begin working on a new document?
3. What are the different Ribbon Menu categories in MS Word, and what
functionalities do they offer?
4. What are the primary tasks in MS Word, and how do they contribute to document
creation and management?
5. How does mail merge to enhance the functionality of MS Word, and what are their
specific uses in document processing?

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7.11 References / Reference Reading
 Lambert, Joan. "Microsoft Word Step by Step (Office 2021 and Microsoft 365)."
Microsoft Press, 2021.
 Cox, Joyce, and Joan Lambert. "Microsoft Word 2019 Step by Step." Microsoft
Press, 2018.
 D’Souza, Janelle, and Amit Kalra. "Mastering MS Word: Beginner to Advanced."
BPB Publications, 2022.
 Saxena, Sanjay. "MS Office: A Practical Approach." Vikas Publishing House, 2020.
 Goel, Anita. "Computer Fundamentals and Office Automation." Pearson Education
India, 2019.

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 Unit 8: Advanced Features of MS Word

Learning Outcomes:
 Students will be able to define styles and templates in MS Word.
 Students will be able to explain the process of using styles and templates.
 Students will be able to demonstrate how to create and apply macros.
 Students will be able to utilize collaboration features like track changes and
comments.
 Students will be able to create documents with advanced formatting and table
features.

Structure:
8.1 Styles and Templates
8.2 Macros and Automation
 Knowledge Check 1
 Outcome-Based Activity 1
8.3 Collaboration Features (Track Changes, Comments)
8.4 Advanced Table Features
 Knowledge Check 2
 Outcome-Based Activity 2
8.5 Advanced Document Formatting
8.6 Summary
8.7 Keywords
8.8 Self-Assessment Questions
8.9 References / Reference Reading

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8.1 Styles and Templates
Styles in Microsoft Word are predefined formatting settings that allow you to apply
consistent formatting throughout your document. Here's a comprehensive guide on how
to work with styles:
Applying Styles:
1. Applying Built-in Styles:
- Select the text you want to format.
- Go to the "Home" tab in the ribbon.
- In the "Styles" group, you'll see a gallery of built-in styles such as Heading 1,
Heading 2, Normal, etc. Click on the style you want to apply.
2. Applying Styles from the Styles Pane:
- Click on the dialogue box launcher in the Styles group (the small arrow in the
bottom right corner).
- The Styles pane will open and display a list of styles. Click on the style you want
to apply to the selected text.
3. Clearing Styles:
- To remove formatting and revert to the default style (usually "Normal"), select the
text and choose "Clear Formatting" from the Styles group.
Creating and Modifying Styles:
1. Creating a New Style:
- Select the text with the formatting you want to save as a new style.
- Right-click on the selected text and choose "Styles" > "Save Selection as a New
Quick Style."
- Enter a name for the new style and click "OK" to save it.
2. Modifying Styles:
- Right-click on the style you want to modify in the Styles pane and choose "Modify."
- Make changes to the formatting options (such as font, size, colour, etc.) in the
Modify Style dialogue box.
- Click "OK" to save the changes.
3. Deleting Styles:
- To remove a custom style, right-click on the style in the Styles pane and choose
"Delete."
- Be cautious when deleting styles, as this action cannot be undone.

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Using Styles for Document Formatting:
1. Heading Styles:
Headings and subheadings, such as Heading 1, Heading 2, etc., should be used to
organise your document. These styles create a hierarchical and mandatory
organisational framework for producing a table of contents.
2. Body Text Style:
Set the body text to the “Normal” style. This helps keep the font type, size, and spacing
of the document uniform.
3. Custom Styles for Emphasis:
Design different classes of text that need to be styled with some degree of
distinctiveness from other text, or that is somehow different from the main body of the
text.
Templates in MS-Word
Templates are convenient plans created beforehand with MS Word and used as the basis
for creating documents. Such tools offer a format, arrangement, and design for the
documents, which can be modified in accordance with organisational needs to reduce
the workload of generating the documents.
MS Word also provides a large number of templates for different fields and types of
documents, such as resumes, cover letters, business letters, brochures, flyers,
invitations, and many more. These templates are pre-designed to professional standards
and can be easily located through the “New Document” window or in the MS Word
“Templates” folder.
With templates, users can create rather similar documents in terms of design and
formatting. It makes it easy for users to feed in their content while having a professional
outlook. Templates may contain blanks for text, images, tables, or any other content, it
is simpler to manipulate the document.
Besides the standard templates that come with the software, one can still make their
own templates. This enables them to set the structure and appearance of the files that
they want to use in the future and which can be repeated. Custom templates are most
helpful in organisations that need to maintain a certain degree of branding or use certain
document formats.
For instance, in MS Word, to apply a template, a user picks a template of their choice,
and then the program will develop a document for them from the said template. Users
are also free to edit the content and layout of the content and remove or include some

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of the items and features. The first type of template is the master copy that is used for
replication for subsequent use in the future.
The author notes that using templates in MS Word is a convenient means of developing
good documents quickly. They save time, as one does not have to begin from the barest
of beginnings and form the basis of numerous types of documents. For individual or
business use or even for certain projects, templates in MS Word enable easy document
creation and, at the same time, present documents that look professional.

8.2 Macros and Automation

Macros:
Macro in MS Word is one of the automation tools that can record a sequence of
operations and then execute them in a single step. They are applied to reduce the time
and effort involved in a particular task and make processes more effective and efficient.
In simple terms, a macro is defined as a sequence of instructions or a command that a
single action can run. Then, users can record their actions, such as formatting text,
applying a style, inserting tables, and performing other intricate operations; then, the
actions can be saved in a macro. The macro can then be saved and linked to a button,
or a keyboard shortcut for convenience.
A macro, on the other hand, enables the user to automate a process that would otherwise
need a person to intervene. For instance, they can develop a macro to align a document
to some standard, format it to apply style throughout the document, or do calculations
on a large set of data. Macros can come in handy for most operations that are repeated
frequently, or take a relatively long time to complete, as they will help significantly
reduce the amount of time spent on such operations.
MS Word also offers a good user interface for creating, managing, and editing macros
to automate work. Users can record macros on the fly, edit recorded macros, create new
macros using VBA, and save them with a button or shortcut key.
It should be noted that macros can be really effective, but one should be careful when
using them. Macro can be used to carry out unwanted actions; therefore, macro security
settings should be enabled, and the macros should be run from secure sources.
Automation
Automation in Microsoft Word refers to the tasks that are accomplished utilising
different features and tools of the program chiefly for the purpose of saving time. Here

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are key aspects and methods for automating tasks in Word: Here are key aspects and
methods for automating tasks in Word:
1. Macros
What are Macros?
- Macros are exactly predefined sets of actions that should be performed in Word
several or tens of times.
- This is a script written by using visual basic for applications or (VBA).
Creating a Macro:
1. Go to the "View" tab, click on "Macros," and select "Record Macro."
2. Name your macro and assign it to a button or keyboard shortcut.
3. Perform the tasks you want to automate while Word records your actions.
4. Stop recording by clicking "View" > "Macros" > "Stop Recording."
5. Run your macro by going to "View" > "Macros" > "View Macros," selecting
your macro, and clicking "Run."
Editing a Macro:
1. Go to "View" > "Macros" > "View Macros."
2. Select your macro and click "Edit" to open the VBA editor.
3. Modify the code as needed to refine or expand the macro's functionality.
2. Quick Parts
What are Quick Parts?
Quick Parts are reusable pieces of content, such as text snippets, images, and tables,
that you can insert into documents quickly.
Creating Quick Parts:
1. Select the text or object you want to save as a Quick Part.
2. Go to the "Insert" tab and click on "Quick Parts" in the "Text" group.
3. Choose "Save Selection to Quick Part Gallery."
4. Name your Quick Part, select a gallery (e.g., AutoText), and click "OK."
Using Quick Parts:
1. Place your cursor where you want to insert the Quick Part.
2. Go to "Insert" > "Quick Parts" and select the desired Quick Part from the gallery.
3. Templates
What are Templates?
Templates are pre-designed documents that serve as a starting point for new documents.
They include predefined styles, formatting, and content.

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Creating a Template:
1. Design your document with the desired styles, formatting, and placeholders.
2. Go to "File" > "Save As."
3. Choose "Word Template" from the "Save as type" dropdown menu and save
your template.
Using a Template:
1. Go to "File" > "New."
2. Select "Personal" to find your custom templates or browse for available
templates online.
3. Choose the desired template to create a new document based on it.
4. Mail Merge
What is Mail Merge?
Mail Merge is a feature that allows you to create personalised documents (e.g., letters,
labels, emails) by merging a Word document with a data source (e.g., Excel
spreadsheet).
Using Mail Merge:
1. Go to the "Mailings" tab and click on "Start Mail Merge."
2. Choose the type of document you want to create (e.g., Letters, Labels).
3. Select "Recipients" to choose your data source (e.g., an Excel file).
4. Insert merge fields into your document where you want personalised
information to appear.
5. Preview the results and click "Finish & Merge" to generate the merged
documents.
5. Automatic Text Formatting
AutoCorrect and AutoFormat:
- AutoCorrect automatically corrects common typing errors and replaces predefined
text with specified entries.
- AutoFormat applies automatic formatting to text based on predefined rules.
Using AutoCorrect:
1. Go to "File" > "Options."
2. Select "Proofing" and click on "AutoCorrect Options."
3. Customize the AutoCorrect entries as needed.
Using AutoFormat:
4. Go to "File" > "Options."

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 5. Go to the “Proofing” tab, and click on “AutoFormat As You Type. “
6. In AutoFormat settings, you should change the options to the desired one
depending on your choice.

 Knowledge Check 1
Fill in the Blanks
1. __________ are documents or files that are already created, and act as templates
that the user uses to create a new document in MS Word. (Templates)
2. ____________ in MS Word are a strong macro instrument that enables a person
to record a sequence of activities and play it as one command. (Macros)
3. __________ is used in organisations to reduce the number of mailings that need
to be sent out in large quantities or to address individual letters containing
unique information for each recipient. (Mail merge)
 Outcome-Based Activity 1
Students will talk about how mail merge can be used in different scenarios,
preferably in business or in event invitations.

8.3 Collaboration Features (Track Changes, Comments)

Tools present in Microsoft Word and aid in collaboration include Track Changes and
Comments, which allow multiple users to review and work on a document
simultaneously. Here's a comprehensive guide on how to use these features: Here's a
comprehensive guide on how to use these features:
 Track Changes:
1. Enabling Track Changes:
- Locate the document for collaboration in Microsoft Word that you would like to
edit and open it.
- To do this, navigate your cursor over the “Review” tab within the ribbon that is
positioned at the top of the screen.
- To turn on the Track Changes feature, click Track Changes on the Review tab’s
Compare & Review group. Usually, when Track Changes is on, all changes
performed in the document will be marked and highlighted.
2. Reviewing Changes:

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- Any changes made to the document will be highlighted in different colours to
distinguish the last modifier of the document.
- Single change review is done by using the “Prev” and “Next” buttons in the
Tracking group, to move up and down through the document.
3. Accepting or Rejecting Changes:
- To accept a proposed change, position the cursor at the edited text and select Accept
from the Tracking group.
- To reject a proposed change, position the pointer in the edited text and click Reject
in the Tracking group.
 Comments:
1. Inserting Comments:
- To insert a comment, highlight the text to which the comment will be applied or
move the cursor to the application point.
- On the Review tab, in the Comments group, select New Comment.
- You will type your comment in the comment pane, a box opened at the right side of
the document.
2. Replying to Comments:
- If another person has already posted a comment, click the ‘Reply’ button at the right
of the comment section in the comment area to reply to the comment.
3. Resolving Comments:
- When a comment has been dealt with or replied to, the user can then go ahead and
Flag the comment as complete by going to the ‘Comment’ tab, right-clicking on it
and clicking ‘Resolve Comment’.
- Deleted comments will be collapsed by default, though scroll down to the
Comments section to click on the link, “Show Comments.”
4. Navigating Comments:
- For the movement with the comments within the document, you can use the
“Previous Comment” and “Next Comment” buttons in the Comments group.

 Protecting Document Changes:

1. Locking Changes:
- If you don’t want other users to add modifications to the document, you should click
on the “Lock Tracking” in the Tracking group.

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- You can also limit the editing by accessing the “Review” tab and clicking the
“Restrict Editing” button, and then setting the necessary editing restrictions and
entering a password if any is to be set.

8.4 Advanced Table Features

In Microsoft Word, other features that concern the tables enable the user to modify and
format tables depending on personal preference. Here's a comprehensive guide on some
of the advanced table features available: Here's a comprehensive guide on some of the
advanced table features available:
 Table Design:
1. Table Styles:
- Word has different predefined table styles that you can use to format tables;
changing their style is very easy.
- To access different table styles and make further changes, go to the “Design” tab in
the ribbon.
2. Borders and Shading:
- Format the table's borders and shading in the “Borders” and “Shading” pull-down
menus in tabular form.
- Borders can be applied to a cell, row, column or the entire table if you want.
3. Layout Options:
- Regarding cell positioning, there is a feature known as Layout Options, which can
be found in the “Layout” tab and allows for control over the disposition of cells in
the table.
- Modify the cell margins, cell spacing, and text wrapping to achieve the desired table
format.
 Advanced Table Manipulation:
1. Splitting and Merging Cells:
- How to use the Split Cells tool is to divide the cells into two or more cells, and the
Merge Cells tool is to join the cells into one cell.
- To split or merge cells, you must first highlight the cells you wish to modify, right-
click on the selection, and choose the required operation from the menu.
2. Sorting and Filtering:

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- To sort the table data, right-click on the table header and select ‘Sort Ascending’ or
‘Sort Descending’ depending on the requirement or use the drop-down button on
the right-hand side of the chosen table header and click on Sort.
- It is also possible to apply filters to table columns to quickly filter particular subsets
of data.
3. Formulas:
- You can even include calculations like in Excel right inside the cells of the table.
- Place a formula using a cell, then navigate to the “Layout” tab and select “Formula”.
Type the formula in the cell using the cell reference signs along with the
mathematical signs.
 Table Properties:
1. Row and Column Properties:
- You can increase or decrease the height of a table row on the row level and change
the width of a table column on the column level by clicking on the respective line
and dragging it up or down, respectively.
- There is also an option to select a row or a column click and then select table
properties to set a specific size.
2. Cell Properties:
- To align text or text in individual cells with each other, click on the cell, go to cell
properties, and then select the required cell property like text direction, text vertical
alignment, and text direction.
 Table Tools:
1. Table Tools Tabs:
- When you select a table, two additional tabs appear in the ribbon: “Design” and
“Layout. ” These two tabs have extra features and functions that are useful when
handling tables.
2. Draw Table Tool:
- Drawing Table—This tool allows you to draw a table on a page and create a table
of the desired type by choosing the necessary cells. It is useful for creating tables
with complicated shapes or non-rectangular angles.
 Knowledge Check 2
Fill in the Blanks

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 1. To merge a cell in a Word table into a single cell, you use the _____ option
found under the Table Tools Layout tab. (Merge Cells)
2. If you have a wide table that spans multiple pages, you might want the first or
the header row to be at the top of every page, so to do that, you should ________.
(repeat header rows)
3. If you want to combine several cells into one cell in a Word table, you select
the cells that you want to combine and go to the ________ option in the Table
Tools Layout tab. (Merge Cells)
4. To arrange the data in a table, there is an _________ button at the Table Tools
Layout tab, which allows you to sort the data either alphabetically or
numerically. (Sort)
 Outcome-Based Activity 2
Start Microsoft Word, insert a simple table with sample data, and use the
following:
- Splitting Cells: Illustrate how you can convert a single cell into several cells.
- Merging Cells: In this way, shows how multiple cells can be merged into one.

8.5 Advanced Document Formatting

Formatting of documents in the latest MS Word enables one to prepare high-quality
papers with special layouts, styles, and designs. Here are some advanced formatting
features in Word:
1. Styles: Word contains formatted styles for different items like heading, title, sub-
title and paragraph. There are also style groups, and you can create your style to
maintain a certain format throughout the document. They assist in the repetition of
formatting changes and guarantee that parts of the document blend in with each
other.
2. Themes: Word styles are a well-coordinated collection of colours, fonts, and effects
that can be used throughout the document. Themes are useful in generating more
attractive documents that are easily identifiable due to the uniformity of the designs
employed on them.
3. Columns and Sections: Word enables one to arrange the document in different
columns or sections with various designs. This is helpful for any newsletter,
brochure, or document that has other complicated layouts to fulfil.

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4. Page Layout Options: Word provides features for positioning the page's contents,
such as margins, orientation, size, and breaks. Headers and footers, such as page
numbers, dates, and document titles, can also be customised.
5. Table of Contents: From Word, a user can easily display the table of contents
depending on the headings and styles used in the document. A variety of styles can
be applied to the appearance of the table of contents, and one can revise it
instantaneously when changes are made to the document.
6. Advanced Text Formatting: Word provides formatting tools in a text that enables
one to control the characters and space between them, the use of special characters
and the effects to be applied to the text. The other features that users can use include
drop caps, small caps and other features that enhance the typographic features and
better read and attractive appearance.
7. Graphics and Multimedia: Word also enables users to insert and format images,
shapes, charts, and SmartArt graphics in the document. It allows users to include
multimedia content like videos and audio files.
8. Watermarks and Backgrounds: Word helps set watermarks and background images
or colours for the document in a bid to make it more attractive and consistent with
the company’s brand.

8.6 Summary
 Templates in formatted documents such as MS Word are layouts that enable the user
to use the same format throughout the document.
 Templates are pre-established documents or files that act as a basis for developing
new ones in MS Word. They offer conventions regarding how information should
be arranged and presented and which writing styles can be used. They are always
ready to be adapted to certain uses, making work much more efficient in terms of
document construction.
 Macros in MS Word is a tool that records a series of operations and then shifts the
recorded operation as a single command.
 Automation in Microsoft Word involves applying numerous facilities and deliveries
to accomplish similar operations, simplify business processes, and improve
efficiency.

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 Mail Merge is an option that enables users to produce documents with individual
contents (for instance, letters, envelopes, emails) by incorporating data from
another source such as Microsoft Excel.
 For major operations, macros are used, while for specific contents, Quick Parts are
used. Standard papers are templates; personalised letters are mail merges, and text
corrections are autocorrect and auto format.

8.7 Keywords
 Templates—templates are documents or files already created and used as a guide
when creating another document in MS Word.
 Mail Merge—Mail Merge is an option that allows you to generate custom
documents (for example, letters, labels, and email messages) by integrating the
document created in Microsoft Word with another file, usually a database in
Microsoft Excel.
 Macros—A macro in MS Word is a special tool that records the sequence of actions
and allows you to replay them with a single command.

8.8 Self-Assessment Questions

1. What are Templates?
2. What are Macros?
3. What is Mail Merge?
4. What are Advanced Table Features?
5. Describe Collaboration Features in MS Word.

8.9 References / Reference Reading

 Kogent Learning Solutions Inc. MS Word 2016 in Depth. Dreamtech Press, 2017.
 Jain, Satish, and Shashank Jain. Comdex Professional Edition Microsoft Office 2016
and 2019: A Comprehensive Approach. Dreamtech Press, 2019.
 Lal, Ramesh Bangia. Learning MS Office 2016: A Step-by-Step Approach. Khanna
Book Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., 2018.
 Vermaat, Misty E. Microsoft Word 2019: Comprehensive. Cengage Learning, 2019.

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 Unit 9: Introduction to MS Excel

Learning Outcomes:
 Students will be able to identify components of workbooks and worksheets.
 Students will be able to explain how to open and save workbooks.
 Students will be able to demonstrate the use of basic formulas and functions.
 Students will be able to apply cell and data formatting techniques.
 Students will be able to utilise sorting and filtering tools for data analysis.

Structure:
9.1 Understanding Workbooks and Worksheets
9.2 Opening and Saving Workbooks
 Knowledge Check 1
 Outcome-Based Activity 1
9.3 Basic Formulas and Functions
9.4 Formatting Cells and Data
9.5 Data Sorting and Filtering
 Knowledge Check 2
 Outcome-Based Activity 2
9.6 Summary
9.7 Keywords
9.8 Self-Assessment Questions
9.9 References / Reference Reading

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9.1 Understanding Workbooks and Worksheets
Excel is a tool used especially for analysing data within a spreadsheet where data is
entered, managed, and processed. Another feature is the Ribbon, a graphical toolbar
that is used to access most of the commands in the Excel application. The Ribbon is a
fundamental tool in MS Excel that allows for the various choices and features to be
found, and this knowledge is mandatory.
The Ribbon in MS Excel has subgroups, each related to a particular function or
operation that needs to be performed. The main tabs are Home, Insert, Page Layout,
Data, and many others; every tab is presented as a set of command buttons related in
terms of their functionality, which helps a user find necessary options and features
faster.

Fig: Ribbon in MS Excel

The Home tab is in the Ribbon section and contains tools for data formatting. It enables
users to change the font style, align the contents of the cell, format numbers, and
perform simple operations such as sorting and filtering the data. It also offers the
possibility of quickly accessing frequently used commands like copy, paste, and undo.

Fig: - Home tab

The Insert tab includes additional options for incorporating various objects into a
spreadsheet. You can insert tables for data sorting, charts for displaying tendencies,
pictures and shapes for the document’s decoration, and other objects like hyperlinks,
headlines, and footers for the document’s construction.

Fig: - Insert tab

The Page Layout tab concerns the appearance of the spared sheet. It allows for setting
up margins for the page, choosing the orientation of the page, defining the header and
footer of the page, and applying themes to the document to make it look professional.
Users are also able to choose the type of printout and even preview the format before
opting to print.

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 Fig:- Page Layout tab
Microsoft Excel’s Data tab is a core part of the program used to manipulate data. It
provides the possibilities for importing and exporting data from other sources,
excluding copies, checking the data inputs, and performing some data analysis
operations, such as creating data tables and consolidating data.

Fig: - Data tab

The Review tab is used to review the changes made in the spreadsheet and edit options.
It has features such as spell-checking, cell commenting, protecting the workbook or
individual sheets with passwords, and tracking changes made by different users.
Another useful tab is More, which is convenient when working in a team and when it
is important not to lose data.

9.2 Opening and Saving Workbooks

Opening and Saving Workbooks in Microsoft Excel
To open workbooks in Microsoft Excel, you can easily do so by double-clicking the
Excel file or by right-clicking and selecting open, as well as clicking on the Excel file
and choosing the open option to open workbooks; you can use the save option to save
the workbook as well.
Opening a Workbook
1. Using the File Menu:
- Open Excel: Open Microsoft Excel by double-clicking the Excel icon on your
computer or by clicking Start and then searching for Excel.
- Accessing the File Menu: After you have opened Excel, go to the top left-hand side
of the screen and click on the ‘File’ tab.
- Open Option: In the drop-down list that appears, choose the ‘Open’ option. This
will show a list of the files that were recently opened and other options for searching
for the file.
- Browse for File: If the workbook that you wish to open is not in the list, click on
‘Browse’, and this will open the directory of File Explorer through which you can

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 locate the particular workbook. Click to choose the appropriate workbook and then
click on ‘Open.
2. Using the Keyboard Shortcut:
- Shortcut: The ‘Open’ dialogue is also opened by using the keyboard shortcut control
and O. This will immediately open a folder that leads you to File Explorer, where
you can select the particular workbook you wish to open.
3. Opening from Recent Files:
- Recent Workbooks: In Excel, there is an option that allows you to use the
workbooks easily opened recently. The ‘Recent’ part of the ‘File’ tab gives you a
list of the workbooks that you have most recently used. To view any file in this list,
click on that file.
4. Drag and Drop Method:
- Drag and Drop: The other easy approach is to open the Excel application, hold the
Excel file, right-click, select copy, and then paste the file either by hitting the control
and V keys simultaneously or by moving the mouse to the desired location on the
open Excel application window, holding the left mouse button, and then releasing
it. The workbook should be opened automatically.

Saving a Workbook
1. Using the File Menu:
- Save As To save a new workbook or a workbook with a different location and name,
go to ‘File’ and then ‘Save As’. Specify the folder location, enter the workbook
name, and then click on ‘Save.’
- Save: If you want to save changes to an already existing workbook, then you go to
the ‘File’ tab and click on ‘Save’, or you can press the shortcut key on the keyboard,
‘Ctrl + S’.
2. Saving to OneDrive:
- Cloud Storage: Microsoft Excel allows you to save workbooks directly on
OneDrive, Microsoft’s cloud storage system. In the ‘Save As’ mode, choose
OneDrive and enter your Microsoft credentials. Save the workbook in the desired
folder, then click the ‘Save’ button.

3. AutoSave Feature:

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- Automatic Saving: Excel has the AutoSave feature for the workbook saved on
OneDrive or SharePoint by default. AutoSave is active when this option is on, and
Excel saves your modifications in a few seconds. This feature assists in avoiding
loss of data, and it auto-saves your work to prevent a lot of data input in case of
power failure or any other factor that may cause interruption of the data input
process.
4. Exporting as Different Formats:
- Different Formats: At other times, you may be required to export the workbook in
a format that is different from the default format and instead use PDF or CSV
format. To do this, click on ‘File,’ then ‘Save As,’ and from the ‘Save as type’ drop-
down list, select the format you want before clicking on ‘Save.’
5. Saving a Copy:
- Duplicate Workbook: If you require a copy of the workbook, navigate to ‘File’ ->
‘Save a Copy.’ This enables the user to save the current version of the workbook
with a different name or in a different directory, and this will not affect the original
copy of the workbook.

 Knowledge Check 1
Fill in the Blanks
1. Excel provides _________ features to enable the software to be used by visually
or physically challenged persons. (accessibility)
2. The approach of Excel is based on the broad set of _________ tools that are
implemented within the application to assist the users in the process of data
analysis and interpretation. (data analysis)
3. The __________ option that is included in Excel helps correct spelling mistakes
or typos every time a person is typing. (AutoCorrect)

 Outcome-Based Activity 1
Explore Themes and Styles in MS EXCEL.

9.3 Basic Formulas and Functions

Functions are one of the most important features of Microsoft Excel software, and they
help enable calculations, data manipulation and management, and cell interdependence.

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As with any formula, there are settings in Excel that can be adjusted to enhance the
function’s performance. These settings affect formula behaviour, error detection and
the degree of rounding off. Let's explore some of the key settings for formulas in MS
Excel:
Formulas in MS Excel, along with a short description for each:
1. SUM Formula: The SUM formula is applied to obtain the sum of the selected cells.
It sums up the values in the stated cells and gives the total. For example,
"=SUM(A1:A10) calculates the total of the cells A1 through A10.
2. AVERAGE Formula: The AVERAGE formula helps to find the mean of the range
of cells. It sums up the values in its arguments and divides the result by the count
of cells in the range. For instance, "=AVERAGE(B1:B5)” divided the values in the
cells B1 to B5 and gave the result of the average of the values in the cells.
3. IF Formula: The IF formula enables one to perform conditional calculations. This
type of function tests a specific condition and gives one result if the condition is
true and another result if the condition is false. For instance, “=IF(A1>10, “Yes”,
“No”)” tests whether the value within cell A1 is greater than 10. If true, it gives out
“Yes”; if otherwise, it gives out “No”.
4. VLOOKUP Formula: The VLOOKUP formula is an Excel formula which searches
for a particular value in the first column of the range and returns the value for that
particular cell in the second column. It is frequently applied for data search and
information retrieval. For instance, "=VLOOKUP(A1, C1:The formula
“=ISNUMBER(SEARCH(“A1”, CHAR(67)+ “C1:D10, 2, FALSE)” searches for
the value of A1 in the cells C1 to D10. If found, it goes to the range of cells from
C2 to C10 and returns the value of the row found in the second column.

Functions in Excel – Average, MIN; MAX, COUNT IF, Function arguments

Built-in functions in Excel are templates that have been developed in advance to
perform tasks specific to data analysis. They are intended to reduce the load of
complicated computations and tedious work, of which data analysis and manipulation
are no exceptions. More importantly, Excel provides a number of functions that one can
use to meet a certain need, such as mathematical computations, statistical analysis, date
and time functions, and text functions, among others.
Excel functions are created in a particular way in that the equal sign (=) is used,
followed by the function name with arguments enclosed in brackets. Arguments can be

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values or references to other cells in the spreadsheet or other functions. The Excel
functions can be divided into several types depending on the purpose of their use; these
types can include mathematical functions (for example, SUM or AVERAGE), logical
functions(for example, IF, AND or OR), textual functions(for example,
CONCATENATE, LEFT OR RIGHT) among others.
Functions in Excel are among the most important elements of the spreadsheet. They
enable the user to carry out many operations and manipulate the data. They are formulas
that integrate into the program, make complex work easier, and avoid using a scalpel.
In Excel, there are so many functions that one can use to suit a given need or task. Some
common functions include:
o SUM: Sums a set of values.
o AVERAGE: Defines the measure of the central tendency of a given set of data.
o MAX: This function will return the maximum of a range.
o MIN: This function gives the minimum value in a range.
o COUNT: Returns the count of the cells in the active range or sheet that contains
values.
o IF: Performs a logical check and yields other results depending on the result
maintained by a program.
o VLOOKUP: Searches a value in a table and then retrieves a value from another
column. 1 (Program: MS Excel, Contributor: Curtis D. Fyer)
o CONCATENATE: Joins a number of text strings into a single string.
o DATE: Creates a date by concatenating the year, month and day variables.
o ROUND: Rounds a number given to the number of decimal places given as the
input.
The above are some of the many functions in Excel that enable performers to
accomplish their tasks. Each of them has its syntax and possible arguments defining its
actions. Functions in the formula bar can be used directly or selected by the user from
the Function Library in the ribbon.
Excel users also have the option to create unique functions using Visual Basic for
Applications, a programming language within Excel. VBA allows the user to create
his/her own function to perform certain calculations or even control the execution of
certain activities.
Functions in Excel are of immense use in analysing data, modelling, statistical
computations, and so on. It allows users to save time, increases precision in data

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handling, and increases the effectiveness of using data in spreadsheets. Applying
functions, users are able to maximize the potential of Excel and perform a lot of
operations effectively.

9.4 Formatting Cells and Data

Formatting Cells
1. Accessing Cell Formatting Options:
- Home Tab: The' Home' tab on the ribbon offers almost all the formatting options
for cells: font type, size, colour, borders, and alignment.
- Format Cells Dialog Box: If more exquisite formatting options are required, choose
‘Format cells’ by right-clicking on the cell or using hotkeys—Ctrl + 1 to open the
Format Cells dialog.
2. Font and Text Formatting:
- Font Style and Size: To change the font style and size, select the options from the
drop-down boxes available in the Home tab. These are options: the fonts include
the first one in bold, the second one in italics, and the last one in underlined.
- Font Colour: To change the text colour, click on the button labelled ‘Font Colour’
and then the ‘A’ with the coloured bar beneath it.
- Text Alignment: To master the alignment of text within a cell, you must use the
alignment features. You can do this horizontally (left, centre, and right) and
vertically (top, middle, as well as at the base).
3. Number Formatting:
- General Number Formats: Use the ‘Number’ group in the Home tab to select the
formatting as currency, percentage, date, or time.
- Custom Number Formats: The Format Cells dialog box has a ‘Number’ tab that
helps create number formats. This is helpful for particular data displays, including
numbers in scientific notations or fractions.
4. Cell Borders and Fill:
- Borders: Additional or editing of cell borders can be done using the ‘Borders’ button
found in the Home tab. Below the main selection, you can pick the border type and
its colour as well.
- Fill Colour: To change the background of a cell, click the ‘Fill Colour’ button
depicted by a paint bucket icon.
5. Conditional Formatting:
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- Highlighting Rules: Conditional formatting is used in Excel to apply formatting to
cells depending on the value contained in the cell. For instance, you can accentuate
cells with values greater than a given figure or those within a given band.
- Data Bars, Colour Scales, and Icon Sets: These options give a graphical view of
data. Data bars paint the cell with a gradient, colour scales use gradients for value
distribution, and icons apply icons depending on the cell’s value.
Formatting Data
1. Data Types:
- Text and Numbers: It’s important that cells are formatted consistently as text or
numbers. This can help avoid mistakes in calculations and analysis of the obtained
data.
- Dates and Times: Excel has date and time as two separate data types. Format these
using the ‘Date’ and ‘Time’ options in the Format Cells dialogue box.
2. Data Alignment and Orientation:
- Alignment: Justification makes your data a little more readable. To position data in
cells, one can use horizontal and vertical alignment tools.
- Text Orientation: Rotating text can be done by using the ‘Orientation’ button located
in the Home tab. There are more options when text is rotated, such as rotating it
vertically or by an angle.
3. Formatting Tables:
- Creating Tables: To convert a range of data into a table, select your data, go to the
Home tab, and then click Format as Table. This allows you to apply a consistent
format that includes necessary table features such as filtering and sorting.
- Table Styles: When using Excel, there are different table styles that one can apply.
These styles help format your table with headers, banded rows, and other features
incorporated into the style.

4. Data Validation:
- Setting Rules: Data validation can be applied to regulate the kind of data that can
be entered into a cell. For instance, you can set conditions that only characters
between numbers or that dates should only be between a particular date range.
- Input Messages and Error Alerts: Use input messages to help users know what data
to input and error messages to let users know that they have inputted invalid data.
5. Text Functions:
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- Concatenation: Join text from two or more cells by using the CONCATENATE
function or by using the ampersand (&) sign.
- Text Case: Use the functions UPPER, LOWER, and PROPER to change the case
of a text to upper case, lower case, or proper case, respectively.

9.5 Sorting and Filtering of Data

Sorting and Subsorting Data in Microsoft Excel
 Sorting Data
1. Basic Sorting:
- Single Column Sort: To sort that data in a single column, first select any cell in the
column you wish to sort. Then, click on the ‘Data’ tab available on the ribbon and
choose either sort ‘A to Z’ for ascending order or sort ‘Z to A’ for descending order.
- Multi-Column Sort: When you want to sort the data by more than one column, you
need to choose any cell on the data set. Then click on ‘Sort’ in the ‘Data’ tab. In the
Sort dialogue box, it is necessary to introduce levels to define the columns further
so as to sort and order them. For instance, you could first select the ‘Last Name’
followed by the ‘First Name’.
2. Custom Sorting:
- Custom Lists: Once in a while, you may have to sort data in a certain manner in
which you perceive the order, such as days of the week or months of the year. Here,
in the Sort dialog box, you select ‘Order’ and then select ‘Custom List.’ This will
allow you to sort according to your list.
- Case Sensitivity: To sort a list of case-sensitive items, go to the Sort dialogue box,
check ‘Options,’ and check the ‘Case-sensitive’ box.

3. Sorting by Colour or Icon: Sorting by Colour or Icon:

- Cell Colour: If you have different cell colours in a column of your data, you can
sort by colour. To do so, select the column you wish to sort by in the Sort dialogue
box, select ‘Cell Colour’ under Sort On, and then select the order of the colour.
- Font Colour and Icons: Likewise, in the Sort dialogue box, you can choose ‘Font
Colour’ or ‘Cell Icon’ to sort by the font colour or the cell icon.
 Filtering Data

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1. Basic Filtering:
- Applying Filters: To filter, select any cell in your data range, go to the ‘Data’ tab,
and click on ‘Filter.’ This will add drop-down arrows to every column header.
- Using Filters: As a result, the filter arrow will appear, and you need to click on the
arrow located in the column you want to filter. It is then possible to check or
uncheck the items in order to display or hide the rows which meet certain
conditions. For instance, a filter is applied to a ‘Status’ column to display only such
tasks which have a status of ‘Completed’.
2. Advanced Filtering:
- Text Filters: For the text data in the columns, use ‘Text Filters’ such as ‘contains’,
‘does not contain’, ‘begins with’, and ‘ends with’ for data view.
- Number Filters: To select subsets of numeric columns, use ‘Number Filters’
including ‘>’ or ‘<’ for ‘Greater Than’ or ‘Less Than,’ or ‘Between,’ or ‘Top 10.’
- Date Filters: For date columns, you can choose ‘Date Filters’ to filter data by certain
or specific dates, a date range, and dynamic options such as ‘Last Month’, ‘This
Year’, and ‘Next Week’.
3. Custom Filters:
- Custom Criteria: To select the additional filtering criteria, choose ‘Custom Filter’
from the filter drop-down. This enables one to use the logical operators ‘And’ or
‘Or’ to stipulate several conditions at the same time. For instance, you can select
rows that meet the conditions of Sales being greater than 1000 and Region being
East.

 Knowledge Check 2
Fill in the Blanks
1. Knowledge of ___________ and ___________ is important when it comes to
data management in Excel. (functions & formulas)
2. Log in and save ___________ is one of the preliminary things to do when using
Excel. (sheet)
3. Arithmetic ___________ and ___________ are primary prerequisites for
computation in Excel. (operations & functions)
4. ___________ enable users to control the look of cells in Excel and format data
in the way they want. (Formatting options)

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 Outcome-Based Activity 2
Open Discussion and Comparison on Data Sorting and Filtering.

9.6 Summary
 Students quickly and comprehensively got the idea of workbooks and worksheets
as basic tools for organising data in Excel, as well as their purpose and functions.
 We discussed opening and saving new workbooks, different file formats, and
possible locations for saving workbooks.
 Familiarised with basic elements of Excel as well as simple arithmetic operations
and ‘simple’ functions such as SUM, AVERAGE, etc.
 Cultural methods to format cells and data more effectively and attractively by using
tools like font type, colour, borders, and alignment.
 Discussed and analysed approaches for arranging data in Excel with the help of the
sort option to order the data in ascending, descending, or in a custom way utilising
given criteria.
 Mastered one of the essential skills of structuring the data representation according
to the set criteria, which allows for better data analysis and visualisation.
 Learned ways of inputting data and modifying data within Excel workbooks that
the workbooks contain through the use of shortcuts and efficient ways.
 Familiarised with Excel’s formula auditing tools, which help trace precedents and
dependents, identify errors, and work with formulas efficiently.
 Investigated the data validation features in order to check the data validity and
consistency where rules could be set and appropriate error messages to be displayed
to the user.
 Understood elementary operations in worksheets, such as renaming, copying,
moving, and deleting operations on worksheets, to manage Excel workbooks
proficiently.

9.7 Keywords
 Data manipulation: Data manipulation is a process of altering, sorting, and
analysing data to get necessary information for analysis or perform some
operations.

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 Spreadsheet: A spreadsheet is a document created using rows and columns that
stores and processes data electronically.
 Workbook: A workbook in the context of Microsoft Excel is used to mean a book
that is made of a number of worksheets where users of Microsoft Excel can store
associated data in one file.

9.8 Self-Assessment Questions

1. How would you translate the concept of a workbook and a worksheet in MS Excel
into understanding for a person who is a total beginner with the application?
2. Explain a case where formatting of cells and data helped in the presentation of the
information in MS Excel.
3. Regarding the data sorting and filtering techniques in dealing with large data sets
using MS Excel, explain the rationale behind it.

9.9 References / Reference Reading

 Bhavsar, Bharat S. Mastering MS Excel 2022: Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners.
Tech Publications, 2022.
 Kumar, Ashok, and Rajeev Verma. Microsoft Excel for Beginners: A Practical
Guide for Indian Students. New Age International Publishers, 2023.
 Lal, Vikas. Excel for Everyone: A Step-by-Step Approach. Pearson Education India,
2022.
 Walkenbach, John. Excel 2023 Bible. Wiley, 2023.

Unit 10: Advanced Features of MS Excel

Learning Outcomes:

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 Students will be able to define advanced features of MS Excel.
 Students will be able to explain the use of advanced formulas and functions.
 Students will be able to create graphs and charts from data sets.
 Students will be able to apply data analysis tools like PivotTables.
 Students will be able to utilise conditional formatting and advanced charting
techniques.

Structure:
10.1 Creating and Printing Workbooks/Sheets
10.2 Using Advanced Formulas and Functions
 Knowledge Check 1
 Outcome-Based Activity 1
10.3 Creating Graphs and Charts
10.4 Data Analysis Tools (PivotTables, Data Validation)
10.5 Conditional Formatting and Advanced Charting
 Knowledge Check 2
 Outcome-Based Activity 2
10.6 Summary
10.7 Keywords
10.8 Self-Assessment Questions
10.9 References / Reference Reading

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10.1 Creating and Printing Workbooks/Sheets
Creating and Printing Workbooks and Sheets in Microsoft Excel
Creating Workbooks
1. Starting a New Workbook:
- Blank Workbook: To create a new workbook, open Excel and select ‘Blank
Workbook’ on the start-up menu. If Excel is already running, go to the ‘File’ menu
on the top left, hover over ‘New,’ and later click on ‘Blank Workbook’.
- Templates: Users can find Excel templates for different uses, including budgets,
calendars, and invoices. To use a template, click on the ‘File’ tab then ‘New,’ and
you will be presented with the different templates you can select or even look for
on the internet.
2. Adding and Managing Worksheets:
- Adding Worksheets: You can also right-click on the sheet tabs area and then choose
the ‘Insert’ option. New worksheet symbols appear at the bottom of an Excel
window as ‘+’. However, you can right-click on any of the sheet tabs and then click
on ‘Insert’ and then ‘Worksheet.’
- Renaming Worksheets: To rename a sheet tab, right-click on it and choose
‘Rename’, then enter a new name. You can also right-click on the sheet tab and
choose a necessary name for it or double-click on it to provide a custom name.
- Reordering Worksheets: To move a sheet tab, click on it and then drag it to the
required position within the workbook.
- Deleting Worksheets: On the left side of the Excel window, you right-click on the
sheet’s tab for the worksheet that you want to remove, then choose ‘Delete. ‘
3. Organising and Formatting Worksheets:
- Colour Coding Tabs: To colour-code a sheet tab, right-click on it, choose ‘Tab
Colour’ from the list, and pick any colour of your choice. This assists in giving the
workbook a physical layout.
- Grouping Sheets: Right-click the selection of the sheets that you wish to group, and
then click the Group and then the Ctrl key. This enables you to make changes on
different sheets at the same time. To ungroup, simply right-click on any tab of the
sheet that is in a group and choose ‘Ungroup Sheets’.

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Printing Workbooks and Sheets
1. Print Settings and Options:
- Accessing Print Options: Go to the menu at the top of the program, click on the
‘File’ option, then click on ‘Print,’ or use the ‘Ctrl + P’ keys on the keyboard to open
the print settings.
- Print Preview: You can also notice the preview of your sheets depending on the
settings you have made on the right side of the window. This helps you make
corrections before going for the printout.
2. Page Setup:
- Margins and Orientation: In the print settings, to change the margins, simply click
on ‘Margins’ and select from available standard options or set your own. There is
also an orientation option between portrait and landscape.
- Scaling Options: There are ‘Scaling’ options to help you fit your worksheet onto
one page or across a certain number of pages. This is useful for large datasets; big
data, in this case, will have its separate folder.
3. Printing Specific Areas:
- Print Area: To print a particular cell or group of cells, one has to choose it, then
click on the ‘Page Layout’ tab, click on ‘Print Area,’ and select ‘Set Print Area.’
This helps prevent another part of the worksheet from being printed.
- Print Titles: If your worksheet crosses over to multiple printed pages, one can have
row or column headings appearing on each page. On the ‘Page Layout’ tab, go to
the ‘Print Titles’ command and then enter the rows or columns that are to be
repeated.
4. Headers and Footers:
- Adding Headers and Footers: To insert headers and footers, select the tab ‘Insert’
and find the option ‘Header & Footer.’ There, you can put in the desired text, page
numbers, dates, etc.
- Customising Headers and Footers: On the ‘Header & Footer Tools’ Design tab, you
can insert pre-defined or primary headers and footers and other options to add
details like the file name or sheet name.
5. Printing Multiple Sheets:
- Selecting Sheets: When you want to print more than one sheet, you have to press
the Ctrl button on the keyboard and click the desired tabs of the sheets. On the other

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 hand, if the sheets are adjacent, select the first sheet tab, and while holding down
the Shift key, click on the last sheet tab to select all the sheets between the two.
- Printing the Entire Workbook: Within the print settings, you can select print the
entire workbook. This option prints all the sheets in the workbook in the order in
which they are arranged.

10.2 Using Advanced Formulas and Functions

Using Advanced Formulas and Functions in Microsoft Excel
1. Array Formulas
Array Formulas:
- Basic Array Formula: Array functions can carry out one or several operations on
one item or many items in an array. To generate an array formula, it is crucial to
type the formula on the spreadsheet and press Ctrl + Shift + Enter simultaneously.
For example, to sum a range of cells where certain conditions are met, you could
use `{=SUM(IF(A1:In this case, the formula used is `=SUM(A10*5, B1:B10)`.
2. Logical Functions
IF, AND, OR:
- IF Function: The `IF` function performs logical comparisons for making decisions.
For instance, `=IF(A1 > 10, "Yes", "No")` and the result of this function is “Yes” if
the conditions of the function have been met in cell A1. Otherwise, it is “No”.
- AND Function: The `AND` function is used to determine if the conditions set are
true or not. For instance, `=AND(A1 > 10, B1 < 5)` will give TRUE if both the
conditions are fulfilled.
- OR Function: The `OR` function tests for any condition to be true out of the stated
conditions. For example, `=OR(A1 > 10, B1 < 5)` will be TRUE if at least one of
the conditions is true.
3. Lookup and Reference Functions
VLOOKUP, INDEX, MATCH:
- VLOOKUP Function: `VLOOKUP` is a type of formula that enables a user to look
for a particular value in the first column of a table and then retrieve a value in the
same row of a defined column. For example, `=VLOOKUP(A1,
B1:`=VLOOKUP(A1, D10, 2, FALSE)` looks for the value in cell A1 in the range
of cells B1 to D10 and pulls the value from the second column of the range.

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- INDEX and MATCH: `INDEX` retrieves the value in the cell of a given row &
column, whereas `MATCH` yields the relative position of a given value. For
example, `=INDEX(B1:B10, MATCH(A1, A1:A10, 0)) took value from B1 to B10
where MATCH function pointed out the location of A1 in A1:A10.
4. Statistical Functions
SUMIFS, COUNTIES, AVERAGEIFS:
- SUMIFS Function: `SUMIFS` sums cells that meet multiple criteria. For example,
`=SUMIFS(C1:C10, A1:A10, ">10", B1:B10, "<5")` sums the values in C1:C10
where A1:A10 is greater than 10 and B1:B10 is less than 5.
- COUNTIFS Function: `COUNTIFS` counts cells that meet multiple criteria. For
example, `=COUNTIFS(A1:A10, ">10", B1:B10, "<5")` counts the cells in A1:A10
greater than 10 and B1:B10 less than 5.
- AVERAGEIFS Function: `AVERAGEIFS` calculates the average of cells that meet
multiple criteria. For example, `=AVERAGEIFS(C1:C10, A1:A10, ">10", B1:B10,
"<5")` averages the values in C1:C10 where A1:A10 is greater than 10 and B1:B10
is less than 5.
5. Text Functions
CONCATENATE, LEFT, RIGHT, MID, LEN, FIND:
- CONCATENATE Function: The `CONCATENATE` function joins multiple text
strings into one. For example, `=CONCATENATE(A1, " ", B1)` combines the text
in A1 and B1 with a space in between.
- LEFT, RIGHT, MID Functions: These functions extract parts of a text string.
`=LEFT(A1, 3)` returns the first three characters of A1. `=RIGHT(A1, 3)` returns
the last three characters. `=MID(A1, 2, 3)` returns three characters starting from the
second character.
- LEN and FIND Functions: `LEN` returns the length of a text string, e.g.,
`=LEN(A1)` returns the number of characters in A1. `FIND` returns the position of
a substring within a text string, e.g., `=FIND("text", A1)` returns the position of
"text" within A1.

 Knowledge Check 1
Fill in the Blanks
1. Using blank space ___________ enables the generation and formatting of
printable Excel data. (page layout)
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 2. Computer ___________ and memory make Excel capable of performing
complicated arithmetic and computing data. (processing power)
3. Creating _______offers the means of creating pictures of the extracted data in
Excel. (charts)
5. ___________ and ___________ enhance essential activities of analysing large
and diverse data sets in Excel. (Filters & pivot tables)
 Outcome-Based Activity 1
Explore Themes and Styles in MS -EXCEL.

10.3 Creating Graphs and Charts

Creating Graphs and Charts in Microsoft Excel
1. Understanding the Basics of Charts
Why Use Charts:
- Visual Representation: Data is presented graphically in charting, which makes it
easier to find trends, varieties, and patterns, among other things.
- Data Interpretation: It makes complex data much easier to understand and interpret
and enables faster decision-making processes.
2. The types of charts that are available in Excel are ;
Common Chart Types:
- Column and Bar Charts: These are especially useful when you need to analyze data
within some subdivisions. Column charts are represented vertically, while bar charts
are represented horizontally.
- Line Charts work well when demonstrating a change in values over time. They are
suitable for showing scattered values that are united by a line.
- Pie Charts: These are most suitable for illustrating parts to a whole and other ratios.
This applies where each slice on the pie chart corresponds to a certain category’s
value as a portion of the whole.
- Scatter Plots: Used to test theories involving cause & effect, difference & change,
and difference between groups. Individual facts, numbers and information are
plotted on an x-y plan.
- Area Charts: These are like line charts except that they are filled in down to the line.
They are perfect for displaying aggregates over time, such as the total value of a
portfolio over the years.

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- Combination Charts: Overlay one or two data sets on the same chart or use two or
more charts to display the data simultaneously. Rescaling serves to compare
datasets that contain features in different scales.
3. Creating a Chart
1. Selecting Data:
- Highlight Data: Choose the range of values you need to reflect in a chart. Remember
to add headers for improved identification.
- Including Multiple Series: To display multiple series, make sure your dataset is long
enough and contains the categories and series to be put on the chart.
2. Inserting a Chart:
- Using the Ribbon: To do this, go to the ‘Insert’ tab in the Ribbon. Under ‘Charts,’
select the type of chart that you intend to design.
- Chart Recommendations: Next to the ‘Paste’ button, click on the drop-down icon
and select ‘Recommended Charts’ to let Excel recommend a chart for your data.
3. Customising Chart Elements:
- Chart Title: Type the title in the empty box under the chart title. You can also format
text in the box to change its font size and colour and align it properly.
- Axes Titles: To add titles to the axes, click on the chart and then the 'Chart Elements'
button (a plus icon). Check 'Axis Titles' and enter your desired titles.
- Legend: Modify the legend by clicking on it and choosing its position or removing
it if unnecessary.
- Data Labels: Add data labels by clicking 'Chart Elements' and checking 'Data
Labels.' Customise their position and format for clarity.

10.4 Data Analysis Tools (PivotTables, Data Validation)

Data Analysis Tools in Microsoft Excel
1. PivotTables
Creating PivotTables:
- Selecting Data Range: Highlight the range of data you want to analyze. Include
headers for better categorisation.
- Inserting a PivotTable: Go to the 'Insert' tab and click on 'PivotTable.' In the
dialogue box, confirm the data range and choose where to place the PivotTable (new
worksheet or existing one).

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Building PivotTables:
- Adding Fields: Drag fields from the 'PivotTable Field List' into the 'Rows,'
'Columns,' 'Values,' and 'Filters' areas. For example, drag 'Product' to 'Rows' and
'Sales' to 'Values' to summarize sales data by product.
- Value Summarisation: Click on a field in the 'Values' area and choose 'Value Field
Settings' to change how the data is summarised (e.g., Sum, Average, Count).
Customising PivotTables:
- Sorting and Filtering: Click the drop-down arrows in the PivotTable headers to sort
or filter data. For advanced filtering, use 'Label Filters' or 'Value Filters'.
- Grouping Data: Right-click on a field and select 'Group' to group data. For example,
you can group dates by month or quarter.
- Refreshing Data: If the source data changes, right-click the PivotTable and select
'Refresh' to update the analysis.
2. Data Validation
Setting Up Data Validation:
- Selecting Cells: Highlight the cells where you want to apply data validation.
- Opening Data Validation: Go to the 'Data' tab and click on 'Data Validation.'
Defining Validation Criteria:
- Allowing Specific Entries: In the 'Settings' tab, choose the type of data you want to
allow (e.g., Whole Number, Decimal, List, Date).
- Creating Drop-Down Lists: Select 'List' in the 'Allow' box, then enter the values you
want in the drop-down list, separated by commas, or reference a range of cells
containing the list items.
- Setting Input Messages: The input Message tab allows you to set the message that
appears when the user chooses the cell. This assists in data entry since they get to
decide what data should be entered and what data should be excluded.
- Customising Error Alerts: In the ‘Error Alert’ tab, specify the message that is
displayed when incorrect data is typed in. Select the type of alert to be used, which
includes Stop Alert, Warning Alert, and Information Alert.
Using Formulas in Data Validation:
- Custom Validation: In the ‘Allow’ box, click on ‘Custom’, and then in the text box
next to it, type in a formula to check the data. For example, `=ISNUMBER(A1)`
checks that the entry is a number.

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10.5 Conditional Formatting and Advanced Charting
Conditional Formatting in Microsoft Excel
Conditional formatting is one of the best features in Excel. Formatting is applied to
cells depending on the specified conditions. Some of the ways that this can help include
Underlining significant statistics that you cannot afford to overlook, drawing trends
from the statistics, and Making it easier to read through the statistics.
1. Basics of Conditional Formatting
Purpose:
- Automatically set up the focus on the information, which is important according to
the rules you set.
- They certainly help visualise data patterns and trends more easily.
Accessing Conditional Formatting:
- On the Ribbon, go to the ‘Home’ tab.
- Select the desired cell(s) to which conditional formatting should be applied, and
click on ‘Conditional Formatting’ in the ‘Styles’ group.
2. Applying Basic Conditional Formatting
Highlight Cells Rules:
- Greater Than/Less Than Format cells that are above or below a certain value. For
example, highlight cells greater than 100.
- Select the range of cells.
- Go to 'Conditional Formatting' > 'Highlight Cells Rules' > 'Greater Than...' and enter
your value.
- Between Highlight cells that fall within a range. For example, between 50 and 150.
- Select the range of cells.
- Go to 'Conditional Formatting' > 'Highlight Cells Rules' > 'Between...' and enter the
values.
Top/Bottom Rules:
- Top 10 Items: Highlight the top 10 (or any specified number) values.
- Select the range of cells.
- Go to 'Conditional Formatting' > 'Top/Bottom Rules' > 'Top 10 Items...'
- Bottom 10 Percent: Highlight the bottom 10 percent of values.
- Select the range of cells.
- Go to 'Conditional Formatting' > 'Top/Bottom Rules' > 'Bottom 10%...'

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Colour Scales:
- Gradient Colouring: Apply a colour gradient based on cell values.
- Select the range of cells.
- Go to 'Conditional Formatting' > 'Colour Scales' and choose a colour scale.
Icon Sets:
- Icons Based on Values: Add icons to cells based on their values (e.g., traffic lights,
arrows).
- Select the range of cells.
- Go to 'Conditional Formatting' > 'Icon Sets' and choose an icon set.
3. Creating Custom Rules
Using a Formula:
- Custom Conditions: As for more complicated conditions, it is possible to use the
formation of rules based on custom formulas.
- Choose the cells to be included in the range.
- Choose ‘Home’ tab > ‘Styles’ group > ‘Conditional Formatting’ > ‘New Rule… ‘
- Select ‘Use a formula to determine which cells to format. ’
- To specify what you want to format (e.g., to highlight cells where the value is greater
than 100, enter this formula: `=A1>100`).
- To set the formatting options, click the ‘Format. .. ‘ button.
Editing and Deleting Rules:
- Managing Rules: Modify the currently applied conditional formatting rules.
- Navigate to ‘Home’ > ‘Conditional Formatting ‘ > ‘Manage Rules’.
- Choose the rule to edit or delete and change it as you wish.
 Advanced Charting in Microsoft Excel
Other additional charting tools in Excel enable one to design better or more advanced
charts on the data analysed. The following techniques can assist you in communicating
insights and enhancing chart interactivity and elements of chart appeal.
1. Combination Charts
Creating Combination Charts:
- Purpose: Overlay two or more charts on a single chart in order to show two or more
sets of data.
- Steps:
- Choose the data selection.
- Select the ‘Insert’ tab and then select ‘Combo Chart. ‘
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- Choose the ‘Clustered Column – Line’ or another type of combo.
- Then, arrange each data series to employ different chart types, such as columns for
one data series and lines for another series.
Customising Combination Charts:
- Secondary Axis: To further distinguish different ranges of data, it is time to insert a
second axis.
- To change the data series to the secondary axis, right-click the desired data series.
- Choose ‘Format Data Series. ‘
- Select the check mark in ‘Secondary Axis’.
- Adjusting Chart Elements: These graphs clearly show that some of the titles, labels
on the axes, and legends should be altered.
2. Dynamic Charts
Using Named Ranges:
- Dynamic Data Ranges: Set up the ranges by names that would change by
themselves as data shifts.
- Click on the ribbon bar and navigate to ‘Formulas’, then ‘Name Manager’, and then
choose ‘New’.
- Define a name and enter a formula that updates the range dynamically (e.g.,
`=OFFSET(Sheet1!$A$1,0,0, COUNTA(Sheet1!$A:$A),1)`).
- Use these named ranges in your chart data source.
Creating Dynamic Charts with Tables:
- Auto-Expanding Tables: Convert your data range into a table.
- Select the range and go to 'Insert' > 'Table.'
- Charts linked to this table will automatically update as data is added or removed.
3. Advanced Chart Types
Waterfall Charts:
- Purpose: Visualize the cumulative effect of sequential positive and negative values.
- Steps:
- Select your data range.
- Go to 'Insert' > 'Waterfall Chart.'
- Customize the chart to highlight different stages (e.g., starting point, intermediate
steps, and ending point).
Box and Whisker Charts:
- Purpose: Display the distribution of data based on quartiles and identify outliers.

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- Steps:
- Select your data range.
- Go to 'Insert' > 'Box and Whisker Chart.'
- Adjust the chart to show mean markers, quartile boxes, and whiskers.
Histograms:
- Purpose: Show the frequency distribution of a data set.
- Steps:
- Select the data range.
- Go to 'Insert' > 'Histogram Chart.'
- Customize bin ranges and intervals to represent your data distribution better.
4. Interactive Charts
Using Slicers with PivotCharts:
- Interactive Filters: Advanced slicers should be added to make your PivotCharts
dynamic.
- Design a PivotTable and, in relation, a PivotChart.
- In the ‘Analyze’ tab, go to ‘Insert Slicer’ and then choose the fields that you want
to act as the filter.
- To automatically change the representation of the PivotChart, use the slicers.
Using Form Controls:
- Interactive Elements: Insert buttons, checkboxes or drop-down lists to manipulate
chart data.
- Choose ‘Developer’ > ‘Insert’ and choose a form control.
- Associate the form control with a cell.
- Change the chart data by using formulas or VBA in relation to the form control.

 Knowledge Check 2
Fill in the Blanks
1. ___________ and ___________ promote more data awareness and analysis to
Excel. (Functions & formulas)
2. The __________ feature of Excel helps in the data analysis and reporting of
dynamic data. (PivotTable)
3. ___________ in Excel help in identifying the patterns or even outliers of data.
(Charts)

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 4. Specialisations allow for the performance of complex operations on the data
in_______. (Excel)
 Outcome-Based Activity 2
Open an MS Excel sheet, make 20 entries of roll no. and name of the student, and
Freeze 1st row.

10.6 Summary
 Students understood the most effective techniques for working with the workbooks
and sheets in Excel.
 Discussed the application of advanced forms and functions that are used for more
practical purposes, such as performing calculations and analysis.
 We have covered the techniques to have effective features in graphs and charts by
mastering them to have an effective presentation of data.
 Learned about the Data Analysis Tools, Applied PivotTables feature, and Data
Validation in order to analyse and validate data.
 Acquired knowledge on how to use conditional formatting in order to make
important patterns and trends stand out.
 Understood formatting workbooks and sheets, as well as printing them in the best
look possible.
 Learned Data Validation, which measures to check the accuracy of the data entered
in the database.
 Mastered the advanced Excel functions like VLOOKUP, INDEX, MATCH, etc. The
strategies for sorting and handling big workbooks were also explored.

10.7 Keywords
 Data manipulation: Data manipulation involves the act of changing, sorting and
analysing data in order to get insights or for the purpose of accomplishing certain
tasks.
 Spreadsheet: A spreadsheet is a type of document with rows and columns where
users can input and process data.
 Workbook: In Microsoft Excel, a workbook is a file made of several sheets or
worksheets that organise related information in a single file.
10.8 Self-Assessment Questions

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1. Reflect on your experience with creating and printing workbooks/sheets in MS
Excel. What challenges did you encounter, and how did you overcome them?
2. Explain why the application of MS Excel, which involves the utilisation of various
formulas and functions in order to perform complicated calculations or data
manipulation, is important.
3. Describe a graph or chart you have made using MS Excel. In what way was it more
effective in presenting your data than if you converted it into tables?
4. Discuss the advantages of PivotTables and Data Validation in the process of data
analysis in MS Excel. Could you give a real-life example of their use?

10.9 References / Reference Reading

 McCartney, Mike. Microsoft Excel 2023: The Most Updated Crash Course from
Beginner to Advanced. Barnes & Noble, 2023. ISBN: 9798868928253.
 Roberts, Alan. EXCEL 2023: The Practical Step-by-Step Manual of Microsoft Excel
for Learning Basic and Advanced Features, Formulas, and Charts with Easy and
Clear Examples. Amazon, 2023.
 Wilson, Richard. EXCEL 2023: From Beginner to Expert | The Illustrative Guide
to Master All The Essential Functions and Formulas in Just 7 Days With Step-by-
Step Tutorials, Practical Examples, Tips & Tricks. Amazon, 2023.
 Jain, Rupesh K., and Sharma, Nikhil. Mastering MS Excel 2023: Advanced
Techniques and Data Analysis Tools. New Delhi: Tech Books International, 2023.
 Kapoor, Anil. Advanced Excel 2023: A Comprehensive Guide for Professionals.
Mumbai: Excel Publishing House, 2023

Unit 11: Introduction to MS PowerPoint

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Learning Outcomes:
 Students will be able to identify key features of MS PowerPoint.
 Students will be able to explain how to create and save presentations.
 Students will be able to demonstrate how to insert and format text and images.
 Students will be able to apply slide layouts and themes.
 Students will be able to utilise animations and transitions effectively.

Structure:
11.1 Creating Presentations
11.2 Inserting and Formatting Text and Images
 Knowledge Check 1
 Outcome-Based Activity 1
11.3 Using Slide Layouts and Themes
11.4 Adding Animations and Transitions
11.5 Basics of Slide Design
 Knowledge Check 2
 Outcome-Based Activity 2
11.6 Summary
11.7 Keywords
11.8 Self-Assessment Questions
11.9 References / Reference Reading

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11.1 Creating Presentations
Microsoft PowerPoint is well-known, and creating a presentation is a very important
skill in presenting information. Here is a step-by-step guide on how to create a polished
and professional presentation in PowerPoint:
Starting a New Presentation
Opening PowerPoint
- Launch PowerPoint: Launch the application either from your desktop or the start
menu.
- New Presentation: Click on the “New” button when on the start window to start a
new presentation from a blank slate or use a template.
Choosing a Template
- Templates: PowerPoint has numerous templates with already-created designs for
the slides. To ensure that you select the right template, choose a theme that relates
to your presentation.
- Blank Presentation: As a result, to produce a professional and unique presentation,
the user starts with an empty slide and designs each slide independently.
Adding and Formatting Slides
Adding Slides
- New Slide: To add a new slide, go to the toolbar, select “Home,” and click “New
Slide.” You can choose from many different layouts, including the title slide, the
content slide, or the section header.
- Layout: You can reorganise an existing slide by right-clicking on it, clicking on the
‘Home’ tab, selecting ‘Layout,’ and selecting the desired layout.
Formatting Slides
- Background: To adjust the slide's background, go to ‘Design’ and then ‘Format
Background,’ where you can set a solid fill colour, gradient fill, picture fill, or
texture fill.
- Themes: Choose a theme in the “Design” tab to make the presentation look more
uniform.
Adding Content
Text
- Text Boxes: To place text boxes on the slides, go to the toolbar and click “insert,”
then click on “text box”.

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- Formatting Text: Under the Home tab, use the available options for formatting the
text, which are font type, size, colour, and alignment.
Images and Media
- Images: To embed images, go to the ‘Insert’ menu and click ‘Pictures,’ then select
from your documents. Shrink and align them appropriately if they do not fit the
space provided.
- Online Pictures: To locate images using the search within PowerPoint, go to the
“Insert” tab and click on “Online Pictures.”
- Videos: Insert videos by going to the tab “Insert” and clicking on “Video. “ You can
upload videos from your computer or even link to the videos that you want.
- Audio: Add recording by going to “Insert” > “Audio” to add music or recording.

11.2 Inserting and Formatting Text and Images

Inserting and formatting text and images in Microsoft PowerPoint are essential skills
for creating engaging and visually appealing presentations. Here’s a detailed guide to
help you master these tasks:
Inserting Text
Applying text and images in the context of Microsoft PowerPoint is one of the crucial
activities for making captivating and appealing presentations. Here’s a detailed guide
to help you master these tasks: Here’s a detailed guide to help you master these tasks:
Inserting Text
Adding Text Boxes
1. New Slide: You can add a new slide if it is required. It is located at the top of the
PowerPoint window; first, go to the “Home” tab and then click the “New Slide”
button.
2. Text Box: To add a text box, go to the “Insert” tab of the ribbon and click on the
button labelled “Text Box.”
3. Draw Text Box: On the slide, use the cursor to draw the text box to the preferred
size and shape.
Formatting Text
1. Font Style: Right-click the text and pick a font style from the “Home” tab of the
toolbar.
2. Font Size: Modify the text from the “Change the Font Size” drop list.

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3. Font Colour: To erase font colour, click on the “Font Colour” button located in the
“Font” tab.
4. Bold, Italic, Underline: Use the buttons in the “Home” tab or hotkeys (Ctrl + B, Ctrl
+ I, Ctrl + U) with the names of these styles.
5. Alignment: The icons in the “paragraph” tab allow one to left-align, centre, right-
align, or justify the text.
6. Bullets and Numbering: Incorporate bullets or numbering into the lists by the icons
in the “Paragraph” tab.
Inserting Images: Import/Insert Pictures from your Computer
1. Insert Image: Head over to the “Insert” tab, then click on “Pictures.”
2. Select Image: For the Output settings, select “This Device” and navigate through
the folders in your computer to pick the image file.
3. Insert: When you are ready to place the image in your slide, go to the top of the
page and click on “Insert.”
Adding Online Images
1. Insert Online Picture: Next, go to the “Insert” tab and click on “Pictures.”
2. Online Pictures: Select “Online Pictures” and then type in the picture that is
required.
3. Insert: Click on the picture you want, and then click on “Insert.”
Formatting Images
Resizing Images
1. Select Image: To select an image, click on it.
2. Resize Handles: Click on one of the corner handles of the image and then drag it to
make the image larger or smaller, but adjust it in proportion. The side handles can
be used to pull the image in or out.
Positioning Images
1. Drag and Drop: To do this, click and drag the image to the appropriate position on
the slide you wish to use.
2. Align The other tools to help position the image are available under the tab known
as “Picture Format.”
Adding Effects to Images
1. Picture Styles: The “Picture Format” tab offers many pre-set styles.
2. Picture Border: A border can be added by going to “Picture Border” and then
choosing each colour, weight and dash style.

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3. Picture Effects: From the “Picture Effects” menu, add effects like shadow,
reflection, glow, etc on the picture.

 Knowledge Check 1
Fill in the Blanks
1. Designing a presentation in the PowerPoint involves the development of
___________. (slides)
2. Applying ___________ and alignment between and around the text also makes
the PowerPoint slides more appealing. (spacing)
3. This means that when a user inserts slide ___________, this will help create
uniformity in designing the PowerPoint. (templates)
4. Introducing ___________ and ___________ between slides increases the
interactivity of presentations created using PowerPoint. (transitions &
animations)

 Outcome-Based Activity 1
Prepare a slide show and attempt to add photos.

11.3 Using Slide Layouts and Themes

Applying the slide layouts and themes in Microsoft PowerPoint makes it easier to create
uniform and attractive presentations. Here's a detailed guide on how to effectively use
slide layouts and themes:
Using Slide Layouts
Applying a Slide Layout
1. New Slide: To add a new slide to the presentation, in the “Home” tab, select “New
Slide” in the dropdown list.
2. Changing Layout: To modify the arrangement of the content in one of the existing
slides, first, we have to select the slide we want to modify, after which we go to the
“Home” tab and then click the “Layout” button which is on the “Insert” group, and
we select the layout of our choice from the dropdown list.
Common Slide Layouts
1. Title Slide: Applied for the title of the presentation and the subtitle of the
presentation.

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2. Title and Content: This section consists of a title bar and a text bar for the report's
content, including images, charts, and any other additional content.
3. Section Header: Employed to bring in a new section, a title, and a subtitle of the
news section.
4. Two Content: Contains two content boxes, one beside the other.
5. Comparison: Like Two Content, but there are titles for each content box.
6. Title Only: A slide that has only a title box on it.
7. Blank: A slide which does not have any placeholders before the speaker sets the
type.
 Using Themes
Applying a Theme
1. Choose a Theme: Navigate to the “Design” tab of the program. In the Themes
group, you will find different themes that will be set in the online Journal.
2. Apply Theme: Click on a theme to select it for your whole presentation. Roll over
a theme to see the preview in action on your slides.
3. More Themes: The Themes list continues after the Themes group; to open it, click
the More button, which looks like a downward arrow.
Customising Themes
1. Colours: You can change the theme colours by going to “Design” > “Variant” >
“Colours.” You can choose a preset colour or design a new one.
2. Fonts: Alter the theme fonts by going to the ‘Design’ tab, followed by ‘Variants’
and then ‘Fonts.’ Select a font set or use a custom one.
3. Effects: Modify it by going to “Design, " then ‘Variants,’ and finally ‘Effects.’ This
alters the look of features such as shadows and reflections.
4. Background Styles: You can change the background by going to “Design” >
“Variants” > “Background Styles. ” Here, you can choose from ready-made styles
or new ones.

11.4 Adding Animations and Transitions

 Ribbon Menu system in MS PowerPoint: Animations Tab
The “Animations” tab of the Ribbon Menu system is one of the essential parts of the
MS PowerPoint application, and it contains a range of tools and settings to create an

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animated slide show. Here is a detailed description of the features available in the
"Animations" tab:
Animation Gallery: The Animation Gallery presents a large number of pre-
programmed animation schemes that can be used to animate one or several objects on
the selected slide. To add a bit of life, users can choose from entrance, emphasis, exit,
and motion paths to enhance their content. The gallery offers a range of beautiful and
properly created animations for various modes of presentations.
Animation Options: This section enables users to adjust the selected animating effect
to their desired style. The settings of the animation can also be edited by the users in
relation to direction, time, and even duration, among other things. They can also define
whether the animation loads when the page does or when the user clicks on something.

Fig: Ribbon Menu system in MS PowerPoint: Animations Tab

Animation Timing: The animation timing options allow one to set the time for the
sequence and the time that an animation takes on the slide. One can set how long after
one animation, another should occur, whether one animation should occur before
another or at the same time, and how fast the animations occur. This feature makes the
various actions undertaken in the presentation appear flowing and in harmony with the
others.
Animation Preview: The animation preview option enables the user to show how the
animation would look on the slide. The ‘preview’ button allows users to view a real-
time preview of an animation with the intention of enhancing its look before presenting
it.
The ‘Animations’ tab in PowerPoint helps users create proper and appealing animations
for presentations. The provided tools and features attract the audience and explain the
main idea properly.
 Ribbon Menu system in MS PowerPoint: Transitions:
In Microsoft PowerPoint, “Transitions” is one of the essential tools situated in the
Ribbon Menu system, which enables users to make changes to the ways the slides
transition in a presentation. Here is a comprehensive description of the features

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available in the "Transitions" tab: Here is a comprehensive description of the features
available in the "Transitions" tab:
Transition to This Slide: This section offers a list of transition effects that may be
assigned on a slide-by-slide basis. Transition effects relate to the appearance and
disappearance of the slides during a presentation and make the presentation more
attractive and fluent. Some of the options available are fades, wipes, blinds, and so on.
Timing Group: The timing group enables the setting of the length of each slide and
the speed of the transition effect. Users can decide how long a slide is to be displayed
before the next one is displayed. They can also decide the speed and how smoothly the
transition effect will work through the selected transition duration.
Sound Group: The sound group contains options for adding sound to the slides'
transitions. Transition sound can be selected from the given library or uploaded as an
audio file. The addition of sounds can extend the benefits of the visual change and
attract the audience's attention to the audio cue.

Fig.: Ribbon Menu system in MS PowerPoint: Transitions Tab

Preview Group: The preview group supports a preview pane that helps depict the live
preview of the selected transition and the time over which the transition will be done.
Users can tailor specifics and immediately get a look at how the transitions will look
when executed in the real presentation. This feature assists the user to adjust the effects
to the level that the user wants it to be.
Effect Options: The effect options section is used when applying certain transition
effects to provide additional options for the transition. In addition to this, users can
select specific variations or variations with sound for each transition effect that is likely
to be applied, offering users more customisation options and more control over the
transitions being made.
Apply to All: The “Apply to All” button enables a user to apply the chosen transition
effect on all the slides in the specific presentation. This feature is convenient when you
need to use the same transition effect for all the slides, creating a more professional-
looking presentation.
11.5 Basics of Slide Design

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 Ribbon Menu system in MS PowerPoint: Design Tab:
The "Design" tab in Microsoft PowerPoint is an essential component of the Ribbon
Menu system that allows users to customize the appearance and layout of their
presentations. Here is a comprehensive overview of the features available in the
"Design" tab:
 Themes Group: The themes group offers you a list of professionally developed
themes, which give a presentable outlook to your presentation. Most themes
incorporate colours, fonts and effects that will ensure the entire appearance of the
slides is harmonised and professional.

Fig: Ribbon Menu system in MS PowerPoint: Design Tab

 Slide Size Group: The slide size group allows you to change the size and
orientation of your slides. Slides come in standard sizes, or you can order the size
you require based on your presentation’s requirements. This feature is helpful in
preparing presentations for various devices or resolutions.
 Customize Group: The customised group has more choices concerning the
customisation of the slide background. The background can be any solid colour,
gradient, picture, or pattern that you want. This enables you to make the background
attractive and correspond to your presentation's content.
 Slide Layout Group: This group enables you to choose from several slide designs
already provided for you. Slide designs define the position of content in each slide,
including text, images, charts, and other objects. There are layout options that you
can select, and you can easily change the layout depending on your content.
 Themes Options Group: It is a subpanel of the theme that offers additional settings
for the selected theme among various groups of options. This aspect enables you to
change the theme colours, fonts and effects to meet your specific preference for the

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 theme of the presentation. This feature allows you to add the finishing touches to
the visual aspects of your slides.

 Knowledge Check 2
Fill in the Blanks
1. Fundamentals of __________ govern the general look and consistency of the
presentations created with PowerPoint. (design)
2. ___________ enable changes and restructuring of the content of PowerPoint
slides. (Slide layouts)
3. Using PowerPoint, one can create __________ and also set the background and
theme for the slides. (slides)
4. Adding ___________ and ___________ makes any PowerPoint presentation
more interesting and informative. (images & charts)

 Outcome-Based Activity 2
Work on the Basics of Slide Design and create 10 slides.

11.6 Summary
 Microsoft PowerPoint is well-known, and creating a presentation is a very
important skill in presenting information. We have seen the Presentation Creation
in MS PowerPoint, which is used to develop coherent and visually informative
lessons.
 Inserting and formatting text and images in Microsoft PowerPoint are essential
skills for creating engaging and visually appealing presentations. Acquired the
ability to place text and images into the document and make them look presentable.
 Learned different slide layouts and themes for the continuity and aesthetically
pleasing appearance of the presentation.
 The “Animations” tab of the Ribbon Menu system is one of the essential parts of
the MS PowerPoint application. It contains a range of tools and settings to create an
animated slide show. Animations and transitions improve the flow and interaction
of presentations.
 Learned about key concepts to use when designing a slide so that your message can
be well understood.

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 Identified the techniques of engaging the audience at the beginning of the
presentation and throughout the presentation.

11.7 Keywords
 Animations: In MS PowerPoint, animations are special effects applied to the text,
objects, or the whole slide, making the presentation more impressive and full of
movements and transitions.
 Multimedia Elements: Media objects in MS PowerPoint are features of media like
images, videos, audio files, and animations that are used in the presentation to help
inform the audience more livelyly.
 Slide Show: A slide show in MS PowerPoint is a set of slides shown one after
another in order. It describes a story or provides information to an audience and uses
animations, multimedia objects, and other transitional effects between the slides.

11.8 Self-Assessment Questions

4. What factors do you consider when designing a presentation in MS PowerPoint?
5. Explain how you would go about inserting text and images and also formatting these
text and images in the MS PowerPoint Slides.
6. Explain the significance of using templates and design in communicating
information in an MS PowerPoint presentation.
7. Where and how should one apply animations and transitions in an MS PowerPoint
presentation?
5. Discuss some guidelines that you consider fundamental when designing slides in
order to come up with an aesthetically appealing and comprehensible presentation
in MS PowerPoint.

11.9 References / Reference Reading

 Agarwal, Saurabh. Mastering Microsoft PowerPoint: A Comprehensive Guide for
Students and Professionals. BPB Publications, 2023.
 Bhattacharya, Priti. Microsoft PowerPoint 2023 for Beginners: Step-by-Step Guide
to Creating Professional Presentations. TechKnow Books, 2023.
 Joshi, Ramesh, and Mehta, Kavita. Effective Presentation with Microsoft
PowerPoint: Techniques and Tips. Wiley India, 2022.

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 Reding, Elizabeth Eisner. Microsoft PowerPoint 365 Complete: In Practice.
Cengage Learning, 2023.
 Walkenbach, John, et al. Microsoft PowerPoint 2023 Bible. Wiley, 2023.

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 Unit 12: Advanced Features of MS PowerPoint

Learning Outcomes:
 Students will be able to define the purpose of master slides.
 Students will be able to explain how to incorporate multimedia elements.
 Students will be able to demonstrate advanced animation techniques.
 Students will be able to apply methods for delivering and printing presentations.
 Students will be able to create interactive presentations using advanced features.

Structure:
12.1 Creating Master Slides
12.2 Incorporating Multimedia (Audio, Video)
 Knowledge Check 1
 Outcome-Based Activity 1
12.3 Advanced Animation Techniques
12.4 Delivering and Printing Presentations
12.5 Interactive Presentations
 Knowledge Check 2
 Outcome-Based Activity 2
12.6 Summary
12.7 Keywords
12.8 Self-Assessment Questions
12.9 References / Reference Reading

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12.1 Creating Master Slides
Creating Master Slides in Microsoft PowerPoint
Master Slides in PowerPoint enable you to keep a consistent outlook of your
presentation in terms of the design, layout, and formatting of the presentation slides.
This guide will take you through all the steps to create and apply Master Slides in a
clear and structured manner.
1. Understanding Master Slides
What Are Master Slides?
- Slide Master: The highest level of organisation of the slide layout in which general
settings for all the slides are made.
- Layout Masters: Reporting to the Slide Master, these govern the format of various
kinds of slides (for instance, Title Slide, Content Slide).
Why Use Master Slides?
- Consistency: The presentation should be presented as one set, and all the slides
should have a similar layout.
- Efficiency: Make changes that affect the whole presentation quickly by using the
Master Slides.
- Customisation: Make and use specific pre-designs that can be applied to the field in
a pro forma manner.
2. Customising the Slide Master
Editing the Slide Master:
- Background: The next one is to set a background for your slides.
- Since all the formatting options for the presentation are available in the Slide Master
view, the next step is to ensure that it is activated.
- Click on the ‘Slide Master’ tab and select ‘Background Styles’. You can then select
the desired background or create a new one.
- Fonts: Use appropriate colours and sizes of the font.
- go to the slide Master’ tab, click on ‘Fonts’ and either choose a font theme or create
a font scheme of your choice.
- Colours: Once you have decided on the kind of pool you want, you should select
the best colour for your pool.
- Navigate to the ‘Slide Master’ tab and then click on ‘Colours,’ and then select a
theme or set colour.

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- Effects: Place shadows or reflections that share the look of other objects in the
scene.
- Choose an effect theme for the presentation by clicking on ‘Effects’ located in the
‘Slide Master’ tab.
Adding and Formatting Placeholders:
- Types of Placeholders: The tools bar permits you to insert elements such as plain
text, pictures, charts, tables, and others.
- Inserting Placeholders: To add a placeholder, go to the Slide Master or Layout
Master view, click on the Insert Placeholder tab in the Slide Master section and
select the desired type of placeholder.
- Formatting Placeholders: This means adjusting the size of the placeholders,
changing their position on the page, and/or modifying the grid template they are
placed into. Select a placeholder and then go to the ‘Home’ tab, where you will find
the formatting tools.
3. Creating Custom Layouts
Adding a New Layout:
- To get to the Slide Master view, go to the ‘Slide Master’ tab at the top of the
PowerPoint application interface.
- To add this or any other layout, they can click on the ‘Insert Layout’ button.
Customising Layouts:
- Adding Elements: You can add placeholders, text boxes, images, and shapes to the
layout that you will customise.
- Formatting Layouts: I will add the background styles, fonts, and colours so that the
layout is in harmony with the Slide Master.
- Renaming Layouts: On the left pane, right-click on the new layout created and click
on ‘Rename Layout. ‘Ensure it has a good name for identification.
4. Master Slides and Their Use in Making Your Presentation
Using Layouts in Normal View: Using Layouts in Normal View:
- Applying a Layout: In Normal view for PowerPoint, select the ‘Home’ tab, click on
‘Layout,’ and select layouts from those designed in the Slide Master.
- Changing Layouts: You can also change the layout of any slide by clicking on it and
then selecting ‘Layout’ from the drop-down menu.

Updating Slides with Master Changes: Updating Slides with Master Changes:

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- Any modification done on the master Slide or Layout Masters will affect all slides
that have been built on such formats in your presentation.

12.2 Incorporating Multimedia (Audio, Video)

Incorporating Multimedia in Microsoft PowerPoint
Adding multimedia elements like audio and video can enhance your PowerPoint
presentations and engage your audience on a deeper level. This guide will walk you
through the process of incorporating audio and video seamlessly into your
presentations.
1. Inserting Audio
Adding Background Music:
- Click on the slide to which you wish to add the audio.
- Go to the ‘Insert’ tab of the Ribbon.
- To display the audio options, go to the ‘Media’ tab and left-click on the option that
says ‘Audio’.
- Select ‘Audio on My PC’ to insert audio files located on your computer.
- Click on the audio file you want to use and then click on ‘Insert. ‘
Customising Audio Playback:
- Click on the audio icon on the slide.
- Go to the 'Playback' tab on the Ribbon to access options like 'Start Automatically'
or 'Loop Until Stopped.'
- Adjust volume levels and set fade-in or fade-out effects as needed.
Adding Narration or Voiceover:
- Go to the 'Insert' tab and click on 'Audio.'
- Choose 'Record Audio' to record narration directly into PowerPoint.
- Speak into your microphone and click 'OK' when finished recording.
- Adjust playback options and save the narration.
2. Inserting Video
Embedding Video from File:
- Navigate to the slide where you want to insert the video.
- Go to the 'Insert' tab on the Ribbon.
- Click on 'Video' in the 'Media' group.
- Choose 'Video on My PC' to insert video files saved on your computer.
- Select the video file and click 'Insert.'

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Inserting Online Videos:
- Click on 'Online Video' instead of 'Video on My PC.'
- Enter the URL of the online video or search for it using Bing Video Search.
- Select the video and click 'Insert.'
Adjusting Video Playback Options:
- Click on the video on the slide.
- Go to the 'Playback' tab on the Ribbon to access options like 'Start Automatically'
or 'Rewind After Playing.'
- Set up additional options like volume control and video poster frame.
Using Video Triggers:
- Create interactive presentations by using video triggers.
- Insert a shape or object on the slide.
- Assign the action to 'Play Media' and select the video you want to play when the
shape or object is clicked.

 Knowledge Check 1
Fill in the Blanks
1. Creating ___________ ensures consistency in formatting across all PowerPoint
slides. (slide master templates)
2. Incorporating ___________ and ___________ enriches PowerPoint
presentations with multimedia elements. (images & videos)
3. Advanced ___________ techniques add dynamism and sophistication to
PowerPoint presentations. (animation)
4. Delivering and ___________ presentations effectively communicate ideas and
information in PowerPoint. (presenting)
 Outcome-Based Activity 1
Create 5 slides on your university.

12.3 Advanced Animation Techniques

Advanced Animation Techniques in Microsoft PowerPoint
Advanced animation techniques in PowerPoint allow you to create dynamic and
engaging presentations that capture your audience's attention. From complex motion

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paths to interactive triggers, these techniques will help you take your presentations to
the next level.
1. Custom Motion Paths
Creating Custom Motion Paths:
- Select the object you want to animate.
- Go to the 'Animations' tab on the Ribbon.
- Click on 'Add Animation' and choose 'More Motion Paths' from the drop-down
menu.
- Select the desired motion path from the options or draw a custom path using the
'Custom Path' tool.
Editing Motion Paths:
- After applying a motion path, click on the object to reveal the motion path.
- Drag the green handles to adjust the shape of the path.
- Use the yellow diamond to adjust the direction of the path.
Combining Motion Paths:
- Apply multiple motion paths to the same object to create complex animations.
- Use the 'Start' drop-down menu in the 'Animations' tab to sequence the motion
paths.
2. Morph Transition
Using the Morph Transition:
- Create two slides with objects you want to animate.
- Ensure the objects are in the same position and have the same size on both slides.
- Go to the 'Transitions' tab on the Ribbon.
- Select 'Morph' from the transition options.
Customising the Morph Transition:
- Click on the 'Effect Options' button in the 'Transitions' tab.
- Adjust the duration and other settings for the Morph transition.
Creating Complex Animations with Morph:
- Use Morph to animate multiple objects, text, and shapes across slides.
- Experiment with resising, rotating, and moving objects to create dynamic effects.
3. Triggered Animations
Adding Triggers:
- Select the object you want to animate.
- Go to the 'Animations' tab on the Ribbon.

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- Click on 'Add Animation' and choose an animation effect.
- Click on 'Trigger' in the 'Advanced Animation' group and select 'On Click of' or 'On
Click of Object.'
Using Shapes as Triggers:
- Insert a shape (e.g., a button) on your slide.
- Apply the 'No Fill' and 'No Outline' formatting to make the shape invisible.
- Assign the shape as a trigger for specific animations.
Creating Interactive Presentations:
- Use triggers to create interactive presentations where user actions activate
animations.
- Combine triggers with hyperlinks to navigate between slides or external content.

12.4 Delivering and Printing Presentations

Delivering and printing presentations in PowerPoint involves more than just creating
slides. From rehearsing timings to choosing the right print settings, this guide will help
you prepare and present your slides effectively, whether in person or print.
1. Delivering Presentations
Rehearsing Timings:
- Go to the 'Slide Show' tab on the Ribbon.
- Click on 'Rehearse Timings' in the 'Set Up' group.
- Practice your presentation, and PowerPoint will record the time spent on each slide.
Setting up Slide Show Options:
- Click on 'Set Up Slide Show' in the 'Set Up' group.
- Choose options like 'Show Type' (e.g., Presented by a speaker, Browsed by an
individual) and 'Show Options' (e.g., Loop continuously until 'Esc').
Presenting Slides:
- Go to the 'Slide Show' tab on the Ribbon.
- Click on 'From Beginning' or 'From Current Slide' in the 'Start Slide Show' group
to start presenting.
Using Presenter View:
- If using dual monitors, enable Presenter View for additional control and notes.
- Go to the 'Slide Show' tab and click on 'Presenter View' in the 'Monitors' group.

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2. Printing Presentations
Printing Slides:
- Go to the 'File' tab on the Ribbon.
- Click on 'Print' in the left pane.
- Choose print settings like the number of copies, colour or grayscale, and slide range.
- Click 'Print' to send the presentation to the printer.
Printing Speaker Notes:
- In the 'Print' settings, select 'Notes Pages' under 'Settings.'
- This option prints one slide per page with accompanying speaker notes below each
slide.
Printing Handouts:
- Choose 'Handouts' under 'Settings' in the Print settings.
- Select the desired number of slides per page (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 6).
- Customize other settings like colour or grayscale and slide order.
Printing Outline View:
- If you prefer a text-based outline of your presentation, choose 'Outline View' under
'Settings.'
- This option prints the titles and text from each slide in outline format.

12.5 Interactive Presentations

Interactive presentations engage your audience and encourage participation, making
your message more memorable and impactful. PowerPoint provides interactivity, where
you can include quizzes, navigation bars, and other elements that allow viewers to
participate. This guide will lead you through the steps of designing an engaging
presentation with your audience in mind.
1. Hyperlinks
Creating Hyperlinks:
- To create a hyperlink, choose the object you want to link. It can be text, a shape, or
an image.
- Go to the tools bar at the top, then right-click the selected text and click on the
hyperlink.
- In the 'Insert Hyperlink' dialogue box, choose the destination for the hyperlink (e.g.,
another slide, a website, an email address).
- Click 'OK' to apply the hyperlink.

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Types of Hyperlinks:
- Slide Hyperlinks: Link to specific slides within the presentation for seamless
navigation.
- Webpage Hyperlinks: Direct viewers to external websites for additional
information.
- Email Hyperlinks: Allow viewers to send emails directly from the presentation.
Creating Navigation Menus:
- Design a menu slide with clickable buttons for different sections or topics.
- Link each button to the corresponding slide using hyperlinks.
- Add a 'Back to Menu' hyperlink on each slide to return to the menu slide.
2. Action Buttons
Inserting Action Buttons:
- Go to the 'Insert' tab on the Ribbon.
- Click on 'Shapes' in the 'Illustrations' group.
- Choose an action button shape (e.g., Home, Next, Previous, Information).
- Click and drag to draw the button on your slide.
Assigning Actions to Buttons:
- Right-click on the action button and choose 'Action Settings.'
- In the 'Action Settings' dialogue box, select the action you want the button to
perform (e.g., hyperlink to a slide, run a program, play a sound).
- Click 'OK' to apply the action.
Creating Interactive Navigation:
- Use action buttons as navigation controls for moving between slides.
- Customize action buttons with text, icons, or colours to indicate their function.
3. Interactive Quizzes
Creating Quiz Questions:
- Design quiz slides with multiple-choice questions, true/false statements, or fill-in-
the-blank prompts.
- Use text boxes, shapes, or SmartArt to create answer choices.
Adding Hyperlinks to Answers:
- Link each answer choice to a feedback slide using hyperlinks.
- Create feedback slides with explanations or responses based on the user's answer
selection.

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Using Slide Zoom for Answer Reveals:
- Insert slide zooms on the feedback slides to zoom in on the correct answer or
provide additional information.
- Link the zoomed-in area back to the main quiz slide to allow users to continue the
quiz.
4. Interactive Elements
Inserting Interactive Objects:
- Use features like sliders, spinners, and checkboxes from the 'Developer' tab (enable
it in PowerPoint options if not visible) to create interactive elements.
- Link these interactive objects to specific actions or animations using macros (VBA
programming).
Creating Interactive Games:
- Design games like Jeopardy, trivia, or board games using interactive elements and
hyperlinks.
- Incorporate animations, sound effects, and scoring systems to enhance the gaming
experience.
Using Interactive Templates:
- Explore interactive PowerPoint templates available online or create your templates
with pre-designed interactive elements.
- Customize templates to match your presentation content and style.

 Knowledge Check 2
Fill in the Blanks
1. ___________ presentations motivate the audiences and have them actively
involved in the use of PowerPoint. (Engaging)
2. A __________ feature of PowerPoint is the ability to incorporate audio and
video files in the presentation. (multimedia)
3. ___________ allow the creation of animal sequences and impact in PowerPoint.
(Transitions)
4. Applying ___________ helps in easy navigation from one slide to another in
PowerPoint. (hyperlinks)

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 Outcome-Based Activity 2
Create / Include multimedia objects in a presentation, which can be Images and
audio.

12.6 Summary
 Learned about features such as master slides to ensure uniformity and company
identity of the presentations. Master Slides in PowerPoint enable you to keep a
consistent outlook on your presentation in terms of design, layout, and formatting.
 Acquired the skills to include and utilise other media like audio and video in the
presentation.
 Understood Advanced Animation Techniques & Acquired skills in animating to
come up with lively and interactive displays.
 Delivering and printing presentations in PowerPoint involves more than just
creating slides. From rehearsing timings to choosing the right print settings, we
considered the possibilities of printing the presentations and putting them in
different formats.
 Interactive presentations engage your audience and encourage participation,
making your message more memorable and impactful. PowerPoint provides
interactivity, including quizzes, navigation bars, and other elements that viewers
can interact with.
 Discovered how to use high-level slide transitions and apply them in the process of
making transitions in the slides.
 Discussed the options of using the tools and options available to a presenter to
improve the presentation delivery process.
 Engaged in the use of collaborative technologies for teaming and collaborative
writing of presentations.

12.7 Keywords
 Animations: Animations in MS PowerPoint are visual effects that apply
movement or dynamic effects to text, objects, or even slides, creating interesting
and dynamic presentations.

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 Multimedia Elements: MS PowerPoint multimedia is a combination of media,
which may include pictures, video clips, audio, and animation, used in presentations
to make them attractive and informative.
 Slide Show: A slide show in MS PowerPoint is a series of slides arranged in a
specific format so that they are shown one after another. Animations, multimedia
objects, and transitions between the slides convey messages and information to the
audience.

12.8 Self-Assessment Questions

1. Summarize your experience with master slides in MS PowerPoint. In what way do
they manage to help in bringing out consistent presentation designs?
2. Describe a scenario where you used audio and video in your MS PowerPoint
presentations and how you used them.
3. Explain some of the sophisticated animations that you have applied on MS
PowerPoint in the event you were illustrating or trying to capture the attention of a
group of people.
4. Can you explain how to deliver a presentation in MS PowerPoint and how you can
manage it to make it more effective?

12.9 References / Reference Reading

 Lambert, James. Mastering Microsoft PowerPoint 2021: Tips and Tricks for Power
Users. New York: Tech Publishers, 2022.
 Sinha, Ramesh. Advanced PowerPoint 2021: Techniques for Creating Professional
Presentations. New Delhi: Prentice Hall India, 2023.
 Gupta, Neha. Interactive and Multimedia Presentations with PowerPoint.
Bangalore: Wiley India, 2022.

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 Unit 13: Database Management Systems (DBMS)

Learning Outcomes:
 Students will be able to define key concepts of database management systems.
 Students will be able to explain different types of databases.
 Students will be able to compare various database models.
 Students will be able to apply SQL basics in database manipulation.
 Students will be able to design databases based on fundamental principles.

Structure:
13.1 Introduction to DBMS
13.2 Types of Databases
 Knowledge Check 1
 Outcome-Based Activity 1
13.3 Database Models
13.4 SQL Basics and Applications
13.5 Database Design Principles
 Knowledge Check 2
 Outcome-Based Activity 2
13.6 Summary
13.7 Keywords
13.8 Self-Assessment Questions
13.9 References / Reference Reading

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13.1 Introduction to DBMS
A DBMS is a software system that provides the facilities for creating a database and
modifying and retrieving data from the created database. It offers a structure for
organising and accessing data competitively and efficiently that will enhance data
security and integrity. Here’s an overview of the key concepts and components of a
DBMS
1. What is a DBMS?
Definition: A DBMS is an application that communicates with end-users, other
applications, and the actual data storage to store and process data. It enables the storage,
access and manipulation of information in a well-formatted manner.
Examples: Some of the widely used DBMS software are MySQL, PostgreSQL, Oracle,
Microsoft SQL Server and SQLite.
2. Components of a DBMS
- Database Engine: The primary service used to get the data and use it according to
the requirements.
- Database Schema: This describes how the data is organised logically, such as tables,
fields, relationships, and constraints.
- Query Processor: Translates the query written in SQL (Structured Query Language)
and performs it.
- Transaction Management: Responsible for guaranteeing that all database
transactions are performed and are compliant with the ACID properties, which
include atomicity, consistency, isolation, and durability.
- Storage Management: Responsible for the storage of data on the disk space.
- Database Administration Tools: These tools help comprehend the state of an
unorganised database and assist with upkeep, tracking, and administration.
3. Functions of a DBMS
- Data Storage and Retrieval: Able to store huge amounts of data and retrieve the data
upon request within a short time.
- Data Manipulation: It supports data insertion, update, deletion, and querying
activities.
- Data Integrity: Maintains data validity and integrity through constraints as well as
validation rules.
- Data Security: Secures the data and takes precautions to prevent its leakage or
misuse by other people.

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- Backup and Recovery: They enable data backup and recovery to minimise data loss.
- Multi-User Access: This allows two or more users to use the database at a given
time without conflicting with each other while ensuring the integrity of the data
stored in the database.
4. Advantages of Using a DBMS
- Data Redundancy Reduction: Reduces data redundancy since data collected is
integrated into a single database.
- Data Sharing: Allows information to be accessed and transmitted by more than one
user and application.
- Data Integrity and Accuracy: It guarantees the data and its uniformity through
integrity constraints.
- Data Security: Safeguards data through the use of a username and password or any
other security measures that may be adopted.
- Scalability and Flexibility: Flexible enough to accommodate increased data and
changes in data demand or need.
- Efficient Data Access: Enhances the probability that data will be accessed as and
when it is required by creating indexes and efficient query processing.

13.2 Types of Databases

Databases themselves can be of different types, and they all are created to work with
certain types of data and applications. Knowledge of the various categories of databases
aids in choosing the most appropriate one for the intended use. Here’s an overview of
the major types of databases:
1. Relational Databases
Definition: Data in relational databases is stored in tables known as relations, which are
made up of rows and columns. They employ Structured Query Language (SQL) for
querying and manipulating data.
- Examples: MySQL, PostgreSQL, Oracle, Microsoft SQL Server and so on.
- Use Cases: Applicable for activities that involve comprehensive queries and
transactions, such as financial processing and ERP and CRM systems.
2. NoSQL Databases
Definition: SQL or NoSQL are a type of database that is capable of storing unstructured,
semi-structured data with a free-form concept.
Types:

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- Document Databases: Store data in JSON, BSON or XML documents such as
MongoDB or CouchDB.
- Key-Value Stores: Save data as a key-value pair, such as Redis or Amazon
DynamoDB.
- Column-Family Stores: Suggest storing data in columns rather than rows (e.g.,
Apache Cassandra, HBase).
- Graph Databases: Data should be stored in a graph model suitable for relations and
connections (Neo4j, ArangoDB, etc.).
- Use Cases: These are most suitable for applications that need to develop and grow,
analyse data in real-time, and work with a lot of unstructured data, including social
networks, IoT, and big data.
3. Object-Oriented Databases
Definition: Object-oriented databases are databases in which data is stored as objects,
mirroring the concept of objects used in object-oriented programming.
- Examples: ObjectDB, db4o, Versant.
- Use Cases: Applied in tasks that involve data modelling, for instance, computer-
aided design (CAD), multimedia, and scientific uses.

 Knowledge Check 1
Fill in the Blanks
1. Understanding ___________ is fundamental for managing large sets of
structured data. (database management)
2. Types of databases include relational, ___________, and object-oriented
databases. (NoSQL)
3. Database ___________ serve as blueprints for organising and structuring data
in DBMS. (schemas)
4. SQL, or Structured Query Language, is used for ___________ and managing
databases. (querying)

 Outcome-Based Activity 1
In groups, research and prepare presentations on different types of databases
(relational, NoSQL, hierarchical, object-oriented).
13.3 Database Models

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Database models define the logical structure and organisation of data in a database
management system (DBMS). They provide a framework for how data is stored,
organised, and manipulated. Here are the main types of database models:
1. Hierarchical Model
Structure: Organises data in a tree-like structure with a single root and multiple levels
of child records. Each child has only one parent.
Advantages:
- Simple to design and understand.
- Efficient for hierarchical data relationships, like organisational charts.
Disadvantages:
- Limited flexibility due to rigid structure.
- Difficult to reorganise and maintain.
Example Use Case: File systems and organisational structures.
2. Network Model
Structure: Similar to the hierarchical model, it allows multiple parent-child
relationships, forming a graph-like structure.
Advantages:
- More flexible than the hierarchical model.
- Efficient for representing complex relationships.
Disadvantages:
- More complex to design and manage.
- Requires navigational queries.
Example Use Case: Telecommunications and transport networks.
3. Relational Model
Structure: Organises data into tables (relations) with rows and columns. Tables are
linked using foreign keys.
Advantages:
- High flexibility and simplicity.
- Powerful query capabilities using SQL.
- Strong theoretical foundation ensuring data integrity and consistency.
Disadvantages:
- Performance can degrade with very large datasets or complex queries.
- Requires careful design to avoid redundancy and ensure normalisation.

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- Example Use Case: Enterprise applications, financial systems, and e-commerce
platforms.
4. Entity-Relationship Model (ER Model)
Structure: This uses entities (objects) and relationships to represent data. It is often used
in the database design phase to create a conceptual blueprint.
Advantages:
- Intuitive and easy to understand.
- Provides a clear visualisation of data relationships.
Disadvantages:
- Not directly implementable in a DBMS.
- Requires translation to a relational model for implementation.
- Example Use Case: Database design and planning.

13.4 SQL Basics and Applications

Definition: SQL is a standardised language used to communicate with relational
databases.
Functions: SQL is used to create and modify database structures, insert, update, and
delete data, and retrieve data from the database.
1. SQL Syntax
- SQL statements are composed of clauses, expressions, and predicates written in a
declarative form.
- SQL keywords are case-insensitive, but it’s common practice to write them in
uppercase.
2. Data Definition Language (DDL)
DDL commands are used to define and modify the structure of the database and
database objects.
CREATE: This operation creates a new table, database, index, or view.
SQL
CREATE TABLE Employees (
EmployeeID INT PRIMARY KEY,
FirstName VARCHAR(50),
LastName VARCHAR(50),
BirthDate DATE
);

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- ALTER: Alters an existing database object, including a table.
SQL
ALTER TABLE Employees
ADD Email VARCHAR(100);

- DROP: Removes an object from a database, provided that it exists in the database.
SQL
DROP TABLE Employees;

3. Data Manipulation Language (DML)

DML commands are those commands that are used to modify the data stored in
databases.
- INSERT: used to insert new records into the table.
SQL
INSERT INTO Employees (EmployeeID, FirstName, LastName, BirthDate)
VALUES (1, 'John', 'Doe', '1980-01-01');

- SELECT: Used to search for data in one or more tables.

SQL
SELECT FirstName, LastName
FROM Employees
WHERE BirthDate > '1980-01-01';
- UPDATE: Update information within a table, that is, change certain record values to
their new ones.
SQL
UPDATE Employees
SET Email = '[email protected]'
WHERE EmployeeID = 1;

- DELETE: Avoids a table by deleting rows from it.

SQL
DELETE FROM Employees
WHERE EmployeeID = 1;

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4. Data Control Language (DCL)
Security control commands are issued through DCL to regulate data access in the
database.
- GRANT: Allows a user to do something specific.
SQL
GRANT SELECT, INSERT ON Employees TO ‘user_name’;

- REVOKE: Revoke the permission from a user.

SQL
REVOKE INSERT ON Emps FROM user_name; SQL
GRANT SELECT, INSERT ON Employees TO user_name
Applications
SQL is commonly used in numerous applications in different fields for the
administration and manipulation of Relational Database Management Systems. Here
are some common applications of SQL:
1. Web Development:
- Database Integration: SQL is employed for storing and accessing data in databases,
and it runs many dynamic web applications. Django, Ruby on Rails, Laravel, and
many other web frameworks use SQL for database operations.
- Content Management Systems (CMS): SQL databases store content on websites
that let users build, modify, and manage websites and articles.
2. Business Intelligence (BI):
- Data Analysis: SQL can be used to pull data from big data sources, perform analysis,
and make business decisions based on the results of the analysis.
- Data Warehousing: One possible application is data warehouse management, where
SQL is used to build the structures and manage the collected data and its sources
for analysis and reporting.
3. E-commerce:
- Inventory Management: SQL databases are used to keep records of products,
control stock levels, and process orders and transactions in e-commerce systems.
- Customer Relationship Management (CRM): SQL databases are useful for storing
customer data, purchase data, and interactions, especially in marketing and
customer support.

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4. Finance and Banking:
- Accounting: SQL databases handle financial transactions, keep records of
expenditures, and prepare the accountants’ financial statements.
- Online Banking: User accounts, transactions, and balance inquiries are managed in
online banking systems by SQL databases.
5. Healthcare:
- Electronic Health Records (EHR): In health care systems, SQL databases help in
storing patients’ details, their records, and treatment details.
- Medical Research: SQL queries use medical data to analyse trends, patterns, or
correlations required in medical research and clinical studies.

13.5 Database Design Principles

The principles of databases are very important when it comes to designing databases
that can be very efficient and scalable, and that can be trusted. The principles help
database architects and developers to organise data according to the needs of companies
and their further usage, availability, and manageability. Here are the key principles of
database design:
1. Understand the Requirements
Therefore, it is necessary to know the business requirements, such as the data that will
be stored, how the data will be used, and the kinds of queries to be done ahead of the
design. This way, the database will always be able to handle all the required operations
and functions.
2. Normalisation
Normalisation is a process of structuring the data to reduce redundancy and increase
the data quality. This involves partitioning a database into tables as well as establishing
connections between those tables. The main normal forms (1NF, 2NF, 3NF, and BCNF)
regulate this process and have particular rules that help to eliminate the redundancy of
data and to distinguish dependencies.
3. Application of Primary and Foreign Keys
Primary keys define a unique column for each record in a table so that every entry in a
table can be located and accessed individually. Foreign keys are used to set some
constraints on tables to make sure that a value in one table matches a value in another
table.
4. Efficient Indexing
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Indexes are employed to enhance the rate at which data retrieval operations are
conducted. They also serve the purpose of the index in a book such that the database
can locate the data without searching the entire table. However, excessive indexes
hinder the execution of data modification operations and, therefore, the need to balance
it to achieve the best results.
5. Data Integrity
Data integrity means the quality aspect of data that revolves around the accuracy and
comprehensiveness of data throughout its life cycle. This involves the use of constraints
that include NOT NULL, UNIQUE, CHECK and FOREIGN KEY constraints to ensure
business rules and data validation rules are observed at the database level.

 Knowledge Check 2
Fill in the Blanks
1. The principles of database design help to make the __________ convenient to
store and access data. (efficient)
2. In DBMS, data is organised into tables with rows and ___________. (columns)
3. Depending on the requirements, different forms of databases are available, like
___________ databases for multimedia data. (multimedia)
4. It is important to know database models such as the hierarchical model and the
network model for ___________. (structures and relationships)
 Outcome-Based Activity 2
Divide into groups of 2 and proceed through the SQL query practice on a sample
database schema. Generate statements for selecting records, creating new records,
modifying records and deleting undesirable records.

13.6 Summary
 Discussed the concepts and significance of DBMS in the aspect of efficient storage
and organisation of information.
 I understood the concept of the database and various forms of, such as relational,
NoSQL, hierarchical, and other forms, as well as the circumstances in which they
can be applied.

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 Database models define data's logical structure and organisation in a database
management system (DBMS). They provide a framework for how data is stored,
organised, and manipulated.
 Acquired knowledge of SQL to work with databases, manipulate data, and manage
the objects of a database. SQL is a standardised language used to communicate with
relational databases.
 Understood concepts of database design for creating sustainable, high-performing
databases.
 SQL is commonly used in numerous applications in different fields for the
administration and manipulation of Relational Database Management Systems.
Here are some common applications of SQL: Web Development, Business
Intelligence (BI), E-commerce, etc.
 Normalisation is a process of structuring the data to reduce redundancy and increase
the data quality. This involves partitioning a database into tables as well as
establishing connections between those tables. Studied the proportion of
normalisation and its use in database design to minimise data repetition. I also
Learned about the methods for indexing and optimisation of the databases and
queries for faster access to the queries.
 As part of Security and Authorisations, we have understood the procedures of
security and authorisation to prevent unauthorised access to databases and maintain
confidentiality.

13.7 Keywords
 DBMS: DBMS is a system that provides interfaces to the end user, applications,
and the database to retrieve/store/ process information.
 NoSQL Databases: NoSQL (Not Only Structured Query Language) is a type of
database used to store data that is unstructured or semi-structured and has a nonfixed
structure.
 SQL: SQL is an international standard used to interface with Relational Database
Management Systems.
13.8 Self-Assessment Questions

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1. What is the function of a database management system (DBMS) in the organisation
and proper management of data? Also, how does it differ from traditional file-based
systems?
2. What are the differences between Relational and NoSQL databases and their use
cases?
3. Take a moment to describe other forms of database models with examples such as
the hierarchical, network and relational types. When, where, and why might you
choose one model over the other?
4. Explain why SQL is relevant in the communication process with databases. Would
you mind giving an example of how one can practically apply SQL?
5. Explain the major concepts of proper database design and how such concepts
facilitate the effectiveness and accuracy of a database.

13.9 References / Reference Reading

 Elmasri, Ramez, and Shamkant B. Navathe. Fundamentals of Database Systems.
7th ed., Pearson, 2016.
 Silberschatz, Abraham, Henry F. Korth, and S. Sudarshan. Database System
Concepts. 7th ed., McGraw-Hill Education, 2019.
 Date, C. J. An Introduction to Database Systems. 8th ed., Pearson Education India,
2019.
 Ramakrishnan, Raghu, and Johannes Gehrke. Database Management Systems. 3rd
ed., McGraw-Hill, 2003.
 Desai, Bipin C. An Introduction to Database Systems. Galgotia Publications, 2012.

Unit 14: Cybersecurity and Data Protection

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Learning Outcomes:
 Students will be able to define fundamental cybersecurity concepts.
 Students will be able to explain common cyber threats and attacks.
 Students will be able to identify data protection techniques.
 Students will be able to apply best practices in cybersecurity.
 Students will be able to evaluate legal and ethical issues in cybersecurity.

Structure:
14.1 Introduction to Cybersecurity
14.2 Common Cyber Threats and Attacks
 Knowledge Check 1
 Outcome-Based Activity 1
14.3 Data Protection Techniques
14.4 Best Practices in Cybersecurity
14.5 Legal and Ethical Issues in Cybersecurity
 Knowledge Check 2
 Outcome-Based Activity 2
14.6 Summary
14.7 Keywords
14.8 Self-Assessment Questions
14.9 References / Reference Reading

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14.1 Introduction to Cybersecurity
Cybersecurity is the process of safeguarding computers, servers, mobile devices,
electronic systems, networks, and data from malicious attacks, digital invasions, cyber
threats, and other cyber dangers. It covers a broad area involving all the technologies,
methods, and activities used to protect data and information from unauthorised access.
Here's an overview of key concepts and components of cybersecurity:
# 1. Cyber Threats
Definition: Cyber threats, on the other hand, refer to possible risks and risk factors that
can threaten the security of online resources.
Types of Threats:
- Malware: Computer programs with malicious intent to harm or infiltrate computer
systems (for instance, viruses, ransomware, and spyware).
- Phishing: Phishing, vishing, smishing, etc.; cyber attacks that involve deception,
such as impersonation, to get the targeted victim to divulge sensitive information
like passwords or financial information.
- SQL - Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS): A technique used to inundate a
network or a system with traffic, making it almost impossible to use for legitimate
purposes.
- Insider Threats: Threats resulting from malicious insiders, users who exploit their
authorised permissions to compromise an organisation’s assets or those with ill
intentions towards the company.
- Advanced Persistent Threats (APTs): Advanced and strategic types of attacks that
professional attackers normally conduct with the intention of gaining access to
high-worth targets.
# 2. Cybersecurity Principles
- Confidentiality: ensuring that only authorised personnel or organisations can access
specific information.
- Integrity: Protecting the integrity of a set of data and a system by inhibiting
improper change by an unauthorised individual.
- Availability: Ensure that the systems, services, and data are always available and up
and running as and when required.
- Authentication: Authentication as an aspect of access control is the process of
confirming the identity of the users, devices, or entities seeking to gain access to
the resources.

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- Authorisation: Assigning the right level of permissions and access rights to the users
who are authenticated and should perform specific tasks.
- Non-Repudiation: Eliminating the possibility of people denying certain actions or
certain transactions that took place.

14.2 Common Cyber Threats and Attacks

Basic Forms of Cyber Threats and Assaults
These threats are real and present a very grave danger to anyone who uses computers
and the internet or is in any way connected to the digital world. These threats take
advantage of the weak points in the computers, networks, and people to steal, damage,
or gain control of information and negatively affect the business financially or
otherwise. Here are some of the most prevalent cyber threats:
1. Malware
Definition: Malware is a shortened term for malicious software, which is a program
designed to cause harm and exploit computers, networks, and devices.
Types:
- Viruses: Those that copy themselves and spread to other files or other systems.
- Trojans: Applications that look otherwise are actually designed to perform some
nasty activities when run.
- Ransomware: A type of software that hides or secures files or the operating system
and then requests money for the files to be unlocked or the system to be unfrozen.
2. Phishing
Definition: Phishing is a form of social engineering in which people are sent messages
or directed to websites that mimic the look and feel of legitimate organisations. The
websites then entice people to reveal personal information such as passwords, credit
card numbers, or other personal details.
Types:
- Email Phishing: Phishing emails that require the receiver to send cash, credit card
numbers, passwords or other personal information to fake businesses or persons.
- Pharming: Phishing websites or Domain Name Systems (DNS) that take users to
fake websites to enter their login details or credit card details.
- Impact: phishing can result in identity theft, financial loss, unauthorised access to
other accounts, and damage to reputation.
3. Other attacks include Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS).
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Definition: They overwhelm a target system, network, or service with a large amount
of traffic or requests, making it unavailable to genuine users.
Types:
- Volumetric Attacks: Overloads the target with a huge traffic load, putting pressure
on the network resources.
- Protocol Attacks: Uses vulnerabilities in protocols like the TCP/IP to interfere with
communication between the devices.
- Application Layer Attacks: Floods specific applications or services with malicious
requests/traffic to overwhelm them.
- Impact: DDoS attacks can interrupt the normal use of various online services,
leading to unavailability and slowness and, in the long run, losses for firms.
 Cyber Attacks
Cyber crimes refer to unscrupulous acts aimed at creating weaknesses in computers,
computer networks, and the conduct of people. These attacks are executed to obtain
confidential information to complicate the company’s functioning or to seek economic
or image losses. Here are some of the most prevalent types of cyber attacks:
1. Malware Attacks
Definition: Malware attacks are instances where an attacker uses a virus or other
malicious code to disrupt the functionality of computers, networks, or other devices.
Types:
- Viruses: A computer virus that must be run by the user and copies itself into other
files or systems.
- Worms: A type of virus that can initiate itself on networks without the user’s
approval, and it infects computers by targeting software flaws.
- Trojans: Viruses are programs that are embedded in other programs and are capable
of running on their own with the intention of causing harm.
- Ransomware: A virus that locks an operating system or encrypts files and then asks
for an amount to be paid to unlock or decrypt the item.
- Impact: The risks of malware attacks involve loss of data, time, money as well as
reputation.

2. Phishing Attacks

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Definition: Phishing scams employ fake emails, messages, or websites to obtain
personal information from a user, such as a password, credit card number, or identity
number.
Types:
- Email Phishing: Phishing emails is an act in which fake emails are created in the
name of an organisation or a competent personality in an effort to deceive the
recipients.
- Spear Phishing: A phishing attack is targeted at certain persons or companies and
launched using information that can convince the targeted persons.
- Pharming: Fraud sites or fake DNS attacks lead users to phoney sites where they
can enter their credentials or monetary details.
- Impact: The losses arising from phishing include identity theft, financial losses,
unauthorised access to accounts, and damaging corporate image.
3. Distributed Denial Of Service (DDoS) Attacks
Definition: During a DDoS attack, the attacker sends a large number of requests or
traffic to the target system, network or service, preventing valid users from getting
through.
Types:
- Volumetric Attacks: Flood targets with high traffic volumes that put a lot of pressure
on the program's resources.
- Protocol Attacks: Takes advantage of vulnerabilities in the TCP/IP protocol to
interfere with the transmission of information between connected systems.
- Application Layer Attacks: These attacks target certain applications or services,
flooding them with requests and creating a denial of service.
- Impact: These attacks can interrupt normal operations of online services, bring
websites and/or services down, slow down performance, and cost money.

 Knowledge Check 1
Fill in the Blanks
1. Speaking about cybersecurity basics, it is necessary to mention that it deals with
the protection of ___________ and other pertinent data. (networks)
2. Other threats and cyber attacks range from ___________ and phishing.
(malware)

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 3. Methods of data protection include encryption and ____________ to protect the
data from tampering. (integrity checks)
4. Some of the strategies that are considered to be effective in cybersecurity are
____________ and training of employees. (software update)
 Outcome-Based Activity 1
List down frequent types of cyber threats and attacks like viruses, phishing, and
ransomware. Explain how they work, what effects they have, and how they can be
prevented.

14.3 Data Protection Techniques

1. Encryption
Definition: Encryption, on the other hand, is the conversion of plain text data into
cypher text using cryptographic algorithms and keys to make the data indecipherable
by those who are not supposed to access it.
Types:
- Symmetric Encryption: Works with the same key and is good for encrypting data
that will be stored in the database or other storage means.
- Asymmetric Encryption Uses both a public and a private key to encrypt and decrypt
messages, which is useful in secure communication and key exchange.
- Applications: Protection of data in the form of files, databases, communication, and
media storage and preventing unauthorised access.
2. Access Controls
Definition: Controls limit and monitor users’ access rights to data and resources in
accordance with their identities, functions, and authorities.
Techniques:
- Authentication: Confirming the legitimacy of users using credentials such as
passwords, fingerprints, or token credentials.
- Authorisation: Providing specific access to the application for credentialed users
based on their roles in the organisations.
- Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA): This method forces users to provide multiple
individual checkpoints to gain access to certain data or applications.

3. Data Backup and Recovery

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Definition: Data backup and recovery refer to the processes of creating duplicates of
vital data and their storage for quick accessibility and protection from loss or damage.
Techniques:
- Regular Backups: Automated or periodic copies of data to secondary storage media
or cloud storage.
- Incremental and Differential Backups: Saving updated data or new data only for the
backup since a backup can take time and space, especially if it was done a long time
ago.
- Offsite and Cloud Backup: Having multiple copies at sites in different geographical
regions or on the cloud for business recovery or continuity.
- Applications: Preserving against data loss resulting from hardware failure, floods,
viruses or hackers, or deletion by an employee.

14.4 Best Practices of CyberSecurity

Cyber security guidelines are very crucial in safeguarding systems, networks, and data
against cyber threats and attacks. These practices incorporate a variety of measures,
including preventive measures, security controls, and tactics that are employed to
minimise risks and develop a good security system. Here are some key best practices
in cybersecurity: Here are some key best practices in cybersecurity:
1. User Education and Awareness
- Training Programs: It is also important to conduct periodic training sessions and
create awareness among the employees regarding the common threats, phishing
attacks, and security measures.
- Policy Enforcement: Security policies, guidelines, and acceptable use of IT systems
should be set and complied with to reduce security incidents.
2. Patch Management
- Regular Updates: The patch management best practice should be followed to ensure
that all operating systems, software, and firmware are updated with the latest
patches and fixes to known vulnerabilities.
- Vulnerability Scanning: Perform vulnerability assessments and scans to know
which vulnerabilities are suitable for addressing and fixing.

3. Access Controls
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- Least Privilege: Follow the principle of least privilege, which limits user privileges
to what is needed to complete the user’s task by barring them from having excessive
permissions that may lead to vulnerabilities if compromised.
- Strong Authentication: Use MFA methods to ensure that the user and the device are
real and not fake by stepping up beyond the use of passwords.
4. Network Security
- Firewalls: Secure the system by installing firewalls and intrusion
detection/prevention systems (IDS/IPS) to filter traffic and prevent unauthorised
traffic access in the networks.
- Segmentation: Segment networks into different zones or subnets according to the
level of security needed to prevent breaches and minimize attacker movement.
5. Data Encryption
- Data Protection: Proper data encryption methods can be employed to protect data
both at rest and in motion so that even with a breach, the information will remain
safe.
- Secure Communication: Implement the use of TLS/SSL to ensure the transfer of
data over the network, especially when dealing with essential information such as
money transactions or personal information.

14.5 Legal and Ethical Issues in Cybersecurity

Cybersecurity legal and ethical concerns are important in establishing the aspects of
risks that surround information security and what roles are played. Hence, it is crucial
to fix these problems for organisations, governments, and people as cyber threats
increase in number and complexity. Here are some of the key legal and ethical
considerations in cybersecurity: Here are some of the key legal and ethical
considerations in cybersecurity:
 Legal Issues in Cybersecurity
1. Data Protection & Privacy Laws
- General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR): The GDPR regulates data protection
and privacy in the EU and has rigorous provisions for handling PD.
- California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA): Like the GDPR, the CCPA offers several
rights to California residents concerning their personal information and data: the
right to know and the right to delete.
2. Compliance Requirements
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- Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA): HIPAA sets
requirements for safeguarding health-related data in the United States of America.
- Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS): PCI DSS is a security
benchmark for companies that handle credit card information.
3. Intellectual Property Rights
- IP in the digital world translates to the safety of business inventions, written and
artistic creations, and innovations against cyber theft and subsequent use without
the owner’s permission.
4. Cybercrime Legislation
- Different legislations relate to cybercrimes, including hacking, identity theft, and
malware spreading. One such legislation is the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act
(CFAA) in the United States of America.
 Ethical Issues in Cybersecurity
1. Privacy vs. Security
- This work identifies one of the major ethical issues: how to foster security without
infringing on people’s right to privacy. Protection precautions, including
surveillance and data gathering, are involved in privacy violations.
2. Ethical Hacking
- White hat hackers are people who perform hacking for the purpose of determining
the weaknesses in the security systems and helping in their rectification. However,
they should work legally and should have the necessary permissions to do so.
3. Responsibility to Disclose Vulnerabilities
- There are moral questions as to when and how one should report the identified
vulnerabilities. If reported within a Short time, it can expose systems to attacks;
however, delayed disclosure can put users at risk.
4. Cybersecurity and Discrimination
- The measures that should be taken to ensure cybersecurity should not be
discriminative in any way. For example, surveillance cannot be in a way that
discriminates against certain people based on their race, ethnicity, etc.
This aims at establishing a balance of legal and ethical concerns.
- Developing Comprehensive Policies: Designing policies that conform to the laws
and legal regulations and sticking to the right ethical principles.
- Promoting a Culture of Ethics: Promoting or enhancing ethical conduct and/or
ethical management in organisations.
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- Continuous Training: Informing cybersecurity specialists about changes in the laws
and the ethical aspects.
- Stakeholder Engagement: Engaging a broad number of actors in the communication
concerning cybersecurity measures and strategies.
When legal aspects are dealt with alongside ethical ones, organisations can establish
trustful relationships, secure their data, and be part of creating a safer environment
online.

 Knowledge Check 2
Fill in the Blanks
1. The legal and ethical issues in cybersecurity are defined by ___________ and
privacy. (regulations)
2. Multi-factor authentication enhances _____________ to an organisation’s
computer networks and information. (security)
3. Data ___________ and backups are necessary for the process of countering
cyber threats. (encryption)
4. Cybersecurity policies and procedures’ main goal is to ___________ and
manage potential risks and weaknesses. (mitigate)

 Outcome-Based Activity 2
Research cybersecurity laws and regulations such as GDPR, HIPAA, and PCI DSS.
Divide the class into teams and assign each team a specific law or regulation to
debate its importance and effectiveness in protecting individuals' privacy and
organisations' data.

14.6 Summary
 Acquired knowledge about cybersecurity ideas and threats and recognised the risks
associated with them. Cybersecurity is the process of safeguarding computers,
servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, networks, and data from malicious
attacks, digital invasions, cyber threats, and other cyber dangers.
 Cyber threats, on the other hand, refer to possible risks and risk factors that can
threaten the security of online resources. Typical cyber threats include malware,
phishing, ransomware, etc., and their effects.

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 Phishing is a form of social engineering where by people are sent messages or
directed to websites that mimic the look and feel of legitimate organisations and
then entice people to reveal personal information such as passwords, credit card
numbers, or other personal details.
 Encryption, on the other hand, is the conversion of plain text data into cypher text
using cryptographic algorithms and keys to make the data indecipherable by those
who are not supposed to access it.
 Cyber security guidelines are crucial in safeguarding systems, networks, and data
against cyber threats and attacks. These practices incorporate a variety of measures,
including preventive and security controls.
 Cybersecurity legal and ethical concerns are important in establishing the risks
surrounding information security and the roles played. Hence, it is crucial to fix
these problems for organisations, governments, and people as cyber threats increase
in number and complexity.

14.7 Keywords
 Cybersecurity: It is defined as the protection of computer systems, networks and
their associated data against unauthorised access, attack and malfunction.
 Malware: This is a term for malicious software designed to harm or exploit
computers, networks, and devices.
 Data Loss Prevention: Data Loss Prevention (DLP) solutions involve products that
identify and control the transfer of confidential information over the network, on
the endpoints, and in storage devices.

14.8 Self-Assessment Questions

1. What measures can persons and companies take to avoid or prevent usual threats
and cyber-attacks?
2. List some of the measures that one or any organisation can take in order to improve
the security of their systems.
3. some legal and ethical issues should be taken into consideration when deploying
security measures for cyberspace.
4. In what ways do cybersecurity awareness and training programs assist in decreasing
security threats and cultivating a security mindset in an organisation?

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14.9 References / Reference Reading
 Jangra, Sameer, et al. Cyber Security and Ethical Hacking. BPB Publications, 2021.
 Kumar, R.K. Shiroor, and Sameer Hiremath. Cyber Security & Cyber Laws.
Dreamtech Press, 2022.
 Singh, Brij B., et al. Cybersecurity and Cyberwar: What Everyone Needs to Know.
Oxford University Press, 2022.
 Subramanian, Ramesh. Information Security: Principles and Practice. Pearson
Education, 2021.

Unit 15: Cloud Computing

Learning Outcomes:
 Students will be able to define cloud computing.
 Students will be able to explain types of cloud services (IaaS, PaaS, SaaS).
 Students will be able to identify the benefits and challenges of cloud computing.

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 Students will be able to apply cloud computing applications.
 Students will be able to assess cloud security and compliance issues.

Structure:
15.1 Introduction to Cloud Computing
15.2 Types of Cloud Services (IaaS, PaaS, SaaS)
 Knowledge Check 1
 Outcome-Based Activity 1
15.3 Benefits and Challenges of Cloud Computing
15.4 Applications of Cloud Computing
15.5 Cloud Security and Compliance
 Knowledge Check 2
 Outcome-Based Activity 2
15.6 Summary
15.7 Keywords
15.8 Self-Assessment Questions
15.9 References / Reference Reading

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15.1 Introduction to Cloud Computing
Cloud computing is an innovative model in the sphere of information technologies that
has evolved the use of computing resources by companies and people. In its essence,
cloud computing means that a large number of services, including servers, storage,
databases, networks, applications, analytics, and even intelligence, are provided
through the Internet, or ‘the cloud’.
1. # What Is Cloud Computing?
Cloud computing allows users to freely access and use data and applications through
servers that are not in their local systems or local organisation servers. This leads to
better flexibility, scalability, and utilisation of IT resources to support organisational
goals and objectives. Cloud services are mainly provided by third-party vendors,
including Amazon Web Services (AWS), Microsoft Azure, and Google Cloud Platform,
who are responsible for the backend support.
# Key Characteristics of Cloud Computing
1. On-Demand Self-Service: The computing resources can be provisioned by the users
in an automated manner, so the service provider does not need to get involved.
2. Broad Network Access: Cloud services can be accessed from almost any Internet-
enabled computing device, including laptops, mobile phones, tablets and more.
3. Resource Pooling: Cloud providers employ the multi-tenant model, where they
share the customer’s application, data, and storage on the same physical
infrastructure, though on a virtual basis based on usage.
4. Rapid Elasticity: The use of cloud services enables applications to increase and
reduce their capabilities to meet the demands of customers, making them seem
endless.
5. Measured Service: Cloud systems self-manage and self-optimise resource
consumption using a metering function that permits visibility and billing.
Deployment Models in Cloud Computing
1. Public Cloud: Services are accessed and utilised over the Internet, and different
organisations use them. For instance, there is AWS and Microsoft Azure.
2. Private Cloud: This is because services are run on a private network, which is
preferred in business organisations that have unique regulatory or security demands.
3. Hybrid Cloud: Integrates both the public and the private cloud, where the data and
the applications can be transferred from one to the other. This gives more flexibility
and utilisation of the existing structures, security, and compliance.

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4. Community Cloud: This is consumed by several organisations and enables a
specific group with similar needs, such as compliance needs. The organisations or
a third party can administer it.
The following are the benefits of cloud computing;
1. Cost Efficiency: Pay-as-you-go financing eliminates the need to purchase capital
equipment such as computers, other hardware, and software applications. This
means you only pay for what you receive.
2. Scalability: When needs increase or decrease, the system can be quickly adjusted
without incurring major costs in physical structures.

15.2 Types of Cloud Services (IaaS, PaaS, SaaS)

Cloud computing is typically divided into three main service models. For this
application, there are three main categories of cloud computing services: Infrastructure
as a Service (IaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS), and Software as a Service (SaaS). In
this way, all the models present various degrees of control, flexibility, and management.
Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)
aaS offers computing infrastructure through the internet in a virtual manner. This model
enables users to hire infrastructure items like servers, storage, and networks in a usage-
based model. It is suitable for organisations that require frequent expansions to their
systems since they can easily provide this without having to invest in physical
equipment.
Examples:
- Amazon Web Services (AWS) EC2: Presents the ability to obtain varying amounts
of computing resources in the cloud.
- Google Compute Engine: Offers virtual machines hosted in Google’s data centres.
- Microsoft Azure Virtual Machines: Makes it possible for users to run and control
virtual machines in the cloud.

Benefits:
- Scalability: It is easy to expand or reduce the home business depending on the flow
of customers in the market.
- Cost-Efficiency: Do not pay for the utilities that have not been consumed.

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- Flexibility: Select the OS and application software as well as the hardware
requirements and set-up.
Platform as a Service
PaaS provides hardware and software solutions through the Internet, mainly for
application development. This model offers a foundation that enables developers to
develop, test, and deploy applications without having to deal with physical hardware.
PaaS is ideal for developers in that they do not have to worry about the physical aspects
of building development, only the applications.
Examples:
- Microsoft Azure App Services: It provides the opportunity to create and deploy web
applications.
- Google App Engine: Enables developers to write and run their code within Google’s
environment.
- Heroku: A multi-linguage multi-framework cloud platform.
Benefits:
- Development Speed: Create and deploy applications fast.
- Reduced Complexity: Emphasis on construction for development without having to
consider the frameworks.
- Integration: They can easily be integrated with different other databases as well as
development tools.
># SaaS – Software as a Service
SaaS involves licensing software applications to customers on a subscription basis over
the Internet. This model enables users to use the software from any device with internet
connectivity. The service provider is involved with the maintenance of the servers, the
software, and security. SaaS can be considered most suitable for businesses that seek to
implement their software solutions rapidly.
Examples:
- Google Workspace: Some of the G-suites are Gmail, Google Docs, and Google
Drive.
- Salesforce: A case for a customer relationship management (CRM) system.
- Microsoft Office 365: Assists in gaining access to Microsoft Office Suite: Word,
Excel, and PowerPoint through the internet.
Benefits:

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- Accessibility: The user can access the applications by logging into the system from
any location with an internet connection.
- Automatic Updates: Never use a software version that does not have automatic
updates installed.
- Cost-Effective: Lower the initial investment amount possible through subscription-
based pricing.

 Knowledge Check 1
Fill in the Blanks
1. This module on introduction to cloud computing defines the provisioning of on-
demand __________. (computing resources.)
2. Categories of cloud services are infrastructure as a service (IaaS), platform as a
service (PaaS), and __________. (software as a service (SaaS))
3. Facets of cloud computing include ___________ scalability and cost
advantages. (elastic)
4. Cloud computing finds its use in ____________ storage to software
development. (data)

 Outcome-Based Activity 1
Explain the Types of Cloud Services and their advantages in the classroom.

15.3 Benefits and Challenges of Cloud Computing

Cloud computing has many benefits; therefore, it is possible to conclude that it is
beneficial for every business and its employees. Yet, it also has some peculiarities that
should be taken into account as they may pose some problems.
# Benefits of Cloud Computing
1. Cost Efficiency: Lower Initial Costs: Companies can avoid hardware and software
purchase costs, the establishment of internal data centres, and their operating
expenses.
2. Scalability: Scalability means Increasing or decreasing resource use depending on
the need in order to use the resources efficiently.
3. Flexibility—Remote Access: Employees can work from anywhere with an internet
connection, which encourages telecommuting and information sharing.

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4. Disaster Recovery—Robust Backup Solutions: Backup and disaster recovery are
important for preserving business process integrity in the case of data loss or system
failures.
5. Automatic Updates - Latest Technology: Cloud service providers often upgrade the
systems with current technologies and security firms and patches.
Challenges Of Cloud Computing
1. Security and Privacy:
- Data Breaches: Off-premises storage of data exposes it to potential attacks from
hackers and any other unauthorised personnel.
- Compliance: Data compliance, which relates to compliance with regulatory
standards and standards that apply to a specific industry.
2. Downtime and Reliability:
- Service Outages: Cloud services are generally susceptible to outages and downtime,
which are unbeneficial for businesses.
- Dependency on the Internet: A stable Internet connection is critical for service
delivery, especially for cloud services.
3. Cost Management:
- Unexpected Costs: Though cloud computing reduces capital expenses, the variable
cost can be very high if not controlled.
- Billing Complexity: Cloud service billing can also be complicated and
overwhelming when there are various services and providers to deal with.
4. Vendor Lock-In:
- Limited Portability: Cloud migration can be difficult because data and applications
must be compatible and interoperable between cloud service providers.
- Dependence on a Single Provider: The problem is that using one provider can be
problematic if the provider’s terms have been changed or if there are service
interruptions.

5. Performance and Latency:

- Latency Issues: Where real-time processing is needed, there is likely to be a delay,
especially where the data centres are far from the user.
- Bandwidth Limitations: Restricted bandwidth is a disadvantage because it
influences cloud applications' functioning, especially when one is in an area with a
slow internet connection.

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15.4 Applications of Cloud Computing
Cloud computing has been used in several industries and has brought new ideas and
improvements to flexible, scalable, and accessible solutions. Here are some of the key
applications of cloud computing across different sectors:
# 1. Data Storage and Backup
- Scalable Storage Solutions: Some of the cloud storage services include Amazon S3,
Google Cloud Storage, and Microsoft Azure Blob Storage for data storage with a
flexible and dependable design.
- Automated Backups: Automatic backup systems should be implemented so as to
ensure that the data is recoverable after such mishaps as hardware breakdowns or
other calamities.
# 2. Disaster Recovery
- Cost-Effective Recovery Plans: Disaster recovery solutions that are deployed in the
cloud are relatively cheaper and more efficient ways of performing data recovery
and continuity.
- Reduced Downtime: AWS Disaster Recovery and Azure Site Recovery are some of
the methods that make it possible to reduce downtime since the data and application
are replicated in real-time.
# 3. Software Development and Testing
- Development Environments: AWS Elastic Beanstalk, Google App Engine, and
Azure DevOps are examples of platforms that allow and enhance the development
environments for the software development life cycle.
- Collaboration Tools: These allow users to work in real time and share code and
projects to improve teamwork and productivity.

# 4. Big Data Analytics

- Data Processing: Hadoop, Hive, AWS Redshift, Google BigQuery, and Azure
Synapse Analytics are some of the most effective platforms and tools for analysing
big data.
- Real-Time Analytics: Cloud services contain all the necessities for real-time data
analysis, which is useful when daily business decisions are made.

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# 5. Automated Intelligence and Machine Learning
- AI and ML Services: AWS offers services such as AWS SageMaker, Google offers
Google AI Platform, and Microsoft offers Azure Machine Learning for the
development, training, and use of machine learning models.
- Natural Language Processing (NLP): Tools like Google Cloud Natural Language
API and AWS Comprehend are available services that offer NLP abilities such as
sentiment analysis, text classification and others.

15.5 Cloud Security and Compliance

The need for security and compliance in the cloud environment has become essential
this year as more organisations adopt cloud computing services. Cloud security aims to
safeguard data, applications, and services against threats and malicious attacks, while
compliance relates to the legal requirements that need to be met in a certain business.
# Cloud Security
1. Data Protection:
- Encryption: This also means that data has to be encrypted during transfer and stored
in different mediums. This will guarantee that in the event that data is captured or
accessed by an unauthorised person, it will still be in an unreadable format.
- Access Controls: Strengthening measures like MFA and RBAC safeguard data from
being accessed by unauthorised people.
2. Identity and Access Management (IAM):
- User Authentication: Security mechanisms of authentication allow only permitted
users to access cloud resources.
- User Authorisation: Authorisation policies specify which assets a subject can use
and what operations can be done on them.

3. Network Security:
- Firewalls: Cloud firewalls inspect and filter traffic through the cloud network,
depending on the security policies that have been implemented.
- Virtual Private Networks (VPNs): VPNs establish a secure communication link
between cloud resources and on-premise platforms.
4. Security Monitoring and Threat Detection:

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- Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) and Intrusion Prevention Systems (IPS): These
systems identify security threats and take action.
- Security Information and Event Management (SIEM): SIEM solutions collect and
analyze security-related information to identify threats and respond to them.
5. Data Loss Prevention (DLP):
- Backup and Recovery: It also focuses on data availability and data integrity through
data backups and disaster recovery processes.
- Data Redundancy: Distributing data to more than one place in order to avoid data
loss quality due to the failure of one or more hardware units.

## Compliance in Cloud Computing

1. Regulatory Compliance:
- General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR): This regulation preserves EU citizens’
personal data and impacts any organisation that processes or stores such data.
- The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) preserves the
privacy of patients’ health information in the healthcare industry.
- Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS): This standard develops
guidelines for organisations that offer credit card services.
2. Industry Standards and Frameworks:
- ISO/IEC 27001 provides the guidelines for implementing, maintaining, and
continually enhancing an organisation’s information security management system
(ISMS).
- SOC 2: Describes how to implement customer data management based on five
“trust service principles” such as security, availability, processing integrity,
confidentiality, and privacy.
3. Compliance Strategies:
- Vendor Assessment: Overseeing the matters of compliance of the CSPs with the
legal requirements and the best practices of the industry.
- Data Governance: >Set up the guidelines and protocols regarding data security,
privacy, and integrity.
- Continuous Monitoring: Continuing to scan cloud environments to make sure
regulatory compliance is maintained on going.
4. Data Residency and Sovereignty:

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- Data Residency: Removes data when it is located in a certain geographical location
as the law provides for.
- Data Sovereignty: Responsible for the local laws and regulations of the country
where the data is stored.

 Knowledge Check 2
Fill in the Blanks
1. Cloud security and compliance deal with the ___________ of data and
conformity to regulations. (protection)
2. Cloud migration involves the moving of ___________ and applications to a
cloud environment. (data)
3. Hybrid cloud is designed to provide flexibility by integrating __________ with
the private cloud. (public cloud)
4. the cloud providers provide SLAs with the aim of guaranteeing performance
and _______. (availability)

 Outcome-Based Activity 2
Form a group and then debate on the topic ‘Advantages and Disadvantages of Cloud
Computing’.

15.6 Summary
 Provided an understanding of cloud computing, which is defined as a computing
paradigm, and discussed its features and cloud deployment models. Understood
IaaS, PaaS, and SaaS concepts with hosting, service, and software as types of Cloud
Services
 Cloud Computing has benefits such as scalability, flexibility, and cost advantages.
Its challenges include security and compliance issues and data privacy.
 Cloud Deployment Models are public, private, hybrid and multi-cloud deployment
 Cloud computing has found its use in several industries and has brought in new
ideas and improvement to the flexible, scalable and accessible solution. A few of
the applications are Automated Intelligence and Machine Learning, Big Data
Analytics, etc

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 Cloud security aims to safeguard data, applications, and services against threats and
malicious attacks, while compliance relates to the legal requirements that need to
be met in a certain business.
 Cloud Compliance: Identified key compliance concerns concerning cloud
computing, such as GDPR, HIPAA, etc.
 Gained knowledge on how to migrate applications and data to the cloud and the
recommended good practices.
 Discussed some new and prospective solutions and developments in cloud
computing, such as serverless computing, edge computing, etc.

15.7 Keywords
 Cloud computing: This presents a model whereby computer utility is provided by
storing data and applications online instead of the local computer or on-premises
server.
 AWS: Amazon Web Services, Inc. (AWS) is an internet subsidiary of Amazon.com
which offers hosted, affordable web services and APIs to businesses and individuals
on a demand basis.
 Customer Relationship Management: CRM (Customer Relationship
Management) is the approach to managing the organisation’s relationships with
customers. CRM is a business strategy that seeks to understand and manage all
points of customer contact throughout the customer’s life cycle.

15.8 Self-Assessment Questions

1. Define cloud computing and its importance in the context of the contemporary
information technology environment.
2. Explain the differences and similarities of the three models of cloud services,
namely IaaS, PaaS, and SaaS and give examples of cloud applications in each of
the models.
3. Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of cloud computing in the business
world.
4. Include cases of organisations using cloud computing in real life in various sectors
(e.g., healthcare, finance, e-commerce).

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5. How do cloud security and compliance measures ensure data confidentiality,
integrity, and availability in the cloud environment?

15.9 References / Reference Reading

 Buyya, Rajkumar, Christian Vecchiola, and S. Thamarai Selvi. Mastering Cloud
Computing: Foundations and Applications Programming. Morgan Kaufmann,
2013.
 Bansal, Vipin, and Manisha Bharti. Cloud Computing: Concepts and Technology.
BPB Publications, 2020.
 Srinivasan, S., and R. J. D'Souza. Cloud Computing: A Practical Approach for
Learning and Implementation. Pearson Education India, 2014.
 Pallis, George, and Athanasios V. Vasilakos. Cloud Computing: Theory and
Practice. Morgan Kaufmann, 2014.
 Thamarai Selvi, S., and G. Sudha Sadasivam. Cloud Computing: Principles and
Paradigms. Wiley India Pvt. Ltd., 2011.

Unit 16: Emerging Technologies in Computing

Learning Outcomes:
 Students will be able to define AI and ML concepts.

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 Students will be able to explain the role of IoT in modern computing.
 Students will be able to describe blockchain technology.
 Students will be able to identify future trends in computing.
 Students will be able to evaluate the potential impact of quantum computing.

Structure:
16.1 Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML)
16.2 Internet of Things (IoT)
 Knowledge Check 1
 Outcome-Based Activity 1
16.3 Blockchain Technology
16.4 Future Trends in Computing
16.5 Quantum Computing
 Knowledge Check 2
 Outcome-Based Activity 2
16.6 Summary
16.7 Keywords
16.8 Self-Assessment Questions
16.9 References / Reference Reading

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16.1 Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML)
Understanding Artificial Intelligence (AI)
AI is the operation of machines in a way that is comparable to human intelligence in
that it learns, reasons, and makes decisions, among other things. This umbrella term
covers such things as learning ability, the ability to reason, solve problems, perceive,
and understand language. AI systems can be classified into two types: There is a narrow
AI intended for a particular task, for example, face recognition or search for information
on the Internet, and general AI, which can solve any problem that is within a person’s
capabilities.
The history of AI dates back to the mid-twentieth century when John McCarthy created
the term. In its early stages, AI-based research was based on symbolic methods and
problem-solving. The field has developed over the years as it has adopted new
computing capabilities, increased data availability, and better algorithms.
Exploring Machine Learning (ML)
There is Machine Learning (ML), a branch of AI that focuses on a computer's ability to
learn on its own and become wiser through practice. In contrast to the typical imperative
programming, where the computer is told step by step how to solve a problem, in ML,
a model is trained on a dataset, and when new data come in, the model makes a decision
or a prediction without being programmed for that immediately.
ML can be broadly categorised into three types:
1. Supervised Learning: In this approach, the training data is labelled, which means
that each training example has an output label. The model learns to forecast the
output from the input data. Some of the applications include classification and
regression problems.
2. Unsupervised Learning: Here, the model is fed information, and it does not know
what to do with it, which means it does not have any specific duties or
responsibilities. The objective of this model is to understand the patterns and
structure of such data. Some of the most used methods are clustering and
dimensionality reduction.
3. Reinforcement Learning: This type of learning takes place when an agent is trained
to make a sequence of decisions by being given a reward or punished for an action.
Over time, the agent learns to acquire the biggest sum of rewards.

AI and Machine Learning Key concepts

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1. Algorithms
It is a series of procedures or instructions that are provided to an AI or ML model to
enable it to find insights from data. It is the foundation of any AI or ML solution and
helps systems accept input, analyse it, and generate results.
2. Data
Information is the most important aspect of AI and ML. It is made up of the data that is
actually used to feed algorithms and build models. Structured data includes databases,
while unstructured data includes text and images, among others. The quantity and
quality of data affect the performance of AI and ML.
3. Training and Testing
Training in the scope of ML implies utilising a dataset to introduce the ability to make
predictions or decisions in a model. This process involves evolving the parameters of
the model to suit the results obtained from it. Testing is the process of assessing the
accuracy of the model on a new data set to check the model’s performance.
4. Features
Feature is the independent variable that is plugged into the model to help conclude.
Features in a dataset are the columns, and each line refers to a record. They named the
procedure of choosing the subset of features that should be used in the model as a
feature selection.
5. Models
A model is one of the outcomes of training in the case of ML. It is a mathematical model
derived from the data that can be used to forecast or make a decision. The models can
range from simple linear models to the more complex neural networks model.
6. Supervised Learning
Supervised learning is one of the ML techniques where the model is trained, and each
training example is associated with an output label. The model builds a relationship
between the input data and the output it expects to obtain. For instance, classification
is the process of grouping data, while regression is estimating numerical values.
7. Unsupervised Learning
As for the second one, unsupervised learning is the process of training models on the
data for which no responses are available. The aim is to get insights into the data
analysis and to look for relationships within the data set. Some of the most used
techniques of unsupervised learning are clustering, which involves grouping similar

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data, and dimensionality reduction, which consists of decreasing the size of the feature
vector.
8. Reinforcement Learning
Reinforcement learning is a branch of ML in which an agent learns how to act in an
environment to maximise rewards or minimise penalties. The agent’s goal is to
accumulate rewards over the longest period possible, and in this process, the agent has
to make corrections.
AI and ML are used in algorithms, as discussed in the following sections.
1. Linear Regression:
- Example: Regression analysis helps identify how some features of a house, such as
the house’s size, the number of bedrooms, or its location, can be used to estimate
the price of the house.
- Application: Market research and prediction of the stock market.
2. Decision Trees:
- Example: Determining whether an email is spam or not based on the presence of
certain attributes, such as certain keywords.
- Application: C. Email filtering systems.
3. Support Vector Machines (SVM):
- Example: Recognising handwritten digits by clustering in a high-dimensional layer
with different classes.
- Application: Optical Character Recognition, sometimes referred to as optical
machine recognition.

16.2 Internet of Things (IoT)

What is IoT?
The IoT is the connection of things of a physical nature, such as vehicles, buildings,
and other objects, with sensors, software, and network connectivity through which these
objects can gather and share information. The main purpose of IoT is to connect the
physical world and the cyber world, where devices can share data, interpret, and
respond to it.
Key Components of IoT
1. Sensors and Actuators: Sensors gather information from the surroundings and relay
it where aspects like temperature, humidity, light, movement, and others are

204
 involved. Executors take action on the data, such as adjusting a valve or switching
on a light.
2. Connectivity: Devices also require a way to broadcast to other devices and a central
system. Different communication interfaces and technologies, such as Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth, Zigbee, cellular networks, etc., can achieve this.
3. Data Processing: Collected data is analysed either at the edge, which is closer to the
source, or in the cloud. This processing can range from data sorting to data analysis.
How IoT Works
1. Data Collection: Sensors, as well as devices, acquire data from their surroundings.
2. Data Transmission: This data is sent over a network to a central system and may be
passed through gateways when the two systems employ different types of
communication.
3. Data Processing and Analysis: The central system helps gather, interpret, and decide
on the information gathered from the subsystems.
4. Action and Feedback: According to the findings made above, the system can cause
actions through actuators and provide feedback to the users.
5. User Interaction: Using interfaces, a user can provide commands to the system
and/or receive information from the system.
IoT examples and real-world use cases
1. Smart Homes:
- Example: Smart thermostats such as Nest learn the user’s preferences and habits
and then automatically control the house's temperature.
- Application: Home automation is used to save energy, protect the house, and
increase comfort.
2. Wearable Devices:
- Example: Wearable fitness devices, such as Fitbit, measure activity, heart rate, and
sleep.
- Application: M-Health to monitor personal health and fitness.
3. Industrial IoT (IIoT):
- Example: Some advanced factory systems include predictive maintenance, where
the health of equipment is monitored to predict failure.
- Application: Less operational downtime and improving on their efficiency.
4. Smart Cities:

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- Example: Smart traffic systems change the traffic signals in real-time to ease
congestion of the road.
- Application: Enhancing the physical facilities in urban areas and the overall welfare
of the inhabitants.

 Knowledge Check 1
Fill in the Blanks
1. AI-powered chatbots improve ___________ and customer relations.
(efficiency)
2. AI and ML transform ___________ and decision-making procedures.
(Automation)
3. Internet of Things (IoT) links ___________ devices and allows the exchange of
information. (connected)
4. IoT applications can be extended from ___________ management to smart
home gadgets. (Industrial)

 Outcome-Based Activity 1
Identify new technologies like Artificial Intelligence, the Internet of Things, Cloud
Computing, Blockchain, and Quantum Computing. Divide the applicants into
groups and ask them to indicate possible applications, advantages and
disadvantages of each technology. In what ways do these technologies determine
the development of computing and alter the sectors?

16.3 Blockchain Technology

Introduction to Blockchain
Blockchain technology, which is now known as the technology behind
cryptocurrencies, has been considered revolutionary in the recent past. In essence,
Blockchain can be described as a decentralised, distributed digital ledger technology
that is used to create a new, improved, and more efficient method of recording
information. Let's explore the key concepts and components of blockchain:
1. What is Blockchain?
- Blockchain is a growing database placed on a chain of blocks, each containing a list
of transactions.

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- These blocks are connected by cryptographic algorithms that provide a
chronological and secure chain of transactions.
2. Decentralisation
- While data in conventional centralised databases is managed and owned by a single
central authority, blockchain works on a distributed network of nodes.
- Every node has a copy of the blockchain to prevent the system from having a single
point of failure and also to make data immune to censorship and manipulation.
3. Transparency and Immutability
- The activities performed as a result of the transactions captured on the blockchain
are available to all network participants,
- increasing the level of integrity.
- Once a transaction is stored, it cannot be changed or removed from the block –
which is the case in blockchain since it can only be changed through consensus
among the nodes within the network.
4. Consensus Mechanisms
- The consensus mechanism can be described as the procedures that help all the nodes
in the network agree on the validity of the transaction and the order in which the
transactions should be recorded.
- Some of the commonly known consensus mechanisms are the Proof of Work
(PoW), Proof of Stake (PoS), and Delegated Proof of Stake (DPoS).
5. Cryptographic Security
- Blockchain applies encryption through cryptographic algorithms to make
transactions safe and avoid forgery.
- In this case, public and private key pairs are used in user authentication and digital
signatures.
6. Use Cases
- Blockchain technology is versatile and can be used in various sectors, such as
finance, supply chain, health, property, and many more.
- Some of the areas where blockchain is applied are Cryptocurrency, Identity
management, Financial assets, Supply chain management, Voting, and many others.

16.4 Future Trends in Computing

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The dynamics of computing are determined by the progression of technologies that
have been accelerated by the need for better-performing, efficient, and smarter systems.
Here are some key trends that are expected to define the future of computing:

1. Quantum Computing
Quantum computing is said to disrupt several industries through the computational
analysis of problems at a very fast rate. Quantum computers are dissimilar to the
classical computers that apply bits (0’s and 1’s) and differ from them with qubits, which
can be in more than one state at a time. This allows them to solve problems that are
beyond the capability of current classical computers, such as big simulations and
cryptography crackers. Major tech giants such as IBM, Google, and Microsoft are
already on the path of creating realistic quantum computers.
2. AI and Machine Intelligence
Artificial intelligence and machine learning are increasingly technologies that are
embedded in computing, allowing systems to learn from data and reason. Such
technologies as deep learning, natural language processing, and reinforcement learning
are now pushing development in fields such as self-driving cars, individualised
healthcare, and smart assistants. Increasing its compatibility with other emerging
technologies like IoT and edge computing will only increase the capabilities and
possibilities of AI.
3. Edge Computing
Edge computing involves performing computations and data storage in the vicinity of
the results required, hence minimising latencies and bandwidth consumption. This is
especially so for real-time applications such as self-driving cars, factories, and smart
cities. Edge computing is important in processing data locally and has the advantages
of increasing efficiency and security as well as providing sufficient infrastructure for
the increasing number of IoT devices.
4. Blockchain and Decentralised Technologies
The phenomenon of blockchain is revolutionising the process of data storage and
performing operations with information through decentralisation. Apart from
cryptocurrencies, the blockchain is used in supply chain solutions, identity verification,
and smart contracts. These are decentralised technologies that provide attributes such
as transparency, security, and efficiency in various industries.
5. Biocomputing
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A similar concept with biocomputing is the ability to use biological molecules like DNA
to carry out a computation. Although still in its infancy, this field has the potential to
develop very efficient and parallel computing systems. Such uses may include handling
big data, developing drugs, and bioengineering. It is suggested that biocomputing could
present new ways of forming and processing information and problems.

16.5 Quantum Computing

Introduction to Quantum Computing
Quantum computing is a revolutionary technology based on the laws of quantum
mechanics. It uses quantum bits, or qubits, to store and manipulate data in quantum
states, solving problems that would be impossible for classical computers to solve. In
contrast to classical computers, which employ bits as the elements of information,
quantum computers use quantum bits, or qubits, to store and manipulate data in
quantum states. Let's explore the key concepts, examples, applications, and challenges
of quantum computing.
Key Concepts
1. Superposition
It gives qubits a state of superposition, where they can represent 0 and 1 simultaneously,
making quantum computers compute different values at once.
2. Entanglement
They are quantum interactions and co-dependencies that occur between two or more
qubits irrespective of their physical distances. This property allows quantum computers
to carry out highly intertwined computations efficiently.
3. Quantum Gates
A quantum gate is similar to a classical gate and is defined as the basic unit of a quantum
circuit. They selectively change the quantum state of qubits for operations such as
superposition, entanglement, and measurement.
4. Quantum Algorithms
Quantum algorithms refer to algorithms that are devised to solve certain computational
problems with the help of quantum mechanical characteristics that are superior to those
of classical algorithms. For instance, Shor’s algorithm is used in the field of integer
factorisation, and Grover’s algorithm is used for the unstructured search.
Examples and Applications
1. Cryptography
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A quantum computer can attack RSA and ECC encryption techniques because Shor’s
algorithm can factor large numbers with great efficiency. On the other hand, post-
quantum cryptographic algorithms like lattice-based cryptography secure future
communication systems.
2. Optimisation
Optimisation problems can also be solved more efficiently using quantum computers
than classical computers with the help of quantum algorithms such as the Quantum
Approximate Optimisation Algorithm (QAOA). Some of the uses include asset
allocation, procurement and supply chain management, and delivery networks.
3. Drug Discovery
Current quantum computers can emulate the molecule's formation and behaviour much
faster than other forms of computers, enabling speedier drug discovery. Modern
quantum algorithms such as VQE and QCS are used to model chemical reactions and
screen candidates for drug discovery.
Challenges
1. Hardware Constraints
Physical implementation and growth of quantum hardware with enough coherence of
qubits, connections between them, and errors still pose a challenge. Modern quantum
processors suffer from noise, decoherence, and a small number of qubits, which limits
the applicability of quantum algorithms.
2. Quantum Error Correction
Quantum error correction requires a greater number of qubits and more complex error
correction codes, which leads to higher overhead and more resources needed for
quantum computation. The ability to correct errors is critical as well to ensure that the
calculations are accurate without requiring heftier hardware.
3. Algorithm Development
The development and enhancement of quantum algorithms for practical purposes
involves knowledge of quantum mechanics, computer science, and the domain of
application. The challenge of creating quantum algorithms that solve problems faster
than classical algorithms for a vast number of issues is yet to be achieved.

 Knowledge Check 2
Fill in the Blanks

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 1. Some future trends in computing comprise ___________ computing and edge
computing. (cloud)
2. Quantum computing has the potential to solve complex problems and identify
novel ___________ and cyphers. (algorithms)
3. Blockchain technology guarantees ___________ and decentralised transaction
integrity. (security)
4. Algorithms used in quantum computing can ___________ problems in science
and finance. (modernise)
 Outcome-Based Activity 2
Discuss the tendencies of the further evolution of computing with the participation
of artificial intelligence, edge computing, serverless structure, and the use of
technology for the improvement of human life.

16.6 Summary
 Learned about Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning, their working
mechanism, how algorithms learn from the data and make predictions or decisions,
and how these technologies are used in different fields.
 Exploring IoT as a concept that focuses on connecting different physical gadgets
and facilitating data sharing over the internet and its use in smart cities, health,
agriculture and industry.
 Explained the cloud computing service models, including IaaS, PaaS, and SaaS, as
well as the deployment models, which are public, private, and hybrid cloud.
Understand the advantages of cloud computing, such as scalability, flexibility, and
cost.
 Based on blockchain, understood that it is not just an appendage of cryptocurrencies
but also supply chains, digital signatures, and contracts.
 Learned the basics of quantum computing and how it can solve certain problems
exponentially faster than classical computers, with uses in cryptography,
optimisation, and simulation.
 Touched upon edge computing as a concept and its role in computing involving the
processing of data closer to the point of origin, increasing efficiency and decreasing
factors such as latency and bandwidth consumption, as well as integral real-world
applications such as the IoT and self-driving automobiles.

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 This paper also discussed serverless computing models, in which the cloud
providers’ premises manage the infrastructure, but the developers are only
concerned with writing and deploying their code. It also discussed the advantages
of this model, including scalability and cost efficiency.
 Explained the use of combining AI and ML to software development lifecycle,
creating code, testing, and deployment tools and its capability of promoting
productivity.

16.7 Keywords
 Artificial intelligence: Artificial intelligence, or AI, is a branch of computer
science that deals with the development of intelligent machines that work like
humans.
 Machine Learning: Machine Learning (ML) is a category of AI that employs
algorithms and statistical models to allow computers to learn from experience and
perform a given task efficiently.
 Blockchain: Blockchain is a distributed digital database made of a chain of blocks,
each block containing a record of transactions.

16.8 Self-Assessment Questions

1. Examine the areas where AI and ML are likely to be used in various industries.
2. Discuss the meaning of the Internet of Things (IoT) and the prospects of
interconnected items and smart networks.
3. What are some of the other applications of blockchain apart from its use in
cryptocurrencies?
4. Get your ideas behind the trends that would shape the future of computing, like edge
computing, serverless architecture, quantum computing
5. What are some challenges associated with IoT adoption?

16.9 References / Reference Reading

 Jain, V.K. Machine Learning. Khanna Publishing House, 2023.
 Chandra S.S., Vinod. Artificial Intelligence & Machine Learning. PHI Learning,
2023.

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 Chopra, Rajiv. Deep Learning: Fundamentals and Applications. Sage Publications,
2023.
 Dhanalakshmi, S. Blockchain Technology and Applications. McGraw-Hill
Education, 2023.

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