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Dear Student,
I am delighted to present to you a Ready Reckoner and an amazing book to guide you for your
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at Vedantu have always believed in revolutionizing the teaching and learning process and always
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This book has been customized with curated content to suit the needs of JEE aspirants like you and
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A few guiding points to optimally use Tatva with a planned approach:
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We suggest revision of theory followed by practice of exercises.
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Use the Tatva booklet to mark notes so that it always comes in handy for last-minute revision
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Exercise 1 and Exercise 2 of JEE Tatva deal with basic questions and those which can be asked or
already asked in JEE Main. Similarly, Exercise 3 and Exercise 4 deal with JEE Advanced level
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level questions.
Before wrapping up, the practice mantra: “Don't practice until you get it right. Practice until you
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We strongly believe in you and your capabilities. So believe in yourself

because success is only one step away. Wishing that your talent shines
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MASTER INDEX .

VOLUME 1:
Units and Measurements & Basic Mathematics
Motion in a Straight line
Motion in a Plane & Relative Motion
Laws of Motion & Friction

VOLUME 2:
Work, Energy and Power
Circular Motion
Centre of Mass, Momentum and Collision
Rotational Motion
Gravitation

VOLUME 3:
Mechanical Properties of Solids
Fluid Mechanics
Simple Harmonic Motion
Waves

VOLUME 4:
Thermal Physics
Kinetic Theory of Gases and Thermodynamics
 4

TABLE OF CONTENTS

THERMAL PHYSICS

Theory ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 6

Exercise - 1 : Basic Objective Questions.................................................................................................................... 22

Exercise - 2 : Previous Year JEE MAIN Questions ................................................................................................ 28

Exercise - 3 : Advanced Objective Questions ...................................................................................................... 31

Exercise - 4 : Previous Year JEE Advanced Questions ..................................................................................... 38

Answer Key .............................................................................................................................................................................. 100

KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS

Theory ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 44

Exercise - 1 : Basic Objective Questions.................................................................................................................... 61

Exercise - 2 : Previous Year JEE MAIN Questions ................................................................................................ 69

Exercise - 3 : Advanced Objective Questions ...................................................................................................... 81

Exercise - 4 : Previous Year JEE Advanced Questions ..................................................................................... 90

Answer Key .............................................................................................................................................................................. 102

THERMAL PHYSICS 5

THERMAL PHYSICS

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 Chapter 14
THERMAL PHYSICS 6

THERMAL PHYSICS

1. TEMPERATURE AND HEAT The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two
thermodynamic systems are each in thermal equilibrium with
1.1 Introduction to Temperature and Heat a third one, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each
Temperature : Temperature is a relative measure of hotness other.
or coldness of a body.
There are also various ways to state the zeroth law of
SI Unit : Kelvin (K) thermodynamics. However, in simple terms, it can be said,
Commonly Used Unit : °C or °F 'System that are in thermal equilibrium exist at the same
Conversion : t(k) = t°C + 273.15 temperature'.
Heat : Heat is a form of energy flow (i) between two bodies Zeroth law of thermodynamics takes into account that
or (ii) between a body and its surroundings by virtue of temperature is something worth measuring because it predicts
temperature difference between them. whether the heat will transfer between objects or not. This is
SI Unit : Joule (J) true regardless of how the objects interact. Even if two objects
are not in physical contact, heat still can flow between them,
Commonly Used Unit : Calorie (Cal)
by means of radiation mod of heat transfer. Whereas, zeroth
Conversion : 1cal = 4.186 J law of thermodynamics states that, if system are in thermal
Note: equilibrium, no heat flow will takes place
Heat always flows from a higher temperature system to a Thermal Equilibrium
lower temperature system. Temperature is a property that distinguishes thermodynamics
1.2 Zeroth law of thermodynamics from other sciences. This property can distinguish between
Zeroth law of thermodynamics is one of the four laws of hot and cold. When two or more bodies at different
thermodynamics. The credit for formulating the law goes to temperatures are brought into contact then after some time
Ralph H. Fowler. Interestingly, the zeroth law of they attain a common temperature and they are said to exist
thermodynamics was actually developed much later than the in thermal equilibrium.
original three laws. However, there was some confusion Systems are said to be in thermal equilibrium if there is no
regarding the nomenclature, whether it should be named the heat transfer, even if they are in a position to transfer heat,
fourth law of some other name. The complication arose based on other factors. For example, if we put food in the
because the new law gave a much clearer definition of the refrigerator overnight then that food is in thermal equilibrium
temperature and basically replaced what the other three laws with the air of that refrigerator. Heat no longer flows from
had to state. Fowler finally came up with the name to end this food to the air or from the air to the food, this state is known
conflict. as thermal equilibrium.
The zeroth law of Thermodynamics frames an idea of 1.3 Temperature Scales
temperature as an indicator of thermal equilibrium.
Measurement of Temperature
When a body 'A' is in thermal equilibrium with another body
Principle : Observation of Thermometric property with the
'b', and also separately in thermal equilibrium with a body 'C',
change in temperature and comparing it with certain reference
then body 'B' and 'C' will also be in thermal equilibrium with
situations.
each other. This statement defines the zeroth law of
thermodynamics. The law is based on temperature  Reference situation is generally ice point or steam point.
measurement.
Celcius and Fahrenheit Temperature Scales

In Celsius Scale In Fahrenheit Scale

Ice point  0°C Ice point  32°F

Steam point  100°C Steam point  212°F

Fig. 14.1

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THERMAL PHYSICS 7

It implies that 100 division in celcius scales is equivalent to

180 scale divisions in fahrenheit scale. Thermometers
Instrument used to measure temperature of any system is called
t f  32 t
Hence  c as thermometer.
180 100
Examples : Liquid in Glass thermometer, Platinum Resistance
Thermometer, Constant Volume Gas Thermometers.
Liquid in Glass thermometer and Platinum Resistance
thermometer give uniform readings for ice point & steam point
but go non uniform for different liquids and different materials.
 Constant volume gas thermometer gives same readings
irrespective of which gas. It is based on the fact that at low
pressures and constant volume, P × T for a gas is constant.
Pressure
Gas A

Gas B

–273.15°C 0°C Temperature

(°C)
Fig. 14.2 Fig. 14.4
Absolute Temperature Scale  All gases converge to absolute zero at zero pressure.
It is kelvin scale
Ice point  273.15 K 2. THERMAL EXPANSION
Steam point  373.15 K
Most substances expand when they are heated. Thermal
Comparing it with the celcius scale, number of scale division expansion is a consequence of the change in average
in both the scales is same. separation between the constituent atoms of an object. Atoms
of an object can be imagined to be connected to one another
t c  0C t k  273.15
 by stiff springs as shown in Fig. At ordinary temperatures,
100 100 the atoms in a solid oscillate about their equilibrium positions
–11
 Kelvin scale is called as absolute scale, because it is with an amplitude of approximately 10 m. The average
– 10
practically impossible to go beyond 0 K into the negative spacing between the atoms is about 10 m. As the
side. temperature of solid increases, the atoms oscillate with greater
amplitudes, as a result the average separation between them
Steam
Point
373.15 K 100°C 212.0°F increases, consequently the object expands.

Ice
273.15 K 0°C 32°F
Point

Absolute
0K –273.15°C –459.67°F
zero
Kelvin Scale Celcius Scale Fahrenheit Scale

1K 1°C 1.8°F Fig. 14.5

Comparison of Temperature Scales

More precisely, thermal expansion arises from the
asymmetrical nature of the potential energy curve.
Fig. 14.3

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THERMAL PHYSICS 8

At the atomic level, thermal expansion may be understood by as shown in figure, the average position of an atom will not
considering how the potential energy of the atoms varies be at the minimum point.
with distance. The equilibrium position of an atom will be at When the temperature is raised the amplitude of the vibrations
the minimum of the potential energy well if the well is increases and the average position is located at a greater
symmetric. At a given temperature, each atom vibrates about interatomic separation. This increased separation is manifested
its equilibrium position and its average position remains at as expansion of the material.
the minimum point. If the shape of the well is not symmetrical,
2.1 Linear, Areal and Volumetric Expansion

x
 KT constant (K)
x
Linear Expansion Coefficient of Linear expansion (a) :

L
L  a T Increase in length per unit length per
L
degree rise in temp.

Area Expension Coefficient of Area Expansion (b) :

A
 b T
A Increase in area per unit area per degree
rise in temp.

Volume Expansion Coefficient of volume expansion (g) :

V
 g T
V Increase in volume per unit volume per
degree rise in temp.
V

Units of a,b,g = /°C or /K

 In general with change in volume the density will also change.
 a for metals generally higher than a for non-metals
 gis nearly constant at high temperatures but at low temp it depends on temp.

Fig. 14.6
Coefficient of volume expansion of Cu as a function of temperature.

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THERMAL PHYSICS 9

For ideal gases g is inversely proportional to temperature at From the figure it is observed that,
constant pressure CB = CA+AB
nRT Real expansion = Apparent expansion + expansion of the
V
P container
V T So, Vr = Va + Vc
 
V T Unlike solids, liquids have no fixed length or surface area but
1 always take up the shape of the containing vessel. When a
 g liquid is heated in a container, heat flows through the container
T
to the liquid; which means that the container expands first,
2.2 Relation between Real Expansion and Apparent
Expansion due to which the level of the liquid falls. When the liquid gets
heated, it expands more, beyond its unique level. We cannot
If the liquid is heated directly without using any container
monitor the intermediate state. We can only observe the initial
then the expansion that you observe is termed as a real
and final levels. This observed expansion of the liquid is
expansion of the liquid. The expansion of the liquid apparently
known as the apparent expansion of the liquid.
observed without considering the expansion of the container
is called the apparent expansion of the liquid. If we consider The real expansion of liquid = Apparent expansion of liquid
the expansion of the container also and measure the total + Volume expansion of the container.
expansion in the volume of the liquid, then the expansion is Therefore, in the case of liquids, we are concerned only with
termed as the absolute expansion of the liquid. volume changes when they are heated. The real (or absolute)
Explanation: A glass bulb with a long graduated stem is filled expansivity of a liquid is the fraction of its volume by which
with liquid up to the mark A. Now keeping an eye on the it expands per kelvin rise in temperature.
liquid column the bulb is heated and it is observed that the 2.3 Anomalous Expansion of Water
upper level of the liquid comes down from position A to
As an exception, water contracts on heating from 0°C to 4°C
position B. After that, it moves up from the graduated line B
and hence its density increases from 0°C to 4°C. Thus is called
crossing the mark A and reaches to mark C.
as anamolous expansion
The reason is that when the heat is applied the volume of the
1 gm/cc
bulb increases at first. Due to this cause liquid comes down
Density
to B from A. Later on as soon as the liquid gets heated its
volume starts to increase and reaches from B to C. It happens
so as the expansion of liquid is more than the expansion of
solid.
Apparently it appears to us that the liquid was at mark A and
4°C 4°C
finally reaches to mark C. Therefore, CA is the apparent (a) (b)
expansion. CB is the real expansion and AB indicates the Fig. 14.8 Fig. 14.9
expansion of the container.
Note:
 In general

3
g  3a  b
2
Proof : Imagine a cube of length, l that expands equally in
all directions, when its temperature increases by small T;
We have
l = alT
Also
3 3 3 2 2 2 3
V = (l l) – l = l + 3l l + 3ll + l – l
2
= 3l l ...(1)
Fig. 14.7

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THERMAL PHYSICS 10

2 3
In Equation (1) we ignore 3ll & l as l is very small as
compared to l.
So

3V V
V  l = 3VaT [Using  l2 ] ...(2)
l l
V
 3aT
 V
Fig. 14.11
 g = 3a
For example, when the temperatures of a brass rod and a steel
Similarly we can prove for area expansion coefficient
rod of equal length are raised by the same amount from some
 In case, thermal expansion is prevented inside the rod common initial value, the brass rod expands more than the
by fixing its ends rigidly, then the rod acquires a compressive steel rod because brass has a greater average coefficient of
strain due to external fones at the ends corresponding stress expansion than steel. Such type of bimetallic strip is found in
set up in the rod is called thermal stress. practical devices such as thermostats to break or make
we know electrical contact.

V
 aT  compressive strain
V

YL
Also     Thermal stress
L

T  YaT
Where Y = young madulus of elasticity ...(3)
 Practical applications in railway tracks, metal tyres of
cart wheels, bridges and so many other applications.
Fig. 14.12
 If a solid object has a hole in it, what happens to the size
of the hole, when the temperature of the object increases. Variation of Density with Temperature
A common misconception is that if the object expands, ariation of density with temperature
the hole will shrink because material expands into the Most substances expand when they are heated, i.e. volume of
hole. But the truth is that if the object expands, the hole a given mass of a substance increases on heating, so the density
will expand too, because every linear dimension of an
object changes in the same way when the temperature  1
should decrease as  as    . Let us see how the density
changes.  V

 varies with increase in temperature.

m

V

1
or  (for a given mass)
V
Fig. 14.10  V V V 1
    
2.4 Applications of Thermal Expansion p V  V  t V  gT 1  gT
Expansion of a Bimetallic Strip
Each substance has its own characteristic average coefficient 
  
of expansion. 1  gT

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THERMAL PHYSICS 11

This expression can also be written as Weight of the solid = Upthrust on solid from liquid

   1  gT   VS g  Vi l g ...(1)

–1

Here, S  density of solid

If g very small. 1  gT 
–1
 1 – gT
l  density of liquid
    1 – gT 
Vi  immersed volume of solid and
Effect of temperature on apparent weight when immersed
in a liquid V  Total volume of solid
When a solid body is complete immersed a liquid its apparent From Eqn. (1)
weight gets decreased due to an upthrust acting on it by the
Vi S
liquid. The apparent weight is given by  f ...(2)
V l
Wapp = W – F
where, f = immersed fraction of solid.
Here, F = upthrust =  VS L g
With increase in temperature S and l both will decrease.
Where, VS = volume of solid and L  density of liquid
Therefore, this fraction may increase, decrease or remain
Now, as the temperature is increased VS increases while L constant. At some higher temperature,
decreases. So, F may increase or decrease (or may remain S
constant also) depending upon the condiction that which factor f  ...(3)
l
dominates on the other. We can write.
From Eqs. (2) and (3), we have
F  VS L
f   S  l 
F VS L  VS  VS   1     
or      f  S  l 
F VS L VS  1  g L
T 

 V  g V T  1   1 
 S S S     1  g l  
 VS   1  g L T   1  g S
 

 1  g S T 
or F  F   f   1  g l  
 
 1  g L T  or f  1  gS  
Now, if g S  g L , F  F
Now, if g l  g S , f   f or immersed fraction will increase.
or   Wapp and vice-versa.
Waoo
If g l  g S , f   f or immersed fraction will remain unchanged
and if g S  g L , F  F
or   Wapp
Wapp and if, g l  g S , then f   f or immersed fraction will
decrease.
Effect of Temperature on Immersed Fraction of a Solid
Effect of temperature on the time period of a pendulum
in Floating condition
The time period of a simple pendulum is given by
When a solid, whose density is less than the density of liquid
is floating in it, then l
T  2
g

or T l
As the temperature is increased, length of the pendulum and
hence, time period gets increased or a pendulum clock
becomes slow and it loses the time.
Fig. 14.13

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THERMAL PHYSICS 12

T l l  l F  YAaT
 
T l l Expansion of Liquids
Here, we l = l a in place of l aT so as to avoid the For heating a liquid it has to be ut in some container. When
confusion with change in time period. Thus, the liquid is heated, the container will also expand. We define
coefficient of apparent expansion of a liquid as the apparent
T l  l a increase in volume per unit origional volume per °C rise in
 1  a 
12

T l temperature. It is represented by g a . Thus,

 1  g r  coefficient of volume expansion of liquid

or T   T 1  a  (if a  1 )
 2  and g g  coefficient of volume expansion of the container

1
or T  T  – T  Ta
2
3. CALORIMETRY
Time lost in time t (by a pendulum clock whose actual time
period is T and the changed time period at some higher When two systems at different temperatures are connected
temperature is T  ) is together then heat flows from higher temperature to lower
temperature till the time their temperatures do not become
 T  same.
t   t
 T  Principle of calorimetry states that, neglecting heat loss to
 At some higher temperature a scale will expand and scale surroundings, heat lost by a body at higher temperature is
reading will be lesser than true value. equal heat gained by a body at lower temperature.

However, at lower temperature scale reading will be more heat gained = heat lost
or true value will be less. Whenever heat is given to any body, either its temperature
 When a rod whose ends are rigidly fixed such as to prevent changes or its state changes.
from expansion or contraction undergoes a change in 3.1 Change in Temperature
temperature, thermal stresses are developed in the rod.
This is because, if the temperature is increased, the rod When the temp changes on heating,
has a tendency to expand with since it is fixed at two Then
ends it is not allowed to expand. So, the rod exerts a force
Heat supplied  change in temp (T)
on supports to expand.
 amount of substance (m/n)
 nature of substance (s/C)
 H = msT
m = Mass of body
s = specific heat capacity per kg
T = Change in temp
Fig. 14.14 or H = nCT
n = Number of moles
l
Thermal strain   aT C = Specific/Molar heat Capacity per mole
l
T = Change in temp
So thermal stress   g  (thermal strain) YaT Specific Heat Capacity : Amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of unit mass of the substance through one
or force on supports F = A (stress) YAaT degree.
Here, Y = Young’s modulus of elasticity of the rod.

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THERMAL PHYSICS 13

Units  In case any material is not at its B.P or M.P, then on heating
the temperature will change till the time a particular state
SI  J/KgK SH O L  = 1 cal/g°C
2
change temperature reaches.
Common  cal/g°C SH O ice  = 0.5 cal/g°C For Example : If water is initially at –50°C at 1 Atm pressure
2

in its solid state.

Molar Heat Capacity : Amount of heat required to raise the
On heating.
temperature of unit mole of the substance through one degree
Step - 1 : Temp changes to 0°C first
Units
Step - 2 : Ice melts to H2O(l) keeping the temp constant
SI  J/mol K
Step - 3 : Temp. increase to 100°C
Common  Cal/g°C
Step - 4 : H2O(l) boils to steam keeping the temp constant
Heat Capacity : Amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of a system through one degree Step - 5 : Further temp increases
 H = ST
where S = Heat Capacity
Units
SI  J/K
Common  Cal/°C
 For H2O specific heat capacity does change but fairly very
less.
 Materials with higher specific heat capacity require a lot
of heat for same one degree rise in temperature Fig. 14.15
3.2 Change in State  The slope is inversely proportional to heat capacity.
 Length of horizontal line depends upon mL for the process.
When the phase changes on heating
Then 3.3 Pressure dependence on melting point and boiling
point
Heat supplied  amount of substance which changes the state (m)
  nature of substance (L)  For some substance melting point decreases with increase
in pressure and for other melting point increases
 H = mL
 Melting poing increases with increase in temperature. We
Where L = Latent Heat of substance
can observe the above results through phaser diagrams.
Latent Heat : Amount of heat required per mass to change
the state of any substance. P P
B B
(atm) (atm)
Units
C C
Liq Liq
SI  J/Kg Solid
Solid
Common  Cal/g
O Vapour O Vapour
 The change in state always occurs at a constant
A A
temperature. T(°C) T(°C)
For H2O For CO2
For example

Solid  Liq Lf Fig. 14.16 Fig. 14.17

Line AO  Sublimation curve
Liq  Gas Lv
Line OB  Fusion curve
Lf = Latent Heat of fusion Line OC  Vapourization curve
Lv = Latent heat of vaporization Point O  Triple Point

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Point C  Critical temperature

Triple Point : The combination pressure and temperature at
which all three states of matter (i.e. solids, liquids gases co-
exist.
For H2O it is at 273.16 K and 0.006 Atm.
Critical Point : The combination of pressure & temp beyond
which a vapour cannot be liquified is called as critical point.
Corresponding temperature, pressure are called as critical
temperature & critical pressure.
From the phasor diagram, we can see that melting point
decreases with increases in pressure for H2O.
Based on this is the concept of regelation.
Regelation : The phenomena of refreezing of water melted
below the normal melting point due to increase in pressure.
 It is due to this pressure effect on boiling point that cooking
is tough on mountains and easier in pressure cooker.
3.4 Mechanical equivalent of heat
In the history of science, the mechanical equivalent of heat
states that motion and heat are mutually interchangeable and
that in every case, a given amount of work would generate
the same amount of heat, provided the work done is totally
converted to heat energy. Fig. 14.18
Note:

HEAT TRANSFER
Water equivalent of a container
Normally, a liquid is heated in a container. So, some heat is
wasted in heating the container also. Suppose water
equivalent of a container is 10 g, then it implies that heat 1. HEAT TRANSFER
required to increase the temperature of this container is equal
to heat required to increase the temperature of 10 g of water. 1.1 Introduction to heat transfer
3.5 Calorimeter Heat transfer is the process of the movemnet of energy dut to
Calorimeter, device for measuring the heat developed during a temperature difference. The calculations we are interested
a mechanical, electrical, or chemical reaction, and for in include determining the final temperatures of materials and
calculating the heat capacity of materials. how long it takes for these materials to reach these
A calorimeter consists of an insulated container, water, a temperatures.
thermometer, a stirring rod, and an object that will either
1.2 Modes of Heat Transfer
absorb or emit heat. To do a Calorimetry experiment, an object
with a certain mass and temperature is placed in the water There are three modes of heat transfer.
and the change in the temperature measured .
 Conduction
A calorimeter is a device that is in use for measuring the
warmth of chemical reactions or physical changes also as heat  Convection
capacity. The most common types of calorimeters are
 Radiation
differential scanning calorimeters, titration calorimeters,
isothermal micro calorimeters, and accelerated rate
calorimeters.

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2. CONDUCTION AND CONVECTION 2.2 Electrical Analogue of Thermal Conduction

Thermal Resistance (R)
2.1 Conduction

Thermal conduction is the process in which thermal energy is dQ T T

We know dt  H  l KA  R
transferred from the hotter part of a body to the colder one or
from hot body to a cold body in contact with it without any Here, T  temperature difference (TD) and
transference of material particles.
l
TC > T D R  thermal resistance of the rod.
TC TD KA
L
Consider a section ab of a rod as shown in figure. Suppose
A
Q1 heat enters into the section at ‘a’ and Q2 leaves at ‘b’, then
Direction of
heat flow Q2 < Q1. Part of the energy Q1 – Q2 is utilized in raising the
temperature of section ab and the remaining is lost to
Fig. 14.19 atmosphere through ab. If heat is continuously supplied fro
At steady state, the left end of the rod, a stage comes when temperature of
the section becomes constant. In that case Q1 = Q2 if rod is
The rate of heat energy flowing through the rod becomes insulated from the surroundings (or loss through ab is zero).
constant. This is called the steady state condition. Thus, is steady state
temperature of different section of the rod becomes constant
T  TD 
This is rate Q  KA
C
...(i) (but not same). Hence, in the figure:
L

for uniform cross-section rods

where Q = Rate of heat energy flow (J/s or W)
2
A = Area of cross-section (m )
TC,TD = Temperature of hot end and cold end respectively
(°C or K)
L = Length of the rod (m)
K = coefficient of thermal conductivity
Coefficient of Thermal Conductivity :
It is defined as amount of heat conducted during steady state
in unit time through unit area of any cross-section of the Fig. 14.20
substance under unit temperature gradient, the heat flow being T1 = constant, T2 = constant etc. and T1 > T2 > T 3 > T4
normal to the area.
Now, a natural question arises, why the temperature of
Units whole rod not becomes equal when heat is being
SI  J/msK or W/mK. continuously supplied? The answer is: there must be a
 Larger the thermal conductivity, the greater will be rate of temperature difference in the rod for the heat flow, same as
heat energy flow for a given temperature difference. we require a potential difference across a resistance for the
current flow through it.
 Kmetals > Knon metals
In steady state, the temperature varies linearly with
 Thermal conductivity of insulators is very low. Therefore,
distance along the rod if it is insulated.
air does not let the heat energy to be conducted very easily.

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2.3 Series and Parallel Combination of Rods

Series Combination:
We can compute the effective coefficient of heat conductivity
when different materials are linked with varying coefficients
of thermal conductivity. When the rods are linked in series,
the flow rate through both sections is the same. However,
because the different connections get varying amounts of heat
energy, the temperature differential between them will be
varied.
The total of the temperature differences between the junctions
Fig. 14.21 equals the temperature difference between the first and last
ends. When two materials are linked in series and their
 Comparing equation number (iii), i.e. heat current physical dimensions are the same.
dQ T  I 
H   where R   2K1 K 2
dt R  KA  KS 
K1  K 2
with the equation, of current flow through a resistance,
dQ V  I  Parallel Combination:
I   where R  
dt R  A  When two materials are linked in a parallel configuration,
We find the following similarities in heat flow through a the entire available heat energy per second is divided between
rod and current flow through a resistance. them. In any case, the temperature will be the same at the
end. When the rods are linked in parallel, the effect on thermal
S.No. Heat flow Current flow
resistance is identical to the effect on electric resistance.
through a through a
conducting rod resistance We may construct a simple equation for the influence on
1. Conducting rod Electrical coefficient of heat conductivity when two distinct rods have
resistance the same length and cross-section area, as shown below.
2. Heat flows Charge flows
3. TD is required PD is required K1  K 2
4. Heat current Electric current Kp 
2
dQ dQ
H  rate of I  rate of Note:
dt dt
heat flow charge flow Low thermal conductivity materials transmit heat at a slower
5. T TD V PD pace than high thermal conductivity materials. Metals, for
H  I 
R R R R example, have a high thermal conductivity and are extremely
6. l l effective at transferring heat, whereas insulating materials
R R
KA A like Styrofoam are the polar opposite. High thermal
7. K=Thermal   electrical conductivity materials are commonly utilised in heat sink
conductivity conductivity applications, while low thermal conductivity materials are
used as thermal insulation. Thermal resistance is the
counterpart of thermal conductity.
From the above table it is evident that flow of heat through
rods in series and parallel is analogous to the flow of current 2.4 Growth of Ice in Lakes
through resistance in series and parallel. This analogy is of Warm water generally gets more dense as it gets colder, and
great importance in solving complicated problems of heat therefore sinks. This fact may lead you to believe that ice
conduction. should form on the bottom of a lake first. But a funny thing
happens to water as it gets even colder. Colder than 4° Celsius
(39° Fahrenheit), water begins expanding and becomes less

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dense as it gets colder. As a result, close to freezing, colder George D. Ashton states, "As a lake cools from above 4° C,
water floats to the top and the warmer water sinks to the the surface water loses heat, becomes more dense and sinks.
bottom. The density of water as a function of temperature This process continues until all the water in the lake is at 4°
can be seen in the plot on the right. Eventually, the coldest C, when the density of water is at its maximum. With further
water, which has floated to the top of the lake in wintry cooling (and without mechanical mixing) a stable, lighter layer
conditions, freezes to form a layer of ice. Right when the of water forms at the surface. As this layer cools to its freezing
water freezes to ice, the ice becomes significantly less dense point, ice begins to form on the surface of the lake."
than the water and continues to float on the lake's surface.
In deep lakes, water pressure may also play a role. The
gravitational weight of all the water higher up in the lake
presses down on the water deep in the lake. The pressure
allows the water near the bottom of the lake to get cold without
expanding and rising. Because of the pressure, the water at
the bottom of deep lakes can become cold without freezing
to ice.

2.5 Convection
The process in which heat is transferred from one point to
another by the actual movement of the heated material particles
from a place at higher temperature to another place of lower
temperature is called as thermal convection.
 If the medium is forced to move with the help of a fan or
a pump, it is called as forced convection.
Fig. 14.22 If the material moves because of the differences in density
of the medium, the process is called natural or free
Ice is less dense than water because of the way it forms a
convection.
hexagonal crystalline structure. Each water molecule consists
of two hydrogen atoms bonded to the bottom of an oxygen  Examples of forced convection
atom. When ice forms, the hydrogen atoms of one water Circulatory system, cooling system of an automobile heat
molecule form weak hydrogen bonds with the top of the connector
oxygen atoms of two other water molecules.
 Examples of natural convection
Lining up the water molecules in this pattern takes up more
space than having them jumbled randomly together (as is the Trade winds, Sea Breeze/Land Breeze, Monsoons,
case in liquid water). And because the same mass of molecules Burning of Tea.
takes up more space when frozen, ice is less dense than liquid
water. For this same reason, water below 4° Celsius becomes
increasingly less dense as it gets colder. Close to freezing 3. RADIATION
temperatures, the molecules in the liquid water begin to line
up into the space-filling hexagonal structure. It is a process of transmission of heat in which heat travels
directly from one place to another without the agency of any
intervening medium.
 This radiation of heat energy occurs in the form of EM
waves.
 These radiators are emitted by virtue of its temperature,
like the radiation by a red hot iron or light from a filament
lamp.
 Every body radiates energy as well as absorbs energy from
surroundings.
Fig. 14.23

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 The proportion of energy absorbed depends upon the colour 3.2 Ideal Black Body
of the body.
A body that absorbs all the radiation incident upon it and has
3.1 Basic Fundamental Terms in Radiation an emissivity equal to 1 is called a perfectly black body. A
black body is also an ideal radiator. It implies that if a black
Radiant Energy
body and an identical another body are kept at the same
All bodies radiate energy in the form of electromagnetic waves temperature, then the black body will radiate maximum power
by virtue of their temperature. This energy is called the radiant 4
as is obvious from equation P = eA also. Because
energy. e = 1 for a perfectly black body while for any other body
Absorptive Power ‘a’ e <1.
“It is defined as the ratio of the radiant energy absorbed by it Materials like black velvet or lamp black come close to being
in a given time to the total radiant energy incident on it in the ideal black bodiies, but the best practical realization of an
same interval of time.” ideal black body is a small hole leading into a cavity, as this
absorbs 98% of the radiation incident on them.
energy absorbed
a
energy incident
As a perfectly black body absorbs all radiations incident on
it, the absorptive power of a perfectly black body is maximum
and unity.

Spectral Absorptive Power ‘ a λ ’

The absorptive power ‘a’ refers to radiations of all wavelengths
(or the total energy) while the spectral absorptive power is
the ratio of radiant energy absorbed by a surface to the radiant
energy incident on it for a particular wavelength  . It may
have different values for different wavelengths for a given
surface. Let us take an example, suppose a = 0.6, a  = 0.4
Fig. 14.24
for1000 Å and a  = 0.7 for 2000 Å for a given surface. Then,
3.3 Kirchoff's law of Thermal Radiation
it means that this surface will absorb only 60% of the total
radiant energy incident on it. Similarly, it absorbs 40% of the Kirchhoff’s law
energy incident on it corresponding to1000 Åand 70% ‘’According to this law the ratio of emissive power to
absorptive power is same for all surfaces at the same
corresponding to 2000 Å.The spectral absorptive power a  is
temperature.’’
related to absorptive power a through the relation

a   a  d
0

Emissive Power ‘e’

(Do not confuse it with the emissivity e which is different
from it, although both have the same symbol e).
“For a given surface it is defined as the radiant energy emitted Fig. 14.25
per second per unit area of the surface.”
e1 e 2  e 
It has the units of W/m
2
Hence   
2 4
a1 a 2  a  perfactly black body
or J/s–m . For a black body e T =  .
But a  black body
1
Spectral Emissive Power ‘ e λ ’
and e E  say 
“It is emissive power for a particular wavelength  .” Thus, black body

e

d   e  d Then,    constant  E
0  a for any surface

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Similarly, for a particular wavelength , 3.5 Newtons Law of Cooling

Newton’s Law of cooling states that, the rate of loss of heat
 e 
   E  dQ
 a  for any body of the body is directly proportional to the difference of
dt
Here, E = emissive power of black body at temperature T
temp between body and surrounding.
 T 4
From the above expression, we can see that dQ
Now  k  T2  T1 
e  a  dt
...(4)
3.4 Stefan's Law
The amount of radiation emitted per second per unit area by where k is a positive constant depending upon area and nature
a black body is directly proportional to the fourth power of of the surface of the body. Suppose a body of mass m, specific
its absolute temperature. heat capacity s is at temperature T2 & T1 be the temp of
Amount of radiation emitted E  T4 surroundings, if dT the fall of temperature in time dt.
where T = temperature of ideal black body (in K) Amount of heat lost is
E =  T4 dQ = msdT
This law is true for only ideal black body
 Rate of loss of heat is given by
SI Unit : E = watt/m2
 = Stefen's constant = 5.67 × 10–8 watt /m2 K4 dQ dT
 ms
Dimensions of  : M1 L0 T–3 –4 dt dt
Total radiation energy emitted out by surface of area A in ...(5)
time t : From Equation 4 and 5
Ideal black body QIBB =  A T 4 t and for any other body QGB dT
= erA T 4 t  ms  k  T2  T1 
dt
Rate of emission of radiation
When Temperature of surrounding T0 (Let T0 < T) dT k
  dt   Kdt
Rate of emission of radiation from ideal black body surface T2  T1 ms
E1 =  T4
k
Rate of emission of radiation from surrounding where K 
ms
E2 = T04
Net rate of loss of radiation from ideal black body surface is On integrating
E = E1 – E2 = T4–  T04 =  ( T4 – T04 ) log (T2 – T1) = –Kt + C
Net loss of radiation energy from entire surface area in time t –Kt C
or T2 = T1 + C1e where C1 = e ...(6)
is QIBB = A ( T4 – T04 ) t
For any other body QGB = er A ( T4 – T04 ) t equation (6) enables you to calculate the time of cooling of a
If in time dt the net heat energy loss for ideal black body is body through a particular range of temperature.
dQ and because of this its temperature falls by d

dQ
Rate of loss of heat RH = = σ A(T 4 – T04 )
dt
It is also equal to emitted power or radiation emitted per
second
Rate of fall in temperature (Rate of cooling)

dθ σA 4  dQ dθ 
 dt = m s J dt 
4
RF = dt = ms J (T – T0 )
 
Fig. 14.26

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3.6 Wein's Displacement Law

At ordinary temperatures (below about 600°C) the thermal

radiation emitted by a body is not visible, most of it is
concentrated in wavelengths much longer than those of visible
light.

Fig. 14.27
 For small temp diff, the rate of cooling, due to conduction,
convection & radiation combined is proportional to
difference in temperature.
 Approximation : If a body cools from Ta to Tb in t times
in medium where surrounding temp is T0, then

Ta  Tb  T  Tb 
 K a  T0 
t  2 

 Newton’s Law of cooling can be verified experimentally.

Fig. 14.29
Figure shows how the energy of a black body radiation varies
T2 T1 with temperature and wavelength. As the temperature of the
black body increases, two distinct behaviors are observed.
The first effect is that the peak of the distribution shifts to
loge (T 2-T1)

shorter wavelengths. This shift is found to obey the following

relationship called Wien’s displacement law.
C
mT  b
V
Here, b is a constant called Wien’s constant. The value of this
t constant for perfectly black body in SI unit is 2.898×10–3 m-
(a) (b) K. Thus,

1
m 
Fig. 14.28 T
Set Up : A double walled vessel (v) containng water in Here,  m is the wavelength corresponding to the
between two walls.
maximum spectral emissive power e . The second effect
A copper calorimeter (C) containing hot water placed inside is that the total amount of energy the black body emits per
the double walled vessel. Two thermometers through the lids
unit area per unit time   T  increases with fourth
4
are used to note the temperature T2 of H2O in calorimeter and
T1 of water in between the double walls respectively. power of absolute temperature T. This is also known as the
emissive power. We know
Experiment : The temperature of hot water in the calorimeter

after equal intervals of time is measured. e   e d  Area under e –  graph  T 4
0

Result : A graph is plotted between log (T2 – T1) and time (t).
A 2   2  A1  16A1
2
or Area  T 4 
The nature of the graph is observed to be a straight line as it
should be from Newton’s law of cooling.

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Thus, if the temperature of the black body is made two

fold,  m remains half while the area becomes 16 times.
3.7 Solar Constant
Solar constant, the total radiation energy received from the
Sun per unit of time per unit of area on a theoretical surface
perpendicular to the Sun’s rays and at Earth’s mean distance
from the Sun. It is most accurately measured from satellites
where atmospheric effects are absent.

Fig. 14.30

Fig. 14.31

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EXERCISE - 1 : BASIC OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

Heat, Temperature and Calorimetry 5. Which of the following parameters does not characterize
Temperature and Heat the thermodynamic state of matter?
1. At absolute zero (a) temperature (b) pressure
(a) all substances exist in solid form (c) work (d) volume
(b) molecular motion ceases 6. The radius of a ring is R and its coefficient of linear expansion
(c) water freezes is . If the temperature of ring increases by , then its
circumference will increase by :
(d) None of the above
(a)  R (b) 2 R
2. At critical temperature, the surface tension of a liquid is :
(a) zero  
(c)  R (d)  R
(b) infinity 2 4
(c) the same as that at any other temperature 7. A steel wire of cross–sectional area 0.5 mm2 is held between
(d) cannot be determined two fixed supports. If the wire is just taut at 20°C, determine
the tension when the temperature falls to 0°C. Coefficient
3. The graph between two temperature scales A and B is
of linear expansion of steel is 1.2 × 10–5/°C and its Young’s
shown in figure.
modulus is 2.0 × 1011 N/m2.
(a) 24 N (b) 36 N
(c) 12 N (d) 6 N
8. A solid ball of metal has a spherical cavity inside it. If the
ball is heated the volume of cavity will :
(a) increase (b) decrease
(c) remain unchanged (d) data insufficient
Thermal Expansion
9. An iron ball of mass 0.2 kg is heated to 10°C and put into a
block of ice at 0°C. 2.5 g of ice melts. If the latent heat of
fusion of ice is 80 cal/g, then the specific heat of iron in
cal/g°C is :
(a) 1 (b) 0.1
Between upper fixed point and lower fixed point, there are 150 (c) 0.8 (d) 0.08
equal divisions on scale A and 100 on scale B. The relationship 10. Equal masses of three liquids A, B and C have temperatures
for conversion between the two scales is given by : 10°C, 25°C and 40°C respectively. If A and B are mixed,
the mixture has a temperature of 15°C. If B and C are mixed,
t A  180 t B t A  30 t
(a)  (b)  B the mixture has a temperature of 30°C. If A and C are mixed,
100 150 150 100
the mixture will have a temperature of:
t B  180 t A t B  40 t A (a) 16°C (b) 20°C
(c)  (d) 
150 100 100 180 (c) 25°C (d) 29°C

4. The reading of Centigrade thermometer coincides with that 11. The temperatures of equal masses of three different liquids
of Fahrenheit thermometer in a liquid. The temperature of A, B and C are 12°C, 19°C and 28°C respectively. The
the liquid is : temperature when A and B are mixed is 16°C, and when B
(a) –40°C (b) 0°C and C are mixed, it is 23°C. What will be the temperature
(c) 100°C (d) 300°C when A and C are mixed ?
(a) 15.6 °C (b) 23.2 °C
(c) 20.3 °C (d) 25.8 °C
THERMAL PHYSICS 23

12. 50 g of ice at 0°C is mixed with 50 g of water at 60°C, final new temperature is (T + T). The increase in the volume of
temperature of mixture will be : the sphere is approximately :
(a) 0°C (b) 40°C (a) 2R T (b) R2 T
(c) 10°C (d) 15°C (c) 4R3 T/3 (d) 4R3 T
13. Two metal rods A and B are having their initial length in Calorimetry
the ratio 2 : 3 and the co-efficients of linear expansion in
19. Relation between molar and principal specific heat of gases
the ratio 3 : 4. When they are heated through the same
temperature difference, the ratio of their linear expansion (a) Cp = Mcp (b) Cp = M + cp
is (c) cp = MCp (d) Cp = M – cp
(a) 3 : 4 (b) 1 : 2 20. Liquids at temperature 60°C and 20°C, respectively, have
mass ratio 3 : 4 and their specific heats in the ratio 4 : 5. If
(c) 2 : 3 (d) 4 : 3
the two liquid mixed, the resultant temperature
14. A bi-metallic strip is made of two strips A and B having
(a) 70°C (b) 0°C
co-efficients of linear expansion A and B. If A <B,
then on heating the strip will (c) 35°C (d) 40°C
21. Heat given to a body which raises its temperature by 1°C
(a) bend with A on outer side
is
(b) bend with B on outer side
(a) water equivalent (b) thermal capacity
(c) not bend at all (c) specific heat (d) temperature gradient
(d) None of these 22. If m is the mass,  is temp. and ‘s’ is specific heat, then
15. Two rods of different materials having coefficients of thermal capacity K is given by
thermal expansion 1 and 2 and Young’s moduli Y1 and (a) K = ms  (b) K = m 
Y2 respectively are fixed between two rigid massive walls.
The rods are heated such that these undergo the same ms
(c) K  (d) K = ms
increase in temperature. There is no bending of the rods. 
If 1 : 2 = 2 : 3, the thermal stresses developed in the two 23. Dimensions of latent heat are
rods are equal, provided Y1 : Y2 is
(a) [M1 L2 T–2] (b) [M0 L2 T–2]
(a) 2 : 3 (b) 1 : 1
(c) [M1 L1 T–1] (d) [M1 L 1 T–2]
(c) 3 : 2 (d) 4 : 9 24. Equal masses of two liquids A and B contained in vessels
16. Which of the following qualities are best suited for a of negligible heat capacity are supplied heat at the same
cooking utensil rate. The (temperature vs time) graphs for the two liquids
(a) high specific heat and low thermal conductivity are shown in figure. If S represents specific heat and L
represents latent heat of liquid, then
(b) high specific heat and high thermal conductivity
(c) low specific heat and low thermal conductivity
(d) low specific heat and high thermal conductivity
17. What should be the lengths of steel and copper rods at
0°C so that the length of the steel rod is 5 cm longer than
the copper rod at any temperature?
 (Steel) = 1.1 × 10–5 °C–1 and
 (Copper) = 1.7 × 10–5 °C–1
(a) 14.17 cm, 9.17 cm (b) 9.17 cm, 14.17 cm
(a) SA > SB ; LA < LB (b) SA > SB ; LA > LB
(c) 28.34 cm, 18.34 cm (d) 14.17 cm, 18.34 cm
(c) SA < SB ; LA < LB (d) SA < SB ; LA > LB
18. The radius of a metal sphere at room temperature T is R,
and the coefficient of linear expansion of the metal is .
The sphere is heated a little by a temperature T so that its
THERMAL PHYSICS 24

25. If mass-energy equivalence is taken into account, when water 30. Two metallic plates of equal thicknesses and thermal
is cooled to form ice, the mass of water should conductivities K1 and K2 are put together face to face and
(a) increase a common plate is constructed, figure. The equivalent
thermal conductivity will be:
(b) remain unchanged
(c) decrease k1 k2
(d) first increase then decrease l l

26. Three copper blocks of masses M 1, M 2 and M 3 kg, K1 K 2 2K1 K 2

respectively are brought into thermal contact till they reach (a) K  K (b) K  K
1 2 1 2
equilibrium. Before contact, they were at temperatures T1,
T2, T3 (T1 > T2 > T3). Assuming there is no heat loss to the
K  K 22 
2 3/ 2

surroundings, the equilibrium temperature T is : K1  K 2 1

(c) (d)
2 2K1 K 2
(s is specific heat of copper)
31. Two metallic plates of equal lengths and thermal
T  T2  T3 conductivities k1 and k2 are put together such that their
(a) T  1
3 ends coincide. If their cross-sectional areas are the same,
then the equivalent thermal conductivity of the combination
M1T1  M 2 T2  M 3 T3 will be :
(b) T 
M1  M 2  M 3 A k1

A k2
M1T1  M 2 T2  M 3 T3
(c) T 
3  M1  M 2  M 3 
k1 k 2 2k1k 2
(a) k  k (b) k  k
1 2 1 2
M1T1s  M 2 T2 s  M 3 T3s
(d) T 
M1  M 2  M 3 k1  k 2
(c) (d) k1 k 2
2
Heat Transfer
Heat Transfer, Conduction and Convection Radiation

27. Dimension of co-efficient of thermal conductivity are 32. A sphere, a cube and a thin circular plate, all of same
material and same mass, are initially heated to same high
(a) [L0M1T–3–1] (b) [L1M1T–3–1]
temperature. Choose the correct statement.
(c) [L1M1T–3] (d) [L1M–1T–2–1]
(a) The plate will cool fastest and cube the slowest.
28. Two metal rods A and B of equal lengths and equal cross
(b) The sphere will cool fastest and cube the slowest.
sectional areas are joined end-to-end. The co-efficients of
thermal conductivity of A and B are in the ratio 2 : 3. When (c) The plate will cool fastest and sphere the slowest.
the free end of A is maintained at 100°C and the free end of (d) The cube will cool fastest and plate the slowest.
B is maintained at 0°C, the temperature of the junction is 33. Velocity of heat radiation v as related to the velocity of
(a) 30°C (b) 40°C light c is
(c) 50°C (d) 60°C (a) v > c (b) v = c
29. In steady state (c) v < c (d) no definite relation
(a) temperature does not change with time 34. Heat is transferred most rapidly by the process of
(b) all parts of the body are at same temperature (a) Conduction (b) Convection
(c) there is no flow of heat (c) Radiation (d) Combustion
(d) all of the above
THERMAL PHYSICS 25

Questions marked with asterisk (*) are 38*. A body cools from 50°C to 46°C in 5 minutes and to 40°C in
the next 10 minutes. The surrounding temperature is :
deleted from JEE Main
35. Two circular discs A and B with equal radii are blackened. (a) 30°C (b) 28°C
They are heated to same temperature and then cooled under (c) 36°C (d) 32°C
identical conditions. What inference do you draw from
39*. Newton’s law of cooling is used in laboratory for
their cooling curves as shown in figure?
determining:
R is rate of colling
(a) Specific heat of gases (b) Specific heat of liquids
B
(c) Latent heat of gases (d) Latent heat of liquids
40*. If the rate of change of temperature is 0.2°C/ min and excess
R A
temperature of a body over surrounding is 20°C, the
constant of proportionality is
(a) 0.1 (b) 0.01
( – 0) (c) 1 (d) 0.001
(a) A and B have same specific heats
(b) specific heat of A is less 41*. Newton’s law of cooling is applicable for
(c) specific heat of B is less (a) Any excess of temperature over the surrounding
(d) nothing can be said (b) Small excess of temperature over the surrounding
36. The temperature of coffee in a cup with time is most likely
given by the curve in figure. (c) Large excess of temperature over the surrounding
(d) Very large excess of temperature over the surrounding
42*. Newton’s law of cooling leads us to the following
Temperature

Temperature

expression,
(a) (b) (a) ( – 0) = Kt + C (b) log ( – 0) = –Kt + C
(c) log  = Kt + C (d)  = K0 + C
Time Time
43. Two spheres of the same material have radii 1 m and 4 m
and temperatures 4000 K and 2000 K respectively. The
ratio of the energy radiated per second by the first sphere
Temperature

Temperature

to that by the second is

(c) (d) (a) 1 : 1 (b) 16 : 1

Time Time
(c) 4 : 1 (d) 1 : 9

37*. A block of steel heated to 100°C is left in a room to cool. 44. Which of the following is more close to a black body ?
Which of the curves shown in the figure represents the (b) Black board paint (b) Green leaves
decrease of temperature with time?
(c) Black holes (d) Red roses
45. Infrared radiations are detected by
D
C (a) spectrometer (b) pyrometer
Temperature

B
A (c) nanometer (d) photometer

Time
(a) A (b) B
(c) C (d) D
THERMAL PHYSICS 26

Questions marked with asterisk (*) are 50*. A piece of metal is heated to temperature  and then allowed
to cool in a room which is at temperature 0. The graph
deleted from JEE Main
between the temperature T of the metal and time t will be
46*. A liquid in a beaker has temperature (t) at time t and 0 is closed to :
temperature of surroundings, then according to Newton’s
law of cooling, the correct graph between loge ( – 0) and T
t is : (a) T
(b)

O t O t

T T
(c) (d)
O t O t

51. If the temperature of the sun were to increase from T to 2T

and its radius from R to 2R, then the ratio of the radiant
energy received on earth to what it was previously, will be
(a) 4 (b) 16
(c) 32 (d) 64
Numerical Value Type Questions
52. In two experiments with a continuous flow - calorimeter
to determine the specific heat capacity of a liquid, an input
power of 16 W produced a rise of 10 K in the liquid. When
the power was doubled, the same temperature rise was
achieved by making the rate of flow of liquid three times
47. The wavelength corresponding to radiation of maximum faster. Find the power lost (in W) to the surroundings in
inersity is 4m. Find the wavelength of radiation with each case.
maximum intensity at 1200K.
53. Two rectangular blocks, having identical dimensions, can
(a) 3 m (b) 0.3 m be arranged either in configuration I or in configuration II
(c) l m (d) none of these as shown in the figure. One of the blocks has thermal
conductivity K and other 2K. The temperature difference
48*. A bucket full of hot water is kept in a room and it cools between the ends along the x-axis is the same in both the
from 75°C to 70°C in T1 minutes, from 70°C to 65°C in T2 configurations. It takes 9s to transport certain amount of
minutes and from 65°C to 60°C in T3 minutes then heat from the hot end in the configuration I. The time (in
seconds) to transport the same amount of heat in the
(a) T1 = T2 = T3 (b) T1 < T2 > T3 configuration II is
(c) T1 > T2 > T3 (d) T1 < T2 < T3
49. Assuming the sun to be a spherical body of radius R at a
temperature of T K, evaluate the total radiant power,
incident on earth, at a distance r from the sun, where r0 is
radius of earth

4r02 R 2 T 4 r02 R 2 T 4
(a) (b)
r2 r2

r02 R 2 T 4 R 2 T 4
(c) (d)
4r 2 r2
THERMAL PHYSICS 27

54. A rod has variable coefficient of linear expansion

x
 , where x is the distance from one end of the
5000
rod. If the length of the rod is 1m then find the increase in
length of the rod (in cm) on increasing temperature of the
rod by 100oC.
55. A metal rod AB of length 10x has its one end A in ice at
0°C and the other end B in water at 100 C. If a point P on
the rod is maintained at 400° C, then it is found that equal
amounts of water evaporate and ice melt per unit time. 62. Length of a uniform rod varies with temperature (T)
The latent heat of evaporation of water is 540 cal/g and (in °C) as L  L 0 (1  aT  bT 2 ) , where L0 is length at 0°C.
latent heat of melting of ice is 80 cal/g. If the point P is at
a distance of x from the end A, find the value of . [Neglect Thermal coefficient of linear expansion(α)for this rod at
heat loss to the surroundings.] a  b
56. Two cylindrical rods of lengths l1 and l2 radii r1 and r2, 5°C is . Find 
1  5a  25b
have thermal conductivities k1 and k2, respectively. The
63. Steel wire of length ‘L’ at 40°C is suspended from the
ends of the rods are maintained at the same temperature
ceiling and then a mass ‘m’ is hung from its free end. The
difference. If l1 = 2l2 and r2 = 2r1, the rates of heat flow in
wire is cooled down from 40°C to 30°C to regain its original
k1 length ‘L’. The coefficient of linear thermal expansion of
them will be the same if is steel is 10–5/°C Young’s modulus of steel is 1011 N/m2 and
k2
radius of the wire is 1 mm. Assume that L >> diameter of
57. Two metallic spheres S1 and S2 are made of the same
wire. Then the value of ‘m’ in kg to the closest integet is
material and have identical surface finish. The mass of S1
64. Three rods of equal length l are joined to form an equilateral
is three times that of S2. Both the spheres are heated the
triangle PQR. O is the midpoint of PQ. Distance OR remains
same high temperature and placed in the same room having
the same for small changes in temperature. Coefficient of
lower temperature but are thermally insulated from each
linear expansion for PR and RQ is the same, i.e, 2 and for
other. The ratio of the initial rate of cooling of S1 to that of
PQ is 1. Then find the Ratio 1 : 2.
1
 1 x
S2 is   where x is:
x
58. Two planets X and Y revolving around the sun in circular
orbits, have temperature of their surfaces as T1 and T2. If
their distances from the sun are in the ratio of 1:4, then
find T1 : T2. Assume the planets to be in the steady state,
and the sun and the planets to be black-bodies. Neglect
the energy exchange between the two planets.
59. An ice cube at 0°C measures 10 cm of a side. It sits on top
of a copper block with square cross section 10cm × 10cm
and length of 20cm. The other end of the block of copper
is in contact with large pool of water kept at 90°C.
Conductivity of copper is 400 W/mK and density of ice is
0.9 gm/cc. In what time (in sec) is ice completely melted? 65. The coefficient of volume expansion for benzene is
Assume that ice cube melts only from surface in contact 2 × 10–3 K–1 and its bulk modulus of elasticity is 104 Pa.
with copper. (J = 4.2 J/cal, Lice =80 cal/g) What pressure (in Pa) must be applied to it such that
60. M grams of steam at 100°C is mixed with 200 gm of ice at volume of benzene remains unchanged when heated by
its melting point in a thermally insulated container. If it 0.1°C?
produces liquid water at 40°C [heat of vaporization of 66. The coefficient of linear expansion of a metal is 0.0044
water is 540 cal/g and heat of fusion of ice is 80 cal/g], the K–1. A simple pendulum clock, whose pendulum is made
value of M is______ up of the same metal, is designed to give correct reading
61. Six identical conducting rods are joined as shown in at 0°C. The clock is being used at 100°C. The time (in hrs)
figure. Points A and D are maintained at temperatures 200° that the clock will gain or lose in one day is T. Write the
C and 20°C respectively. The temperature of junction B value of T+1 if the clock loses time. Write the value of T+2
(in °C) will be if the clock gains time. Quote the nearest integer value.
THERMAL PHYSICS 28

EXERCISE – 2: PREVIOUS YEARS JEE MAINS QUESTIONS

Questions marked with asterisk (*) are 5. A 100 g of iron nail is bit by a 1.5 kg hammer striking
at a velocity of 60 ms–1. What will be the rise in the
deleted from JEE Main temperature of the nail if one fourth of energy of the
1. At what temperature a gold ring of diameter 6.230 cm hammer goes into heating the nail ? [5pecific heat
be heated so that it can be fitted on a wooden bangle of capacity of iron = 0.42 Jg–1 °C–1] (JEE Main 2022)
diameter 6.241cm? Both the diameters have been (a) 675°C (b) 1600°C
measured at room temperature (27°C). (Given: (c) 17.85°C (d) 6.75°C
coefficient of linear thermal expansion of gold 6. A solid metallic cube having total surface area 24 m2 is
 L  1.4  10 5 K 1 ) (JEE Main 2022) uniformly heated. If its temperature is increased by
(a) 125.7°C (b) 91.7°C 10°C calculate the increase in volume of the cube.
(c) 425.7°C (d) 152.7°C (Given   5.0  104 C 1 ). (JEE Main 2022)
2. An ice cube of dimensions 60 cm × 50 cm × 20 cm is 6
(a) 2.4 × 10 cm 3
(b) 1.2 × 105 cm3
placed in an insulation box of wall thickness 1 cm. The 4
(c) 6.0 × 10 cm 3
(d) 4.8 × 105 cm3
box keeping the ice cube at 0°C of temperature is
7. A copper block of mass 5.0 kg is heated to a
brought to a room of temperature 40°C. The rate of
melting of ice is approximately: (Latent heat of fusion temperature of 500°C and is placed on a large ice
of ice is 3.4 × 105 J kg–1and thermal conducting of block. What is the maximum amount of ice that can
insulation wall is 0.05 Wm–10C–1) melt? (JEE Main 2022)
(JEE Main 2022) (a) 1.5 kg (b) 5.8 kg
(a) 61 × 10–1 kg s–1 (b) 61 × 10–5 kg s–1 (c) 2.9 kg (d) 3.8 kg
–1
(c) 208 kg s (d) 30 × 10–5 kg s–1 8. A block of ice of mass 120 g at temperature 0°C is put
3. If K1 and K2 are the thermal conductivities L1 and L2
in 300 gm of water at 25°C. The xg of ice melts as the
are the lengths and A1 and A2 are the cross sectional
areas of steel and copper rods respectively such that temperature of the water reaches 0°C. The value of x is
K2 A L [Use: Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 JKg–1K–1,
 9, 1  2, 1  2 . Then, for the arrangement as Latent heat of ice = 3.5 × 105 Jkg–1]
K1 A2 L2
(JEE Main 2022)
shown in the figure. The value of temperature T of the
steel – copper junction in the steady state will be : 9*. In an experiment to verify Newton's law of cooling, a
(JEE Main 2022) graph is plotted between, the temperature difference
(ΔT) of the water and surroundings and time as shown
in figure. The initial temperature of water is taken as
80°C. The value of t2 as mentioned in the graph will
be___________. (JEE Main 2022)

(a) 18°C (b) 14°C

(c) 45°C (d) 150°C
4. Two metallic blocks M1 and M2 of same area of cross-
section are connected to each other (as shown in
figure). If the thermal conductivity of M2 is K then the
thermal conductivity of M1 will be: [Assume steady 10*. A steam engine intakes 50 g of steam at 100°C per
state heat conduction] minute and cools it down to 20°C. If latent heat of
(JEE Main 2022) vaporization of steam is 540 cal g–1, then the heat
rejected by the steam engine per minute is ______ ×
103 cal (JEE Main 2022)
11. A geyser heats water flowing at a rate of 2.0 kg per
(a) 10 K (b) 8 K
minute from 30° to 70°C. If geyser operates on a gas
(c) 12.5 K (d) 2K
burner, the rate of combustion of fuel will be ___ g
min–1. (JEE Main 2022)
THERMAL PHYSICS 29

Questions marked with asterisk (*) are (Given latent heat of vaporisation = 2257 kJ/kg,
Atmospheric pressure = 1 × 105 Pa)
deleted from JEE Main (JEE Main 2023)
12. 1g of a liquid is converted to vapour at 3 × 105 Pa (a) – 2090 kJ (b) + 2090 kJ
pressure. If 10% of the heat supplied is used for (c) – 2426 kJ (d) + 2476 kJ
increasing the volume by 1600 cm3 during this phase
18*. A body cools from 80°C to 60°C in 5 minutes. The
change, then the increase in internal energy in the
temperature of the surrounding is 20°C. The time it
process will be : (JEE Main 2023)
takes to cool from 60°C to 40°C is:
(a) 4320 J (b) 432000 J
(JEE Main 2023)
(c) 4800 J (d) 4.32 × 108 J
25
13*. A bowl filled with very hot soup cools from 98o C to (a) 500 s (b) s
3
86o C in 2 minutes when the room temperature is 22o
(c) 420 s (d) 450 s
C. How long it will take to cool from 75o C to 69o C.
19. A hole is drilled in a metal sheet. At 27°C, the
(JEE Main 2023)
diameter of hole is 5 cm. When the sheet is heated to
(a) 2 minutes (b) 1.4 minutes
177°C, the change in the diameter of hole is d × 10-3
(c) 0.5 minute (d) 1 minute
cm. The value of d will be _______ if coefficient of
14. Heat energy of 184 kJ is given to ice of mass 600 g at
linear expansion of the metal is 1.6 × 10-5 /°C.
12C , Specific heat of ice is 2222.3Jkg 1 C 1 and (JEE Main 2023)
latent heat of ice in 336 kJ / kg 1 . 20*. A body cools from 60ºC to 40ºC in 6 minutes. If,
(A) Final temperature of system will be 0 C . temperature of surroundings is 10ºC. Then, after the
(B) Final temperature of the system will be greater next 6 minutes, its temperature will be ____ ºC.
than 0 C . (JEE Main 2023)
21. A thin rod having a length of 1m and area of cross-
(C) The final system will have a mixture of ice and
water in the ratio of 5 : 1. section 3  106 m 2 is suspended vertically from one
(D) The final system will have a mixture of ice and end. The rod is cooled from 210 C to 160 C . After
water in the ratio of 1 : 5. cooling, a mass M is attached at the lower end of the
(E) The final system will have water only. rod such that the length of rod again becomes 1m .
Choose the correct answer from the options given Young's modulus and coefficient of linear expansion
below: (JEE Main 2023) of the rod are 2  1011 Nm 2 and 2  10 5 K 1 ,
(a) A and D only (b) B and D only
respectively. The value of M is kg.
(c) A and E only (d) A and C only
(Take g  10 ms 2 ) (JEE Main 2023)
15*. A body cools in 7 minutes from 60°C to 40°C. The
22. A water heater of power 2000 W is used to heat water.
temperature of the surrounding is 10°C. The
The specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J kg-1 K-1 .
temperature of the body after the next 7 minutes will
The efficiency of heater is 70%. Time required to heat
be: (JEE Main 2023)
2 kg of water from 10°C to 60°C is S.
(a) 34°C (b) 32°C
(Assume that the specific heat capacity of water
(c) 28°C (d) 30°C
remains constant over the temperature range of the
16. On a temperature scale 'X', the boiling point of water is
water). (JEE Main 2023)
65° X and the freezing point is – 15°X. Assume that
23. Two plates A and B have thermal conductivities
the X scale is linear. The equivalent temperature
corresponding to –95° X on the Farenheit scale would 84 Wm 1 K 1 and 126 Wm 1K 1 respectively. They
be: (JEE Main 2023) have same surface area and same thickness. They are
(a) – 148°F (b) – 112°F placed in contact along their surfaces. If the
(c) – 48°F (d) – 63°F temperatures of the outer surfaces of A and B are kept
17. 1 kg of water at 100°C is converted into steam at at 100°C and 0°C respectively, then the temperature of
100°C by boiling at atmosphericpressure. The volume the surface of contact in steady state is __________
of water changes from 1.00  103 m3 as a liquid to °C. (JEE Main 2023)
1.671 m3 as steam. The change in internal energy of
the system during the process will be
THERMAL PHYSICS 30

24. The resistances of the platinum wire of a platinum 27. Two conductors have the same resistances at 0°C but
resistance thermometer at the ice point and steam their temperature coefficients of resistance are 1
point are 8 and 10 respectively. After inserting
and 2 . The respective temperature coefficients for
in a hot bath of temperature 400°C, the resistance of
platinum wire is: (JEE Main 2024) their series and parallel combinations are :
(a) 10 (b) 8 (JEE Main 2024)
(c) 16 (d) 2 1  2 1  2 1  2
(a) 1  2 , (b) ,
25. At room temperature (27°C), the resistance of a 2 2 2
heating element is 50 . The temperature coefficient    2
(c) 1   2 , 1 2 (d) 1 , 1  2
of the material is 2.4×10–4 °C–1. The temperature of 1   2 2
the element, when its resistance is 62 , is _____ .°C
(JEE Main 2024)
26. A block of ice at –10°C is slowly heated and
converted to steam at 100°C. Which of the following
curves represent the phenomenon qualitatively:
(JEE Main 2024)

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
THERMAL PHYSICS 31

EXERCISE - 3: ADVANCED OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

Heat, temperature and calorimetry 5. If two rods of length L and 2L, having coefficient of linear
expansion  and 2 respectively are connected end–on–
Single Choice Questions
end, the average coefficient of linear expansion of the
1. Find the ratio of the lengths of an iron rod and an aluminium composite rod, equals :
rod for which the difference in the lengths is independent
of temperature. Coefficients of linear expansion of iron and 3 5
aluminium are 12 × 10–6/°C and 23 × 10–6/°C respectively. (a)  (b) 
2 2
(a) 23 : 12 (b) 12 : 23
5
(c) data insufficient (d) Not possible (c)  (d) none of these
3
2. Two rods of different materials having coefficients of thermal
expansion 1, 2 and Young’s modulli Y1, Y2 respectively 6. The coefficient of volume expansion of glycerin is
are fixed between two rigid massive walls. The rods are 49 × 10–5 K–1. What is the fractional change in its density
heated such that they undergo the same increase in for a 30°C rise in temperature ?
temperature. There is no bending of the rods. If1 : 2 = 2 (a) increases by 0.015 (b) increases by 0.005
: 3, the thermal stresses developed in the two rods are equal
(c) decreases by 0.015 (d) decreases by 0.005
provided Y1 : Y2 is equal to :
7. A steel rod is clamped at its two ends and rests on a fixed
horizontal base. The rod is unstrained at 20°C. Find the
longitudinal strain developed in the rod if the temperature
rises to 50°C. Coefficient of linear expansion of steel = 1.2
× 10–5/°C.
(a) 6 × 10–4 (b) 3.6 × 10–5
(c) 2.4 × 10–4 (d) 3.6 × 10–4

(a) 2 : 3 (b) 1 : 1 8. A wooden wheel of radius R is made of two semicircular

parts (see figure). The two parts are held together by a ring
(c) 3 : 2 (d) 4 : 9 made of a metal strip of cross-sectional area S and length L.
3. A blacksmith fixes iron ring on the rim of the wooden wheel L is slightly less than 2R. To fit the ring on the wheel, it is
of a bullock cart. The diameter of the rim and the iron ring heated so that its temperature rises by T and it just steps
are 5.243 m and 5.231 m respectively at 27°C. To what over the wheel. As it cools down to surrounding temperature,
temperature should the ring be heated so as to fit the rim of it presses the semicircular parts together. If the coefficient
the wheel ? ( for iron = 1.2 × 10–5/°C) of linear expansion of the metal is  and its Young’s modulus
is Y, the force that one part of the wheel applies on the other
(a) 191 °C (b) 254 °C
part is
(c) 218 °C (d) 164 °C
4. A hole is drilled in a copper sheet. The diameter of the hole
is 4.24 cm at 27.0°C. What is the change in the diameter of
the hole when the sheet is heated to 227°C ? Coefficient of
linear expansion of copper = 1.70 × 10–5 K–1.
(a) Diameter decreases by 7.2 × 10–3 cm
(b) Diameter increases by 7.2 × 10–3 cm
(c) Diameter decreases by 1.44 × 10–2 cm
(a) 2SYT (b) SYT
(d) Diameter increases by 1.44 × 10–2 cm
(c) SYT (d) 2SYT
THERMAL PHYSICS 32

9. A sphere of aluminium of 0.06 kg placed for sufficient time 14. A copper block of mass 2.5 kg is heated in a furnace to a
in a vessel containing boiling water, so that the sphere is at temperature of 500 °C and then placed on a large ice block.
100°C. It is then immediately transfered a vessel containing What is the maximum amount of ice that can melt ? (Specific
0.25 kg of water at 20°C. The temperature of water rises and heat of copper = 0.39 J g–1 K–1; heat of fusion of water = 335 J
attains a steady state at 24°C. Calculate the specific heat g–1).
capacity of aluminium. (neglect heat loss to vessel and (a) 2.6 kg (b) 10 kg
surroundings)
(c) 3.8 kg (d) 1.5 kg
(a) 870 J kg–1 k–1 (b) 1024 J kg–1 k–1
15. A block of ice of mass M = 10 kg is moved back and forth
(c) 921 J kg–1 k–1 (d) 708 J kg–1 k–1 over the flat horizontal surface of a large block of ice. Both
10. A metal block is made from a mixture of 2.4 kg of aluminium blocks are at 0°C and the force that produces the back–and
1.6 kg of brass and 0.8 kg of copper. The amount of heat –forth motion acts only horizontally. The coefficient of
required to raise the temperature of this block from 20°C to friction between the two surfaces is 0.060. If m = 15.2 g of
80°C is (specific heats of aluminium, brass and copper are water is produced, the total distance travelled by the upper
0.216,0.0917 and 0.0931 cal/kg°C respectively): block relative to the lower is : (Lice = 3.34 × 105 J/kg)
(a) 96.2 cal (b) 44.4 cal (a) 432 m (b) 863 m
(c) 86.2 cal (d) 62.8 cal (c) 368 m (d) 216 m
11. Suppose the specific heat capacity of a substance is varying Multiple Choice Questions
with temperature according to, s = A + BT2 where A and B 16. Two identical beakers are filled with water to the same level
are positive constants and T is temperature in °C. If at 4°C. If one say A is heated while the other B is cooled,
temperature of m kg of this substance has to raise from T°C then:
to 2T°C, then the amount of energy supplied to the substance
is (a) water level in A will rise
(b) water level in B will rise
 7BT 3   5BT 3  (c) water level in A will fall
(a) m  AT  J (b) m  AT  J
 3   3 
(d) water level in B will fall
(c) m [AT + 2BT3] J (b) None of these 17. An aluminium sphere of 20 cm diameter is heated from 0°C
12. A mass of a material exists in its solid form at its melting to 100°C. Its volume changes by (given that coefficient of
temperature 10°C. The following processes then occur to linear expansion for aluminium Al = 23 × 10–6/°C)
the material. (a) 28.9 cc (b) 2.89 cc
Process I : An amount of thermal energy Q is added to the (c) 9.28 cc (d) 49.8 cc
material and 3/4 of the material melts.
Assertion & Reason
Process II : An identical additional amount of thermal energy
Q is added to the material and the material is now a liquid at (A) Statement–I is True, Statement–II is True; Statement–II is a
50°C. correct explanation for Statement–I.

What is the ratio of the latent heat of fusion to the specific (B) Statement–I is True, Statement–II is True; Statement–2 is
heat of the liquid for this material ? NOT a correct explanation for Statement–I.

(a) 80°C (b) 60°C (C) Statement–I is True, Statement–II is False.

(c) 40°C (d) None of these (D) Statement–I is False, Statement–II is True.

13. When 0.15 kg of ice of 0°C mixed with 0.30 kg of water at 18. Statement -1 : A drop of cool water accidentally falls on an
50°C in a container, the resulting temperature is 6.7°C. incandescent lamp which is continuously glowing from long
Calculate the heat of fusion of ice. time, then the bulb breaks.

(swater = 4186 J kg–1 K–1) Statement -2 : As temperature of an object decreases then

it tries to contract and thermal contraction occurs.
(a) 3.34 × 105 J kg–1 k–1 (b) 3.63 × 105 J kg–1 k–1
(a) A (b) B
(c) 3.34 × 106 J kg–1 k–1 (d) 4.19 × 105 J kg–1 k–1
(c) C (d) D
THERMAL PHYSICS 33

19. Statement - 1 : The expanded length l of a rod of original 23. A wall has two layers A and B, each made of different material.
length l0 is not correctly given by (assuming  to be constant Both the layers have the same thickness. The thermal
with T) l = l0 (1 + T), conductivity for A is twice that of B and, under steady
if T is large. condition, the temperature difference across the wall is 36°C.
Statement - 2: It is given by l = l0 eT, which cannot be The temperature difference across the layer A is:
treated as being approximately equal to l = l0 (1 + T) for (a) 6°C (b) 12°C
large values of T.
(c) 24°C (d) 18°C
(a) A (b) B
24. Three rods of same dimensions have thermal conductivities
(c) C (d) D
3k, 2k and k. They are arranged as shown, with their ends at
20. Statement - 1 : The coefficient of volume expansion has 100°C, 50°C and 0°C. The temperature of their junction is :
dimension K–1.
Statement - 2 : The coefficient of volume expansion is
defined as the change in volume per unit volume per unit
change in temperature.
(a) A (b) B
(c) C (d) D
Heat transfer
Assertion & Reason
(A) Statement–I is True, Statement–II is True; Statement–II is a 200
(a) 75°C (b) C
correct explanation for Statement–I. 3
(B) Statement–I is True, Statement–II is True; Statement–2 is
NOT a correct explanation for Statement–I. 100
(c) 40°C (d) C
3
(C) Statement–I is True, Statement–II is False.
(D) Statement–I is False, Statement–II is True. 25. Equal temperature differences exist between the ends of two
metallic rods 1 and 2 of equal lengths. Their thermal
21. Statement - 1 : In natural convection, the fluid motion is
conductivities are Kl and K2 and area of cross-section are
caused by density difference produced by temperature
Al and A2, respectively. The condition of equal rates of heat
gradient.
transfer is :
Statement - 2 : In forced convection, the fluid is forced to
flow along the solid surface by means of fans or pumps. (a) K1A2 =K2A1 (b) K1A1 = K2A2
(a) A (b) B (b) K1A12 = K2A22 (d) K12A2 = K22A1
(c) C (d) D 26. Two rods of copper and brass (KC > KB ) of same length
22. One end of a thermally insulated rod is kept at a temperature and area of cross-section are joined as shown. End A is kept
T1 and the other at T2. The rod is composed of two sections at 100°C and end B at 0°C. The temperature at the junction:
of lengths l1 and l2 and thermal conductivities K1 and K2
respectively. The temperature at the interface of the two A Copper Brass B
sections is
(a) will be more than 50°C
l1 l2
T1 T2 (b) will be less than 50°C
(c) will be 50°C
(d) may be more or less than 50°C depending upon the size
of rods
K1 K2
(a) (K2l2T1 + K1l1T2)/(K1l1 + K2l2)
(b) (K2l1T1 + K1l2T2)/(K2l1 + K1l2)
(c) (K1l2T1 + K2l1T2)/(K1l2 + K2l1)
(d) (K1l1T1 + K2l2T2)/(K1l1 + K2l2)
THERMAL PHYSICS 34

27. A long metallic bar is carrying heat from one of its ends to 30. The length of the two rods made up of the same metal and
the other end under steady–state. The variation of having the same area of cross-section are 0.6 m 0.8 m and
temperature  along the length x of the bar from its hot end respectively. The temperature between the ends of first rod
is best described by which of the following figure ? is 90°C and 60°C and that for the other rod is 150°C and
110°C. For which rod the rate of conduction will be greater
(a) first (b) second
(c) same for both (d) none of these
31. A ring consisting of two parts ADB and ACB of same
conductivity K carries an amount of heat H. The ADB part
is now replaced with another metal keeping the temperatures
T1 and T2 constant. The heat carried increases to 2 H. What
should be the conductivity of the new ADB part ? Given

ACB
 3:
ADB

28. The temperature of the two outer surface of a composite

slab, consisting of two materials having coefficients of
thermal conductivity K and 2K thickness x and 4x,
respectively are T2 and T1 (T2 > T1). The rate of heat transfer

 A  T2  T1  K 
through the slab, in a steady state is  x
 f, with
 
f equals to

x 4x

7
(a) K (b) 2 K
3
T2 K 2K T1

5
(c) K (d) 3 K
2

32. Water is being boiled in a flat bottomed kettle placed on a

(a) 1 (b) 1/2
stove. The area of the bottom is 300 cm2 and the thickness
(c) 2/3 (d) 1/3
is 2 mm. If the amount of steam produced is 1g min–1, then
29. Two identical square rods of metal are welded end to end as the difference of the temperature between the inner and the
shown in figure (i), 20 cal of heat flows through it in 4 min. outer surface of the bottom is : (thermal conductivity of the
If the rods are welded as shown in figure (ii), the same material of the kettle = 0.5 cal–cm–1 °C–1 S–1 and latent
amount of heat will flow through the rods in : heat of the steam is equal to 540 cal g–1)
(a) 12°C (b) 1.2°C
(c) 0.2°C (d) 0.012°C

(a) 1 min (b) 2 min

(c) 4 min (d) 16 min
THERMAL PHYSICS 35

Use the following passage, solve Q. 33 to Q. 36 36. A cylindrical rod of length 50 cm and cross–sectional area 1
PASSAGE –1 cm2 is fitted between a large ice chamber at 0°C and an
evacuated chamber maintained at 27°C as shown in figure.
The rate of flow of heat depends on the nature of material,
Only small portions of the rod are inside the chambers and
cross-sectional area and temperature gradient. If a material
the rest is thermally insulated from the surrounding. The
of conductivity k has set up a temperature gradient in x
cross–section going into the evacuated chamber is blackened
direction, then rate of heat flow at cross-section having area
so that it completely absorbs any radiations falling on it.
dQ dT The temperature of the blackened end is 17°C when steady
A is kA
dt dx state is reached. Stefan constant  = 6 × 10–8 W/m2–K4. Find
the thermal conductivity of the material of the rod.
Between any two points of conductor, if temperature difference
is T and rate of heat flow is H, then the resistance or
17°C
T
opposition offered by the material to flow is defined as = .
H 0°C 27°C
Now consider two very thin concentric metallic shells A and 37. A hot body, obeying Newton’s law of cooling is cooling
B of radii R1 and R2 (R2 > R1) and temperature T1 and T2 down from its peak value 800C to an ambient temperature
(T1 > T2) respectively. The hollow space between them is of 300C. It takes 5 minutes in cooling down from 800C to
filled with sand of thermal conductivity k. 400C. How much time will it take to cool down from 620C
33. Thermal resistance offered by the sand is to 320C? (Given ln 2 = 0.693, ln 5 = 1.609)
(a) 3.75 minutes (b) 8.6 minutes
1  1 1  1  1 1 
(a)    (b) 4k  R  R  (c) 6.5 minutes (d) 9.6 minutes
2k  R1 R 2   1 2 
38. If wavelength of maximum intensity of radiation emitted
by sun and moon are 0.5 × 10–6 m and 10–4 m respectively
 1 1   1 1  the ratio of their temperature is :
(c) 4k    (d) 2k   
 R1 R 2   R1 R 2  (a) 2000 (b) 1000
34. The rate of heat flow through the sand is (c) 100 (d) 200
39. In the figure, the distribution of energy density of the
R1R 2 R1R 2
(a) 4k  T1  T2  (b) 2k  T1  T2  radiation emitted by a black body at a given temperature is
R1  R 2 R1  R 2 shown. The possible temperature of the black body is :

 T1  T2   1 1   T1  T2   1 1 
(c)    (d)   
4k  R1 R2  2k R
 1 R 2 

35. The temperature T of a point at distance r from the centre in

steady state condition where R1 < r < R2 is

 R 2  r  R1  
(a)  T1  T2   r R  R 
  2 1 

 R  r  R1  
(b) T1   T1  T2   2
 r  R  R  
 2 1  (a) 1500 K (b) 2000 K
(c) 2500 K (d) 3000 K
 R 1  r  R1   40. If a black body radiates 10 cal/s at 227°C, it will radiate at
(c)  T1  T2   r R  R 
  2 1 
727°C :
(a) 10 cal/s (b) 80 cal/s
 R r  R2   (c) 160 cal/s (d) none of these
(d) T1   T1  T2   1
 r  R  R  
 2 1 
THERMAL PHYSICS 36

41. A body cools from 50°C to 40°C in 5 min. The surrounding

d
temperature is 20°C. In what further time (in min) will it 45. In Newton’s law of cooling,  k    0  , the constant
dt
cool to 30°C?
‘k’ is proportional to :
15 (a) A, surface area of the body
(a) 5 (b)
2 (b) S, specific heat of the body

25 (c) 1/m, m being mass of the body

(c) (d) 10
3 (d) e, emmisivity of the body

42. If a body cools down from 80°C to 60°C in 10 min when the
temperature of the surrounding is 30°C. Then, the Assertion & Reason
temperature of the body after next 10 min will be : (A) Statement–I is True, Statement–II is True; Statement–II is a
(a) 50°C (b) 48°C correct explanation for Statement–I.
(c) 30°C (d) none of these (B) Statement–I is True, Statement–II is True; Statement–2 is
NOT a correct explanation for Statement–I.
43. A liquid cools from 50°C to 45°C in 5 min and from 45°C to
41.5°C in the next 5 min. The temperature of the surrounding (C) Statement–I is True, Statement–II is False.
is : (D) Statement–I is False, Statement–II is True.
(a) 27°C (b) 40.3°C 46. Statement - 1 : Two stars S1 and S2 radiate maximum energy
(c) 23.3°C (d) 33.3°C at 360 nm and 480 nm, respectively. Ratio of their absolute
temperature is 4 : 3.
Statement - 2 : According to Wien’s law T = b (constant).
Multiple Choice Questions
(a) A (b) B
44. Two identical objects A and B are at temperatures TA and
TB respectively. Both objects are placed in a room with (c) C (d) D
perfectly absorbing walls maintained at a temperature 47. A black body radiates power P and maximum energy is
T (TA > T > TB). The objects A and B attain the temperature radiated by it around a wavelength 0 . The temperature of
T eventually. Select the correct statements from the following the black body is now changed such that it radiates maximum
(a) A only emits radiations, while B only absorbs it until 3 0
energy around the wavelength . The power radiated by
both attain the temperature T. 4
(b) A loses more heat by radiation than it absorbs, while B it now is :
absorbs more radiation than it emits, until they attain the
256 27
temperature T (a) P (b) P
81 64
(c) Both A and B only absorb radiation, but do not emit it, until
they attain the temperature T. 64 81
(c) P (d) P
(d) Each object continues to emit and absorb radiation even 27 256
after attaining the temperature T. 48. The maximum energy in thermal radiations from a blackbody
occurs at wavelength 4000 Å. The effective temperature of
the source is :
(a) 7000 K (b) 80000 K
(c) 104 K (d) 106 K
THERMAL PHYSICS 37

Match the Column 50. A black coloured solid sphere of radius R and mass M is
49. A ball has surface temperature T initially at time t = 0, that is inside a cavity with vacuum inside. The walls of the cavity
less than surrounding constant temperature T 0. On the are maintained at temperature T0. The initial temperature
vertical axis of the graph shown has either thermal energy of the sphere is 3T0. If the specific heat of the material of
radiated/absorbed per unit time or total energy radiated/ the sphere varies as T3 per unit mass with the temperature
absorbed till time t by the ball. Correctly match the curves T of the sphere, where  is a constant, then the time taken
marked in the graph : for the sphere to cool down to temperature 2T0 will be ( is
Stefan Boltzmann constant)

M 3 M  16 
(a) 2
n   (b) n  
2
4R   2  16R   3 

M 3 M  16 
(c) n  
2 (d) 2
n  
16R   2  4R   3 
Column I Column II

(A) Thermal energy emitted (p) 1

per unit time
(B) Thermal energy absorbed (q) 2
per unit time
(C) Total energy emitted till time t (r) 3
(D) Total energy absorbed till time t (s) 4
THERMAL PHYSICS 38

EXERCISE - 4 : PREVIOUS YEARS JEE ADVANCED QUESTIONS

Heat, Temperature and Calorimetry 5. A current carrying wire heats a metal rod. The wire provides
1. A cubical block of co-efficient of linear expansion s , is a constant power (P) to the rod. The metal rod is enclosed
in an insulated container. It is observed that the temperature
submerged partially inside a liquid of co-efficient of volume
(T) in the metal rod changes with time (t)
expansion   . On increasing the temperature of the system
as T(t)  T0 (1   t1/4 ) where  is a constant with
T , the height of the cube inside the liquid remains
appropriate dimension while T0 is a constant with dimension
unchanged. Find the relation between s , and l . of temperature.The heat capacity of metal is :
(2004) (2019)
2. A piece of ice (heat capacity = 2100 J kg–1 °C–1 and latent
heat = 3.36 × 105 J kg–1) of mass m gram is at –5°C at 4P(T(t) - T0 )4 4P(T(t) - T0 )3
atmospheric pressure. It is given 420 J of heat so that the ice (a) (b)
β 4 T05 β 4 T04
starts melting. Finally when the ice–water mixture is in
equilibrium, it is found that 1 g of ice has melted. Assuming
there is no other heat exchange in the process, the value of 4P(T(t) - T0 ) 4P(T(t) - T0 )2
m is (2010) (c) 4 (d)
β T02 β 4 T03
3. Steel wire of length L at 40°C is suspended from the ceiling
and then a mass m is hung from its free end. The wire is 6. Two identical beakers A and B contain equal volumes of
cooled down from 40°C to 30°C to regain its original length two different liquids at 60°C each and left to cool down.
L. The coefficient of linear thermal expansion of the steel Liquid in A has density of 8 × 102 kg/m3 and specific heat of
is 10–5/ºC, Young’s modulus of steel is 1011N/m2 and radius 2000 Jkg–1K–1 while liquid in B has density of 103 kg m–3 and
of the wire is 1 mm. Assume that L>> diameter of the wire. specific heat of 4000 Jkg–1K–1. Which of the following best
Then the value of m in kg is nearly. (2011) describes their temperature versus time graph
4. The figure below shows the variation of specific heat schematically? (assume the emissivity of both the beakers
capacity(C) of a solid as a function of temperature (T). The to be the same) (2019)
temperature is increased continuously from 0 to 500 K at a
constant rate. Ignoring any volume change, the following
statement(s) is (are) correct to reasonable approximation.
(2013)

100 200 300 400 500

T(K)
(a) the rate at which heat is absorbed in the range 0–100
K varies linearly with temperature T
(b) heat absorbed in increasing the temperature from
0–100 K is less than the heat required for increasing
the temperature from 400–500 K
(c) there is no change in the rate of heat absorbtion in the
range 400–500 K
(d) the rate of heat absorption increases in the range 200–
300 K
THERMAL PHYSICS 39

7. A liquid at 30° C is poured very slowly into a open 11. An ideal black-body at room temperature is thrown into a
Calorimeter that is at temperature of 110°C. The boiling furnace. It is observed that (2002)
temperature of the liquid is 80°C. It is found that the first 5
(a) initially it is the darkest body and at later times the
gm of the liquid completely evaporates. After pouring brightest
another 80 gm of the liquid the equilibrium temperature is
found to be 50°C. The ratio of the Latent heat of the liquid (b) it is the darkest body at all times
to its specific heat will be _____ ºC. (Neglect the heat (c) it cannot be distinguished at all times
exchange with surrounding]
(d) initially it is the darkest body and at later times it cannot
(2019) be distinguished.
8. When the temperature of a metal wire is increased from 0ºC
12. The graph, shown in the adjacent diagram, represents the
to 10ºC, its length increases by 0.02%. The percentage
variation of temperature (T) of two bodies, x and y having
change in its mass density will be closest to :
same surface area, with time (t) due to the emission of
(2020) radiation. Find the correct relation between the emissivity
(a) 0.06 (b) 0.008 and absorptivity powers of the two bodies (2003)
(c) 2.3 (d) 0.8

Heat Transfer
9. The plots of intensity versus wavelength for three black
bodies at temperatures T1, T2 and T3 respectively are as
shown. Their temperature are such that (2000)

(a) Ex > Ey and ax < ay (b) Ex < Ey and ax > ay

(c) Ex > Ey and ax > ay (d) Ex < Ey and ax < ay
13. Two identical rods are connected between two conatiners.
One of them is at 100°C containing water and another is at
0°C containing ice. If rods are connected in parallel then the
rate of melting of ice is ql g/s. If they are connected in series
q2
then the rate is q2. The ratio q is (2004)
1

(a) 2 (b) 4
(a) T1 > T2 > T3 (b) T1> T3 > T2
(C) T2 > T3 > T1 (d) T3 > T2 > T1 1 1
(c) (d)
10. When a block of iron floats in mercury at 0ºC, fraction k1 of 2 4
its volume is submerged, while at the temperature 60ºC, a 14. Three discs, A, B and C having radii 2 m, 4 m and 6 m
fraction k2 is seen to be submerged. If the coefficient of respectively are coated with carbon black on their outer
volume expansion of iron is Fe and that of mercury is Hg, surfaces. The wavelengths corresponding to maximum
then the ratio k1/k2 can be expressed as (2001) intensity are 300 nm, 400 nm and 500 nm, respectively. The
power radiated by them are QA, QB and QC respectively
1  60  Fe 1  60  Fe (2004)
(a) (b)
1  60  Hg 1  60  Hg
(a) QA is maximum (b) QB is maximum

1  60  Fe 1  60  Hg (c) QC is maximum (d) QA = QB = QC

(c) (d)
1  60  Hg 1  60  Fe
THERMAL PHYSICS 40

15. Variation of radiant energy emitted by sun, filament of 20. A metal rod AB of length 10x has its one end A in ice at 0°C
tungsten lamp and welding arc as a function of its and the other end B in water at 100°C. If a point P on the rod
wavelength is shown in figure. (2005) is maintained at 400°C, then it is found that equal amounts
of water and ice evaporate and melt per unit time. The latent
heat of evaporation of water is 540 calg–1 and latent heat of
melting of ice is 80 calg–1. If the point P is at a diatance of x
from the ice end A, find the value of . (Neglect any heat
loss to the surrounding). (2009)
21. Two spherical bodies A (radius 6 cm) and B (radius 18 cm)
are at temperatures T1 and T2, respectively. The maximum
intensity in the emission spectrum of A is at 500 nm and in
that of B is at 1500 nm. Considering them to be black bodies,
what will be the ratio of the rate of total energy radiated by
Which of the following option is the correct match?
A to that of B ? (2010)
(a) Sun-T3, tungsten filament-T1, welding arc-T2
22. A composite block is made of slabs A, B, C, D and E of
(b) Sun-T2, tungsten filament-T2, welding arc-T3 different thermal conductivities (given in terms of a
(c) Sun-T3, tungsten filament-T2, welding arc-T1 constant K) and sizes (given in terms of length L) as shown
(d) Sun-T1, tungsten filament-T2, welding arc-T3 in the figure. All slabs are of same width. Heat Q flows
16. In which of the following processes, convection does not only from left to right through the blocks. Then in steady
take place primarily? (2005) state (2011)
(a) sea and land breeze
(b) boiling of water
(c) heating air around a furnace
(d) warming of glass of bulb due to filament.
17. A spherical body of area A and emissivity e = 0.6 is kept
inside a perfectly black body. Energy radiated per second
by the body at temperature T is (2005)
(a) 0.4  AT T 4 (b) 0.8  ATT 4

(c) 0.6  AT T4 T4
(d) l.0  AT
18. Water of volume 2 litre in a container is heated with a coil of
1 kW at 27°C. The lid of the container is open and energy (a) heat flown through A and E slabs are same
dissipates at rate of 160 J/s. In how much time temperature
(b) heat flown through slab E is maximum
wil rise from 27°C to 77°C.
[Given specific heat of water is 4.2 kJ/kg] (2005) (c) temperature difference across slab E is smallest
(a) 7 min (b) 6 min 2 s (d) heat flown through C = heat flow through B + heat
(c) 8 min 20s (d) 14 min flown through D.
19. Initially a black body at absolute temperature T is kept inside 23. Three very large plates of same area are kept parallel and
a closed chamber at absolute temperature T0. Now the close to each other. They are considered as ideal black
chamber is slightly opened to allow sun rays to enter. It is surfaces and have very high thermal conductivity. The first
observed that temperatures T and T0 remains constant. and third plates are maintained at temperatures 2T and 3T
Which of the following statements is/are true? (2006) respectively. The temperature of the middle (i.e., second)
(a) The rate of emission of energy from the black body plate under steady state condition is : (2012)
remains the same
1 1
(b) The rate of emission of energy from the black body  65  4  97  4
increases (a)   T (b)   T
 2   4 
(c) The rate of absorption of energy by the black body
increases. 1
(d) The energy radiated by the black body equals the energy  97  4 1
(c)   T (d)  97  4 T
absorbed by it.  2 
THERMAL PHYSICS 41

24. Two rectangular blocks, having indentical dimensions, can 28. A water cooler of storage capacity 120 litres can cool water
be arranged either in configuration I or in configuration II at a constant rate of P watts. In a closed circulation system
as shown in the figure. One of the blocks has thermal (as shown schematically in the figure), the water from the
conductivity K and the other 2K. The temperature difference cooler is used to cool an external device that generates
between the ends along the x-axis is the same in both the constantly 3 kW of heat (thermal load). The temperature of
configurations. It takes 9s to transport a certain amount of water fed into the device cannot exceed 30°C and the entire
heat from the hot end to the cold end in the configuration I. stored 120 litres of water is initially cooled to 10°C. The
The time to transport the same amount of heat in the entire system is thermally insulated. The minimum value of
configuration II is : (2013) P (in watts) for which the device can be operated for 3
Configuration II hours is (2016)

Configuration I

2K

K 2K K
X
(a) 2.0 s (b) 3.0 s
(c) 4.5 s (d) 6.0 s
25. Heater of an electric kettle is made of a wire of length L and (Specific heat of water is 4.2 kJ kg–1 K–1 and the density of
diameter d. It takes 4 minutes to raise the temperature of 0.5 water is 1000 kg m–3)
kg water by 40 K. This heater is replaced by a new heater
(a) 1600 (b) 2067
having two wires of the same material, each of length L and
diameter 2d. The way these wires are connected is given in (c) 2533 (d) 3933
the options. How much time in minutes will it take to raise 29. A metal is heated in a furnace where a sensor is kept above
the temperature of the same amount of water by 40 K? the metal surface to read the power radiated (P) by the
(2014) metal. The sensor has a scale that displays log2 (P/P0), where
P0 is a constant. When the metal surface is at a temperature
(a) 4 if wires are in parallel (b) 2 if wires are in series
of 487°C, the sensor shows a value 1. Assume that the
(c) 1 if wires are in series (d) 0.5 if wires are in parallel emissivity of the metallic surface remains constant. What
26. Two spherical stars A and B emit black body radiation. The is the value displayed by the sensor when the temperature
radius of A is 400 times that of B and A emits 104 times the of the metal surface is raised to 2767°C?
(2016)
 A 
30. Two conducting cylinders of equal length but different radii
power emitted from B. The ratio   of their
 B  are connected in series between two heat baths kept at
temperatures T1 = 300 K and T2 = 100 K, as shown in the
wavelengths A and B at which the peaks occur in their figure. The radius of the bigger cylinder is twice that of the
respective radiation curves is (2015) smaller one and the thermal conductivities of the materials
27. The ends Q and R of two thin wires, PQ and RS, are soldered of the smaller and the larger cylinders are K1 and K2
(joined) together. Initially each of the wires has a length of respectively. If the temperature at the junction of the two
1 m at 10°C. Now the end P is maintained at 10°C, while the cylinders is the steady state is 200 K, then K 1 /K 2
end S is heated and maintained at 400°C. The system is = _________.
thermally insulated form its surroundings. If the thermal (2018)
conductivity of wire PQ is twice that of the wire RS and the
coefficient of linear thermal expansion of PQ is 1.2 × 10–5 K–
1
, the change in length of the wire PQ is
(2016)
(a) 0.70 mm (b) 0.90 mm
(c) 1.56 mm (d) 2.34 mm
THERMAL PHYSICS 42

31. Match the temperature of a black body given in List-I with (a) P  3, Q  5, R  2, S  3
an appropriate statement in List-II, and choose the correct (b) P  3, Q  2, R  4, S  1
option. (c) P  3, Q  4, R  2, S  1
[Given: Wien’s constant as 2.9  10 3
m-k and (d) P  1, Q  2, R  5, S  3
32. The specific heat capacity of a substance is temperature
hc dependent and is given by the formula C = kT, where k is a
 1.24 10 6 v-m ] (2023)
e constant of suitable dimensions in SI units, and T is the
absolute temperature. If the heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of the substance from – 73º C to 27º C is
nk, the value of n is ________.
[Given : 0 K = –273 ºC] (2024)

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THERMAL PHYSICS

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KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS

1. INTRODUCTION TO KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

1.2 Pressure Calculation
In this topic, we discuss the behaviour of gases and how
Pressure of an Ideal Gas and Its Expression:
are the various state variable like P, V, T, moles, U etc
Pressure exerted by the gas is due to continuous
are interrelated with each other?
bombardment of gas molecules against the walls of the
1.1 Postulates of Kinetic Theory of Gases container.
 A gas consists of a very large number of molecules Expression:
(of the order of Avogadro’s number, 1023), which Consider a gas enclosed in a cube of side l. Take the
are perfect elastic spheres. For a given gas they are axes to be parallel to the sides of the cube, as shown in
identical in all respects, but for different gases, they
are different.
 
figure. A molecule with velocity v x , v y , v z hits the

 The molecules of a gas are in a state of incessant planar wall parallel to yz-plane of area A (= l2). Since
random motion. They move in all directions with the collision is elastic, the molecule rebounds with the
different speeds., (of the order of 500 m/s) and same velocity; its y and z components of velocity do not
obey Newton’s laws of motion. change in the collision but the x-component reverses
 The size of the gas molecules is very small as sign. That is, the velocity after collision is
compared to the distance between them. If typical  v , v , v  .
x y z The change in momentum of the
size of molecule is 2Å, average distance between
molecule is:  mvx   mv x   2mv x . By the principle
the molecules is 320Å. Hence volume occupied by
the molecules is negligible in comparison to the of conservation of momentum, the magnitude of
volume of the gas. momentum imparted to the wall in the collision = 2mvx.
 The molecules do not exert any force of attraction
or repulsion on each other, except during collision.
 The collisions of the molecules with themselves
and with the walls of the vessel are perfectly
elastic. As such, that momentum and the kinetic
energy of the molecules are conserved during
collisions, though their individual velocities
change.
 There is no concentration of the molecules at any
point inside the container i.e. molecular density is Fig 15.1
uniform throughout the gas.
To calculate the force (and pressure) on the wall, we
 A molecule moves along a straight line between
need to calculate momentum imparted to the wall per
two successive collisions and the average straight
unit time, if it is within the distance v x t from the wall,
distance covered between two successive collisions
is called the mean free path of the molecules. that is, all molecules within the volume. Av x t only
 The collisions are almost instantaneous, i.e., the 1
can hit the wall in time T is A v x t n, where n is
time of collision of two molecules is negligible as 2
compared to time interval between two successive the number of molecules per unit volume. The total
collisions. momentum transferred to the wall by these molecules in
1 
time t is: Q   2mv x   nAv x t  . The force on the
2 

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wall is the rate of momentum transfer Q/t and pressure

is force per unit area:

Q 1.3 Ideal Gas Laws

P  nmv 2x
 A t   Ideal Gas
That gas which strictly obeys the gas laws, (such as
Actually, all molecules in a gas do not have the same
Boyle’s Law, Charle's law, Gay Lussac’s Law etc.)
velocity; there is a distribution in velocities. The above
equation therefore, stands for pressure due to the group Characteristics
of molecules with speed vx in the x-direction and n 1. The size of the molecule of an ideal gas is zero.
stands for the number density of that group of 2. There is no force of attraction or repulsion amongst
molecules. The total pressure is obtained by summing
the molecules of an ideal gas.
over the contribution due to all groups:
2  Real Gas
P  nmv x All gases are referred to as real Gases. All real
2 gases show nearly the ideal gas behavior at low
where v x is the average of v 2x . Now the gas is pressures and temperatures high enough, where
isotropic, i.e. there is no preferred direction of velocity they cannot be liquified.
of the molecules in the vessel. Therefore by symmetry, Gay Lussac’s Law:
2 2 2 2 
vx  vy  vz We know that PV  NK
3
2  1  2 2 2  1  2 
3
 
vx    vx  vy  vz    v
3
where K is the average kinetic energy of translation

per gas molecule. At constant temperature. K is
2 constant and for a given mass of the gas. N is constant.
where v is the speed and v denotes the mean of the
squared speed. Thus Thus, PV = constant for given mass of gas at constant
temperature, which is also called Boyle’s Law.
1 2
P    nmv Charle’s Law:
3
2 
2 1 M 1 2 We know that PV  NK
1 3
P  mnv   v
3 3V 3
For a given mass of gas, N is constant.
M = Total mass of gas molecules  3 
Since K  k B T, K  T and as such PV  T.
V = Total volume of gas molecules 2
Relation Between Pressure and KE of Gas Molecules If P is constant, V  T, which is the Charles’ Law.

1 2
Constant Volume Law:
From equation P  v
3 2 
We know that PV  NK
3
2 1 2 
 P  Mv  For a given mass of gas, N is constant. Since
3V  2 
 3 
K  k B T, K  T
2 K.E 2
P
3 V
Thus, PV  T
2 If V is constant, P  T, which the constant volume
 P E
3 law.
Pressure exerted by an ideal gas is numerically equal to Avogadro’s Law:
two third of mean kinetic energy

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Consider two gases 1 and 2. We can write empirical law of Boyle, the law of Charles, the law of
2  2  Avogadro, and the law of Gay-Lussac. In an empirical
P1V1  N1 K1 , P2 V2  N2 K 2
3 3 form, the ideal gas law is also written:
PV  nRT
If their pressures, volumes and temperatures are the Real Gas Law
same, then By explicitly including the effects of molecular size and
  intermolecular forces, the Dutch physicist Johannes van
P1  P2 , V1  V2 , K1  K 2 .
der Waals modified the ideal gas law to explain the
Clearly, N1 = N2 Thus: behavior of real gases. The Vander Waal real gas
Equal volumes of all ideal gases existing under the equation is given below.
same conditions of temperature and pressure contain Real gas law equation,
equal number of molecules which is Avogadro’s Law or
 n 2a 
hypothesis.  P  2   V  nb   nRT
 V 
This law is named after the Italian physicist and
chemist, Amedeo Avogadro (1776 – 1856). Where a and b represent the empirical constant which is
PV unique for each gas.
Aliter: As PV  Nk B T, N 
k BT n2
represents the concentration of gas.
If P, V and T are constants, N is also constant. V2

1.4 Ideal Gas Equation P represents pressure

R represents a universal gas constant and T is the
2   3
As PV  NK and K  k B T temperature.
3 2
Difference Between Ideal and Real Gases
2 3 
PV  N  k B T  or PV  Nk B T The table below shows the properties and the behaviour
3 2  of ideal and real gases.
which is the ideal gas equation Ideal Gas Real Gas
1.5 Real Gas Equation and Related Concepts No definite volume Definite volume
Real Gas Definition: A real gas is defined as a gas that Elastic collision of Non-elastic collisions
at all standard pressure and temperature conditions does particles between particles
not obey gas laws. It deviates from its ideal behavior as No intermolecular Intermolecular attraction
the gas becomes huge and voluminous. True gases have attraction force force
velocity, mass, and volume. They liquefy when cooled
Does not really exist in the It really exists in the
to their boiling point. The space filled by gas is not
environment and is a environment
small when compared to the total volume of gas.
hypothetical gas
Ideal and Real Gas Equation An ideal gas is defined as
a gas that obeys gas laws at all pressure and temperature High pressure The pressure is less when
conditions. Ideal gases have velocity as well as mass. compared to ideal gas
They have no volume. The volume taken up by the gas Independent Interacts with others
is small as compared to the overall volume of the gas. It Obeys PV  NRT Obeys
does not condense, and triple-point does not exist.
 n 2a 
The ideal gas law is the equation of the state of a  P  2   V  nb   nRT
 V 
hypothetical ideal gas, also called the general gas
equation. Under many conditions, it is a reasonable
approximation of the behavior of several gases, but it
has many limitations. In 1834, Benoit Paul Emile
Clapeyron first described it as a variation of the

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2. SPEEDS OF GAS MOLECULES

Maxwell’s speed Distribution Law, average, RMS and Fig 15.2

most Probable Speeds. Based on this we define three types of speed for
molecules of gas
Molecule Nature of Matter: Same as Atomic Theory
 2 1/ 2  1
 
1/2

given by Dalton, according to him, atoms are the Vrms  V    V 2 dNv 
smallest constituents of elements. All atoms of one N 
element are identical, but atoms of different element are 3RT
different. Vrms 
M
In solids: Atoms are tightly packed, interatomic Where M = Molecular Mass of Gas
spacing about 1A°. Interatomic force of attraction are  1
strong. Similarly, Vav  V   VdN v
N
In liquids: Atoms are not as rigidly fixed as in solids. 8RT
Interatomic spacing is about the same 2Å. Interatomic 
M
force a attraction are relative weaker.
dN v
In Gases: Atoms are very free. Inter atomic spacing is But VMP is velocity at which 0
dv
about tens of Angstroms. Interatomic forces are much
weaker in gases than both in solids and liquids. 2RT
 VMP 
M
In this chapter, we mainly focus on gases
2.1 Maxwell’s Law of Distribution of Molecular 3. ENERGY OF GAS MOLECULES
Velocities
Assumptions of Maxwell Distribution Physically VMP is velocity possessed by Maximum
number of molecules.
 Molecules of all velocities between 0 to  are
present. NOTE:
 Velocity of one molecule, continuously changes, Vrms  Vav  VMP
though fraction of molecules in one range of
velocities is constant.
Result 3.1 Degrees of Freedom
3/ 2 mv2
 M  
The number of degrees of freedom of a dynamical
N v  4N   V2e 2k BT

 2k B T  system is defined as the total number of co-ordinates or

independent quantities required to describe completely
dN v
where N v  the position and configuration of the system.
dV
where dNv = Total number of molecules with speeds Example:
between V and V + dV  A particle moving in straight line, say along X-axis
N = Total number of molecules. need only x coordinate to define itself. It has only
one degree of freedom.
 A particle in a plane, needs 2 co-ordinates, hence
has 2 degrees of freedom.
In general if

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A = number of particles in the system Fig 15.4

R = number of independent relations among the Linear
particles A=3
N = Number of degrees of freedom of the system R=2
N = 3A – R N=33–2=7
Monoatomic Gases Non-Linear
The molecules of a monoatomic gas (like neon, argon,
helium etc) consists only of one atom.
A=1
R=0
N=3
Here 3 degrees of freedom are for translational motion Fig 15.5
A=3
R=3N=33–3=6
 Here again vibrational energy is ignored.
Diatomic Gases
Polyatomic Gas
A=2
A polyatomic gas has 3 translational, 3 rotational
Assuming the distance between the two molecules is
degrees of freedom. Apart from them if there V
fixed then R = 1
vibrational modes then there will be additional 2V
 N  3 2 1  5
vibrational degrees of freedom.
Here 5 degrees of freedom implies combination of
 Total degree of freedom
3 translational energies and 2 rotational energies.
n = 3 + 3 + 2V = 6 + 2V
3.2 Internal Energy and Kinetic Energy
Internal Energy: As studied in thermodynamics,
Internal Energy of any substance is the combination of
Potential Energies and Kinetic Energies of all
molecules inside a given gas.
 In real gas
Internal Energy = P.E of molecules + K.E of
Molecules
 In real gas: Internal Energy = K.E of Molecules
Here PE of molecules is zero as assumed in Kinetic
theory postulates; There is no interaction between
the molecules hence its interactional energy is zero.
Average KE per Molecule of the Gas:
1 M 2
We know, P  v
3V
1 2
 PV  Mv
Fig 15.3 3
If vibrational motion is also considered then [only at 1 2
Hence, nRT  Mv
very high temperatures] 3
N=7 1 2
where 3 for translational  nRT  Nmv
3
2 for rotational
n 3RT 1  2
2 for vibrational   mv
N 2 2
Triatomic Gas
Also N  nN A

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3 R 1 2 3 As we know the law of equipartition, we can predict the

 T  mv  K B T   K.E avg
2 NA 2 2 heat capacity of various gases.
Average KE of translation per molecule of the gas Monoatomic Gas
3 Degree of freedom = 3.
KBT
2  Average Energy of a molecule at temperature T
Kinetic Interpretation of Temperature
From above equations, we can easily see that KE of one 1 
 E  3  k BT 
molecule is only dependent upon its temperature. 2 
 KE of molecule will cease if, the temperature of the Energy for one mole  E  N A
gas molecules become absolute zero.
3
 Absolute zero of a temperature may be defined as  U  kB NA  T
that temperature at which the root mean square velocity 2
of the gas molecule reduces to zero. 3
 U  RT
All the Ideal gas laws can be derived from Kinetic 2
Theory of gases.
In thermodynamics, we studied
3.3 Law of Equipartition of Energy
Q  U
CV   [⸪ W = 0 for constant V]
Statement: According to this law, for any dynamical T  V T
system in thermal equilibrium, the total energy is
3R
distributed equally amongst all the degrees of freedom,  Cv 
2
and the energy associated with each molecule per
5R Cp 5
1  Cp  and    .
degree of freedom is k B T, where kB is Boltzman 2 Cv 3
2
constant and T is temperature of the system. Diatomic Gases
k T When no vibration
Application: U  f B where f = Total degrees of Degree of freedom = 5
2
freedom. This law is very helpful in determining the 5
Average energy for one mole  RT
total internal energy of any system be it monatomic, 2
diatomic or any polyatomic. Once the internal energy is U 5
 Cv   R
know we can very easily predict Cv and Cp for such T 2
systems. 7R
Remark: In case vibrational motion is also there in any Cp 
2
system, say for diatomic molecule, then there should be Cp 7
energy due to vibrational as well given by  
2 Cv 5
1  dy  1 2
Ev  m    ky When vibration is present.
2  dt  2
There is only one mode of vibration between 2
dy ky 2 molecules.
where  vibrational velocity and  Energy
dt 2  Degree of freedom = 7
due to configuration. 7
According to Law of Equipartition  U  RT
2
1 7 9
Energy per degree of freedom  k B T  Cv  R and Cp  R
2 2 2
1 1 9
 Total energy  k B T  k B T  k B T and  
2 2 7
is energy for complete one vibrational mode Polyatomic Gases
3.4 Specific Heat of Gases Degree of freedom
= 3 for translational
Specific Heat Capacity:

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+ 3 for rotational Q U
 C   3R
+ 2V for vibrational T T
= 6 + 2V  The above equation is called as Dulong and Petit’s
If v = Number of vibrational modes Law.
RT  At low temperatures the vibrational mode may not
 U   6  2V  K
2 be that active hence, heat capacity is low at low
 Cv   3  V  R temperatures for solids.
Cp   4  V  R
4 V
and  
3 V
Specific Heat Capacity of Water
Water is treated like solid.
Fig 15.6
Water has three atoms, 2 of hydrogen and one of
oxygen
 Total degree of freedom for every atom
=32=6
 Total degree of freedom for every molecule of water
= 3  6 = 18 3.5 Mean Free Path

 1  The path traversed by a molecule between two

 18  RT  successive collisions with other molecule is called the
Q U  2 
 C   mean free path
 T T T
 Total distance travelled by a molecule
C  9R l
No. of collisions it makes with other molecules
Specific Heat Capacity of Solids Expression:
 In solids, there is very less difference between heat Mean Free Path
capacity at constant pressure and at that constant
volume. Therefore we do not differentiate between
Cp and Cv for solids.
Q U
 C 
T T
{As solids hardly expand or expansion is
negligible} Now in solid the atoms are arranged in
an array structure and they are not free to move
independently like in gases.
Therefore the atoms do not possess any Fig 15.7
translational or rotational degree of freedom. Suppose the molecules of a gas are spheres of diameter
On the other hand, the molecules do possess d. Focus on a single molecule with the average speed

vibrational motion along 3 mutually perpendicular V. It will suffer collision with any molecule that comes
directions. within a distance d between the centres. In time t, it
Hence for 1 mole of a solid, there are NA number of 
sweeps a volume d 2 V t wherein any other
atoms. The energy associated with every molecule
molecule will collide with it (as shown in figure). If n is
 1 
 3  2  k B T   3K B T the number of molecules per unit volume, the molecule
 2  
suffers nd 2 V t collisions in time t. thus the rate of
 U = 3 RT for one mole

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
collisions is nd 2 V or the time between two condition of system are called thermodynamic state
variables.
1
successive collisions is on the average.    2  In thermodynamics we deal with the
 n V d  thermodynamic systems as a whole and study the
interaction of heat and energy during the change of
The average distance between two successive
one thermodynamic state to another.
collisions, called the mean free path l, is:
Thermal Equilibrium
 1
lV τ The term ‘equilibrium’ in thermodynamics implies the
 nπd  2
state when all the macroscopic variables characterising
the system (P, V, T, mass etc) do not change with time.
In this derivation, we imagined the other molecules to
 Two systems when in contact with each other come
be at rest. But actually all molecules are moving and the
to thermal equilibrium when their temperatures
collision rate is determined by the average relative
 become same.
velocity of the molecules. Thus we need to replace V  Based on this is zeroth law of thermodynamics.

by 2V in equation. A more exact treatment. According to zeroth law, when the thermodynamic
 1 systems A and B are separately in thermal
 equilibrium with a third thermodynamic system C,
 2nd 2  then the systems A and B are in thermal
equilibrium with each other also.
4.1 Basic Terms of Thermodynamics
State Variables: P, V, T, no. of moles and internal
Result energy They can be extensive or intestive.
Equation of State: The equation which connects the
 1
 pressure (P), the volume (V) and absolute temperature
 2nπd 2  (T) of a gas is called the equation of state.
PV = constant (Boyle’s law)
for N molecules PV = NKBT
V
N P  cons tan t (Charle’s law)
n  T
V KBT  PV = nRT
 K BT Thermodynamic Process: A thermodynamic process

2 d 2 P is said to take place when some changes occur in the
state of a thermodynamic system, i.e., the
NOTE: thermodynamic parameters of the system change with
Mean free path depends inversely on the number time. Types of these thermodynamic process are
density and size of the molecule. Isothermal, Adiabatic, Isobaric and Isochoric.
Quasi Static Process: A thermodynamic process which
is infinitely slow is called as quasi-static process.
4. INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS  In quasi static process, system undergoes change so
slowly, that at every instant, system is in
It is the study of interrelations between heat and other
equilibrium, both thermal and mechanical, with the
forms of energy
surroundings.
Thermodynamic System: A collection of large number
 Quasi-static process is an idealised process. We
of molecules of matter (solid, liquid or gas) which are
generally assume all the processes to be quasistatic
so arranged that these possess certain values of
unless stated.
pressure, volume and temperature forms a
Indicator or P-V, Diagram: A graph between pressure
thermodynamic system.
and
 The parameters pressure, volume, temperature,
volume of a gas under thermodynamic operation is
internal energy etc which determine the state or
called P-V. diagram.

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  Ps dV
Where Ps is the Pressure of system on the piston. This
work done by system is positive if the system expands
and it is negative if the system contracts.
 Work and Heat are path functions whereas internal
Fig 15.8 energy is a state function.
 Heat and work are two different terms through they
5. FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS might look same.

a  Isobaric
b  Isothermal
The first law of thermodynamics is a thermodynamics-
c  Adiabatic
adapted version of the law of conservation of energy. In
d  Isochoric
principle, the conservation law asserts that an isolated
Area under P – V diagram gives us work done by a gas.
system's total energy remains constant; energy can be
4.2 Heat, Work Done and Internal Energy of Gas transferred from one form to another, but it cannot be
created or destroyed.
Internal Energy is the energy possessed by any system
due to its molecular K.E. and molecular P.E. Here K.E The first law states that the change in internal energy of
and PE are with respect to centre of mass frame. This the system ( U system) is equal to the difference
internal energy depends entirely on state and hence it is between the heat provided to the system (Q) and the
a state variable. For a real gases internal energy is only work (W) done by the system on its surroundings in a
by virtue of its molecular motion. closed system (i.e., there is no transfer of matter into or
nfRT out of the system).
U for ideal gases where
2  U system  Q  W
n = number of moles
f = Degree of freedom
R = Universal Gas Constant 5.1 Relation of Heat and Internal Energy
T = Temperature in Kelvin Let Q = Heat supplied to the system by the
Internal Energy can be change either by giving heat surroundings
energy or by performing some work.
W = Work done by the system on the surroundings
Heat Energy is the energy transformed to or from the
system because of the difference in temperatures by U = Change in internal energy of the system.
conduction, convection or radiation. First law of thermodynamics states that energy can
The energy that is transferred from one system to neither be created nor be destroyed. It can be only
another by force moving its point of application in its transformed from one form to another.
own direction is called work.
Mathematically: Q = U + W
Sign Conventions:
 When heat is supplied to the system, then Q is
positive and when heat is withdrawn from the
system, Q is negative.
 When a gas expands, work done by the gas is
positive and when a gas contracts then work is
negative.
Fig 15.9  U is positive, when temperature rises and U is
Work done by the system   F dx negative, when temperature falls. Remember here
we always take work done by the system.
  Ps Adx
5.2 Mayer’s Formula

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 dQ  Non-Cyclic Process: In Non-cyclic process the series of

CP   
 dT  P changes involved do not return the system back to its
initial state.
Or, dQ  C P dT
i.e., change in internal energy for cyclic process is zero
From equation and also U  T  T  0
dQ  CP dT  dU  PdV i.e., temperature of system remains constant. i.e, heat
Again, from equation (2) substituting supplied is equal to the work done by the system.
dU  CV dT
6.2 Work done and Heat exchange in Cyclic
CP dT  CV dT  PdV... 4  Processes
For one mole of gas    1 , from ideal gas equation, In cyclic process, initial and final points are same.
PV  RdT
PdV  RdT
From equations
 CP  CV  dT  RdT
Or, CP  CV  R
Where C P is the Specific heat at constant pressure and
C V is the specific heat at constant volume.

Fig 15.11
Therefore,  pi Vi , Ti    p f , Vf , Tf 

6. CYCLIC AND NON-CYCLIC PROCESSES Internal energy is a state function which only depends
on temperature (in case of an ideal gas).
Ti  Tf
6.1 Introduction to Cyclic and Non-Cyclic Processes
 Ui  U f
Cyclic Process: A cyclic process is one in which the
Or, U net  0
system returns to its initial stage after undergoing a
series of changes. If there are three process in a cyclic abc, then
Indicator Diagram U ab  U bc  U ca  0
From first law of thermodynamics,
Q  W  U,if U net  0, then
Q net  Wnet
Or, Qab  Qbc  Qca  Wab  Wbc  Wca
Further, Wnet  area under P-V diagram. For example,
Wnet   area of triangle ‘abc’ in the shown diagram.
Cycle is clockwise. So, work done will be positive.
Fig 15.10 6.3 Reversible and Irreversible Processes
U = 0
W = Area enclosed by the loop. Reversible Process: A reversible process is the process
Q = W as per First Law of thermodynamics where it never occurs; on the contrary the irreversible
Here W is positive if the cycle is clockwise and it is process is the one which can be said to be the natural
negative if the cyclic is anti clockwise. process and cannot be reversed.
Thermodynamics is the example of the reversible
process. Here the system and the surroundings return to
the same stage at the end of the process.

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NOTE:
A Reversible process takes two processes into account
while in the first process participants convert into
another form, tin the case of this second process the
Fig 15.12
reverse reaction takes space where the resultants get
back to the initial state. dP
Slope of P – V curve is at any point.
dV
Types of reversible processes: There are two types of
reversible processes. The internally reversible process PV = nRT
and the external reversible process. Internal reversible   dP  V  P  dV   0
process involves no irreversibility within the system
boundaries. This states that the system undergoes the dP P
 
stage of equilibrium but when it returns it again passes dV V
through the same stage.
U = 0 (Temperature remains constant)
 In the externally reversible process there are no
v2
irreversibility’s
Irreversible Process: an irreversible process is a
W  P dV
v2
g

naturally occurring phenomenon, which does not go

v2
back to its original state. nRT
Factors behind Irreversibility of process:
 
v2
V
dV [Using PV = nRT]
An irreversible process can be said to be the
thermodynamics process that departs equilibrium. V2
 nRT ln
When we talk in terms of pressure, we can say that it V1
occurs when the pressure of the system changes and the
volume does not have time to reach equilibrium. Since P1V1  P2 V2
The system and the surrounding does not come back to P 
the original state even after the completion of the Therefore, W  nRT ln  1 
process in the spontaneous process.  P2 
Hence, The Reversible Nature of a Process is First Law of Thermodynamics
Dependent on Multiple Factors Such as non-elasticity,
Q  U  W
friction, viscosity, electrical resistance etc.
V2
7. THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES  Q  nRT ln
V1
7.1 Isothermal Process NOTE:
Description: A thermodynamic process in which All the heat supplied is used entirely to do work against
temperature remains constant external surroundings. If heat is supplied then the gas
Condition: The walls of the container must be perfectly expands and if heat is withdrawn then the gas contracts.
conducting to allow free exchange of heat between gas Practical Examples:
and its surroundings.
The process of compression or expansion should be Melting of ice at 0C
slow so as to provide time for exchange of heat. Boiling of water at 100C
These both conditions are perfectly ideal. 7.2 Adiabatic Process
Equation of State: T = Constant or PV = Constant Description: When there is no heat exchange with
Indicator Diagram: surroundings.
Conditions: The walls of the container must be
perfectly non-conducting in order to prevent any
exchange of heat between the gas and its surroundings.

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The process of compression or expansion should be P1V1  P2 V2  constant

rapid, and so, there is no time for the exchange of heat.
These conditions are again ideal condition and are hard 1  P2 V2 P1V1 
   
to obtain 1    V2 1 V1 1 
Equation of State:
P2 V2  P1V1 nR  T1  T2 
PV   constant W 
 1  1
or TV  1  constant
 First Law of Thermodynamics
1 
or PT  constant
Q  U  W
Indicator Diagram
Substituting the values
We get Q = 0
NOTE:
If gas expands adiabatically then its temperature
decreases and vice versa.
Practical Example
Fig 15.13  Propagation of sound waves in the form of
dP compression and rarefaction.
Slope of adiabatic curve 
dV  Sudden bursting of a cycle tube.

PV   const 7.3 Isochoric Process

Description: Volume remains constant
 PV 1  dv    dP  V  0
Condition: A gas being heated or cooled inside a rigid
dP P container.
 
dV V P
Equation of State: V = constant or = constant
T
As shown in graph adiabatic curve is steeper than
isothermal curve.
nfRdT nR  T2  T1  P2 V2  P1V1
U   
2  1  1
Work Done by Gas: If a gas adiabatically expands from
V1 to V2 Fig 15.14
v2

W  P  dv  U 
nfRT
v2 2
v2 Work
dV
 cons tan t  
W = 0 as gas does not expands
v2 V First Law of thermodynamics
Q  U  W
 PV   constant 
  nfRT
 P  constant  Q
  2
V
NOTE:
V2
V  1
constant  1 1  Since we have studied earlier, that when heat is
 constant      1  1 
 1    V1 1   V
 2 V1  supplied to any process. Its temperature increases
according to relation.
Also we know

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Q  nC T Similar to molar specific heat at constant pressure and

Q molar specific heat at constant volume, we can define
C .... 1
nT molar specific heat for any process.
Now this C depends upon external conditions for gases. For example:
Q  Cadiabatic  0
Here it is referred as  2
nT  v Cisothermal  
i.e. Molar heat capacity at constant volume Comparing Basically gas does not possess a unique specific heat.
equation 1 and 2 Mainly we have Cp and Cv .
fR
We get C v  ...  3  Specific Heat at Constant Volume: It is defined
2 as the amount of heat required to raise the
7.4 Isobaric Process temperature of 1g of a gas through 1°C, when its
volume is kept constant. It is denoted as CV.
Description: When pressure remains constant
 Specific Heat at Constant Pressure: It is defined
Condition: When in one container, the piston is free to
as the amount of heat required to raise the
move and is not connected by any agent.
temperature of 1g of a gas through 1C keeping its
Equation of State: P = constant
pressure constant. It is denoted as Cp.
V
 cons tan t
T NOTE:
Indicator Diagram:
cP , cv means Molar heat Capacity and C P , CV means
specific heat capacity
CV  Mc V and CP  Mc P where M stands for molar
mass of any sample.
R
cp  cv 
Fig 15.15 M
nfRT
U  same as always
2
W   PdV  PV (as pressure is constant) 7.5 Melting Process
 PV2  PV1  nRT In any case first law is always applicable
First Law of Thermodynamics Q  mL f as learned earlier.
Q  U  W
W=0
nfRT (In the change of state from solid to liquid we ignore
Q  nRT
2 any expansion or contraction as it is very small)
 fR 
 Q  n   R  T ...  4  According to first law of thermodynamics
 2  U  Q  W
Similar to Cv, we can define molar heat capacity at U  mLf
constant pressure
Q  NOTE:
 Cp  ...  5
nT  p The heat given during melting is used in increasing the
internal energy of any substance
From equation 4 and 5
fR 7.6 Boiling Process
We get C p   R ...  6 
2
Here, Q  mL v
From equation 3 and 6
fR W  P  V2  V1 
Replacing by Cv we get
2 (Pressure is constant during boiling and it is equal to
Vp  C v  R atmosphere pressure)
which is also called Mayer’s Relation.  U  Q  W

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U  mL v  P  V2  V1 
7.7 Polytropic Process
9. CARNOT CYCLE
A polytropic process is a thermodynamic process that
Key Elements:
obeys the relation:
 A source of heat at higher temperature
PV n  C
Where P is the pressure, V is volume, n is the  A working substance
polytropic index, and C is a constant. The polytropic  A sink of heat at lower temperature.
process equation can describe multiple expansion and Working:
compression processes which include heat transfer.  The working substance goes through a cycle
Particular Cases: consisting of several processes.
Some specific values of n correspond to particular
cases:  In some processes it absorbs a total amount of heat
n  0 for an isobaric process, Q1 from the source at temperature T1.
n   for an isochoric process  In some processes it rejects a total amount of heat
In addition, when the ideal gas law applies: Q2 to the sink at some lower temperature T2.
n  1 for an isothermal process,  The work done by the system in a cycle is
n   for an isentropic process. transferred to the environment via some
Where  is the ratio of the heat capacity at constant arrangement.
pressure  CP  to heat capacity at constant volume  Cv  Schematic Diagram

7.8 Free-Expansion
A process in which gas is allowed to expand in vacuum
and this happens so quickly that no heat leaves or enters
the system this type of process is also known as
adiabatic process and because this happens so fast the
gas does not cross the system boundaries, hence no Fig 15.16
work is done by the system or on the system, then the
expansion is called the free expansion. First Law of Thermodynamics
We can for the equate free expansion into ⸪ Energy is always conserved
U f  Ui  Q  W  Q1  W  Q 2
Now, as know heat is exchange and no work is done
Q  0 and W  0 i.e., U f  U i 8.1 Thermal Efficiency
Further, as we see there is no change in the internal Thermal Efficiency of a heat engine is defined of the
energy, Hence, the temperature remains constant. ratio of net work done per cycle by the engine to the
total amount of heat absorbed per cycle by the working
7.9 Limitation of First Law of Thermodynamics
substance from the source.
 The first law does not indicate the direction in W
which the change can occur. It is denoted by   ... 1
Q1
 The first law gives no idea about the extent of Using equation 1 and 2 we get
change. Q
 The first law of thermodynamics gives no   1 2 ...  2 
Q1
information about the source of heat. i.e. whether it
Ideally engines should have efficiency = 1
is a hot or a cold body.
NOTE:
8. HEAT ENGINE The mechanism of conversion of heat into work vanes
for different heat engines.
It is a device that converts heat energy into mechanical
energy.

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The system heated by an external furnace, as in a steam  Isothermal expansion

engine. Such engines are called as external combustion  Adiabatic expansion
engine.  Isothermal compression
The system in which heat is produced by burning the  Adiabatic compression
fuel inside the main body of the engine is called as The cycle is carried out with the help of the Carnot
Internal Combustion Engine. engine as detailed below:

Sadi Carnot devised on ideal cycle of operation for a

heat
engine called as Carnot cycle.
Engine used for realising this ideal cycle is called as
Carnot heat engine.
The essential parts of an Ideal heat engine are shown in
figure. Fig 15.18
Consider one gram mole of an ideal gas enclosed in the
cylinder. Let V1, P1, T1 be the initial volume, pressure
and temperature of the gas. The initial state of the gas is
represented by the point A on PV. diagram, We shall
assume that all the four processes are quasi-static and
dissipative, the two conditions for their reversibility.
Steps
 Isothermal Expansion: The cylinder is placed on
Fig 15.17 the source and gas is allowed to expand by slow
 Source of heat: The source is maintained at a fixed outward motion of piston. Since base is perfectly
higher temperature T1, from which the working conducting therefore the process is isothermal.
substance draws heat. The source is supposed to Now
possess infinite thermal capacity and as such any U1  0
amount of heat can be drawn from it without V2
changing its temperature. q1  W1  RT1 ln  Area ABMKA
V1
 Sink of heat: The sink is maintained at a fixed
q1  Heat absorbed by gas
lower temperature T2, to which any amount of heat
W1  Work done by gas
can be rejected by the working substance.
 Adiabatic Expansion: The cylinder is now
It has also infinite thermal capacity and as such its
removed from source and is placed on the perfectly
temperature remains constant at T2, even when any
insulating pad. The gas is allowed to expand further
amount of heat is rejected to it.
from B (P2, V2) to C (P3, V3). Since the gas is
 Working substance: A perfect gas acts as the
thermally insulated from all sides, therefore the
working substance. It is contained in a cylinder
with non-conducting sides but having a perfectly R  T2  T1 
processes is adiabatic q2  0 U 2 
conducting-base. This cylinder is fitted with  1
perfectly non-conducting and frictionless piston. R  T1  T2 
W2   Area BCNMB
 Apart from these essential parts, there is a perfectly  1
insulating stand or pad on which the cylinder can
 Isothermal Compression: The cylinder is now
be placed. It would isolate the working substance
removed from the insulating pad and is placed on
completely from the surroundings. Hence, the gas
the sink at a temperature T2. The piston is moved
can undergo adiabatic changes.
slowly so that the gas is compressed until is
The Carnot cycle consists of the following four
pressure is P4 and volume is V4.
stages:

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U3  0 From equation 19, 20 and 21 we get

V4 Q1 T1
W3  RT2 ln   Area CDLNC 
V3 Q 2 T2

V4 T2
q3  RT2 ln  n Carnot  1 
V3 T1
q3 = Heat absorbed in this process  Carnot engine  depends only upon source
W3 = Work done by gas temperature and sink temperature.
 Adiabatic Compression: The cylinder is again  Carnot engine  1 only when T2 = 0 K or T1 = 
placed on the insulating pad, such that the process
which is impossible to attain.
remains adiabatic. Here the gas is further
 If T2  T1    0  Heat cannot be converted to
compressed to its initial P1 and V1.
R  T1  T2  mechanical energy unless there is some difference
U 4  between the temperature of source and sink.
 1
 R  T1  T2  9.3 Carnot Theorem
W4   area DAKLD
 1 Statement: Carnot theorem states that all reversible
q4  0 engines working between same two temperatures have
W4 = work done by the gas same efficiency irrespective of the nature of working
substance. The source and the sink works between the
9.1 Analysis of Carnot Cycle same temperature.
Total work done by the engine per cycle.  Working between two given temperatures, T1 of
 W1  W2  W3  W4 hot reservoir (the source) and T2 of cold reservoir
(the sink), no engine can have efficiency more than
 W1  W3 that of the Carnot engine.
V2 V  The efficiency of the Carnot engine is independent
W  RT1 ln  RT2 ln 4
V1 V3 of the nature of the working substance.
Engine used for realizing this ideal cycle is called as
Q1 = Total heat absorbed = q1
Carnot heat engine.
V
 RT1 ln 2 Proof:
V1 Step - 1: Imagine a reversible engine R and an
Q2 = Total heat released = q3 irreversible engine-I working between the same source
[q3 = Heat absorbed and not heat released] (hot reservoir T1) and sink (cold reservoir T2).
V Step - 2: Couple two engines such that I acts like heat
 RT2 ln 3
V4 engine and R acts like refrigerator.
Step - 3: Let engine I absorb Q1 heat from the source
We can see that for heat engine
deliver work W1 and release the balance Q1  W1 to the
W  Q1  Q2
sink in one cycle.
= Area under ABCDA
9.2 Efficiency of Carnot Engine

W Q
  1 2
Q1 Q1
Now steps 2 is adiabatic and step 4 is also adiabatic
 T1V21  T2 V31
Fig 15.19
and T1V11  T2 V41 Step - 4: Arrange R, such that it returns same heat Q, to
V2 V3 the source, taking Q2 from the sink and requiring work
  ...  21
V1 V4 W = Q1 – Q2 to be done on it.

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Step - 5: Suppose R  I (i.e.) If R were to act as an  A sudden expansion of the gas from high to low
engine it would give less work output than that of I pressure which cools it and converts it into a
(i.e.) W < W1 for a given Q1 and Q1 – W > Q1 – W1 vapour-liquid mixture.
Step - 6: In totality, the I-R system extracts heat (Q1   Absorption by the cold fluid of heat from the
W)  (Q1  W1) = W1  W and delivers same amount of region to be cooled, converting it into vapour.
work in one cycle, without any change in source or  Heating up of the vapour due to external work
anywhere else. This is against second Law of done on the working substance.
Thermodynamics. (Kelvin - Planck statement of second  Release of heat by the vapour to the surroundings
law of thermodynamics) bringing it to the initial state and completing the
Hence the assertion 1  R is wrong. cycle.
Schematic Diagram.
Similar argument can be put up for the second
statement of Carnot theorem, (i.e) Carnot efficiency is
independent of working substance.
 We use ideal gas for calculating but the relation.
Q1 T1
 will always hold true for any working
Q 2 T2
Fig 15.20
substance used in a Carnot engine.
9.4 Second Law of Thermodynamics First Law of Thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics states that the heat Q2  W  Q1 ... 1
energy cannot transfer from a body at a lower
10.1 Coefficient of Performance
temperature to a body at a higher temperature without
the addition of energy. Coefficient of Performance of refrigerator () is
There are number of ways in which this law can be defined as the ratio of quantity of heat removed per
stated. Though all the statements are the same in their cycle from contents of the refrigerator (Q2) to the
contents, the following two are significant. energy spent per cycle (W) to remove this heat.
Kelvin Planck Statement: No process is possible whose Q
 2 ...  2 
sole result is the absorption of heat from a reservoir and W
the complete conversion of the heat into work. Using equation 1 and 2 we get
Clausius Statement: No process is possible whose sole Q2
result is the transfer of heat from a colder object to a 
Q1  Q 2
hotter object.
Significance: 100% efficiency in heat engines or Ideally heat pumps should have  = 
infinite CoP in refrigerators is not possible.

10. REFRIGERATION

A refrigerator or heat pump is a device used for

cooling things.
Key Elements:
 A cold reservoir at temperature T2.
 A working substance.
 A hot reservoir at temperature T1.
Working
 The working substance goes through a cycle
consisting of several process.

SCAN CODE
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 61

EXERCISE – 1: BASIC OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

Introduction to Kinetic Theory of Gases 7. One mole of an ideal gas at an initial temperature of T
kelvin does 6 R joule of work adiabatically. If the
1. Cooking gas containers are kept in a lorry moving
ratio of specific heats of this gas at constant pressure
with uniform speed. The temperature of the gas
molecules inside will 5
and at constant volume is , the final temperature of
(a) increase 3
(b) decrease the gas will be
(c) remain same (a) (T + 4) K (b) (T – 4) K
(d) decrease for some, while increase for others (c) (T + 2.4) K (d) (T – 2.4) K
2. If the pressure of the gas is doubled at constant Speeds of Gas Molecules
volume and mass, the frequency of collision of the
molecules with the walls of a container will 8. The density of a gas is 6 × 10–2 kg/m3 and the RMS
(a) Not change (b) Increase four times velocity of the gas molecules is 500 m/s. The pressure
exerted by the gas on the walls of the vessel is
(c) Be doubled (d) Increase by 2 times
(a) 5 × 103 N/m2 (b) 0.83 × 10–4 N/m2
3. If pressure and temperature of an ideal gas are
(c) 1.2 × 10–4 N/m2 (d) 30 N/m2
doubled and volume is halved, the number of
9. The mean free path of a gas molecule at 27°C is 2 cm.
molecules of the gas
If the rms velocity of the gas at that temperature is
(a) become half (b) become 4 times
10 m/s, what is the time interval between two
(c) become two times (d) remain constant
successive collisions?
4. Real gases obey gas laws more closely at
1 1
(a) High pressure and low temperature (a) s (b) s
(b) Low pressure and high temperature 5 500
(c) High pressure and high temperature 1 1
(c) s (d) s
(d) Low pressure and low temperature 50 250
5. By what percentage should the pressure of a given 10. Mean free path () is
mass of a gas be increased so as to decrease its (a) inversely proportional to the diameter of molecule
volume by 10 % at a constant temperature? (b) inversely proportional to the square of diameter of
(a) 8.1 % (b) 10.1 % molecule
(c) 9.1 % (d) 11.1 % (c) inversely proportional to the number of molecules
6. A cylinder containing an ideal gas is in vertical per unit volume
position and has a piston of mass M that is able to (d) both b and c
move up or down without friction, as shown in figure. 11. Four molecules of speed 2 km/s, 3 km/s, 4 km/s and
If the temperature is increased. 5 km/s. The RMS speed of these molecules in km/s is
(P and V are the initial pressure and volume of the
54
gas respectively) (a) (b) 3.5
4
54
(c) (d) 3 3
2

(a) both P and V of the gas will change

(b) only P will increase according to Charles law
(c) V will change but not P
(d) P will change but not V
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 62

12. A cubic vessel (with faces horizontal + vertical) 16. 1 mole of an ideal gas is contained in a cubical vessel,
contains an ideal gas at NTP. The vessel is being ABCDEFGH at 300 K, figure.
carried by a rocket which is moving at a speed of
B C
500 m/s in vertical direction. The pressure of the gas
inside the vessel as observed by us on the ground:
(a) remains the same because 500 m/s is very much A D
smaller than vrms of the gas
F G
(b) remains the same because motion of the vessel as
a whole does not affect the relative motion of the E
H
gas molecules and the walls
One face (EFGH) of the vessel is made up of a
  500 
2 2
vrms
(c) will increase by a factor equal to 2 , material which totally absorbs any gas molecule
vrms
incident on it. At any given time:
where vrms was the original root mean square
velocity of the gas (a) the pressure on EFGH would be zero
(d) will be different on the top wall and bottom wall (b) the pressure on all the faces will be equal
of the vessel (c) the pressure on EFGH would be double the
Energy of Gas Molecules pressure on ABCD
13. The increase in internal energy of a gas per unit mass (d) the pressure on EFGH would be half that on
per unit rise in temperature is equal to ( C v and C p ABCD
are specific heat capacities at constant volume and
17. If C p and C v denote the specific heats of nitrogen
pressure respectively)
(a) Cp (b) Cp + Cv per unit mass at constant pressure and constant
(c) Cp – Cv (d) Cv volume respectively, then
14. Which of the following statements is correct for any
thermodynamic system? R
(a) CP – CV  28 R (b) CP – CV 
(a) The internal energy changes in all processes 28
(b) Internal energy and entropy are state functions
(c) The change in entropy can never be zero R
(c) CP – CV  (d) CP – CV  R
(d) The work done in an adiabatic process is always 14
zero 18. Two monoatomic gases are at absolute temperature
15. A system goes from A to B via two process I and II as
shown in figure. If U1 and U 2 are the changes in 300K and 350K respectively. The ratio of average
internal energies in the processes I and II kinetic energies of their molecules is
respectively, then
3.5 3
(a) (b)
3 3.5
(c) 6 : 7 (d) 36 : 49
19. A sample of oxygen and a sample of hydrogen have
the same mass, volume and pressure. The ratio of
their absolute temperature is
(a) 1/4 (b) 1/16
(c) 4 (d) 16
(a) U 2  U1
(b) U 2  U1
(c) U1  U 2
(d) relation between U1 and U 2 cannot be
determined
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 63

20. In the diagrams (i) to (iv) of variation of volume with 23. An air sample consists of 78% N2 and 22% oxygen.
changing pressure is shown. A gas is taken along the The values of Cv for N2 and O2 is 0.2 kcal/kg/K and
path ABCD. The change in internal energy of the gas 0.15 kcal/kg/K. Heat required to raise the temperature
will be of 1 kg of air through 1°C is
(a) 0.350 cal (b) 0.189 cal
(c) 0.350 kcal (d) 0.189 kcal
24. A thermally insulated vessel contains an ideal gas of
molecular mass M and ratio of specific heats  . It is
moving with speed v and it is suddenly brought to rest
Assuming no heat is lost to the surroundings, its
temperature increases by
   1  Mv2
(a) Mv 2 K (b) K
2 R 2R
   1   1
(c) Mv 2 K (d) Mv 2 K
2R 2    1 R
Introduction to Thermodynamics
25. The internal energy of an ideal gas depends on:
(a) Pressure (b) Volume
(a) Positive in all cases (i) to (iv) (c) Temperature (d) Size of the molecule
(b) Positive in cases (i), (ii) and (iii) but zero in (iv) 26. Which one of the following is not a thermodynamic
case co-ordinate?
(c) Negative in cases (i), (ii) and (iii) but zero in (iv) (a) V (b) R
case (c) T (d) P
(d) Zero in all four cases 27. Which one of the following gases possesses the
21. Consider a process shown in the figure. During this largest internal energy
process the work done by the system (a) 2moles of helium occupying 1 m 3 at 300 K
(b) 56kg of nitrogen at 107 Nm 2 and 300 K
(c) 8 grams of oxygen at 8atm and 300 K
(d) 6 1026 molecules of argon occupying 40 m 3 at
900 K
28. If the gases have initial temperature 300K and they
are mixed in an adiabatic container having the same
(a) Continuously increases
volume as the previous containers. Now the
(b) Continuously decreases
(c) First increases, then decreases temperature of the mixture is T and pressure is P.
(d) First decreases, then increases Then
22. Three perfect gases at absolute temperature T1, T2 and
T3 are mixed. The masses of molecules are m1, m2
and m3 and the number of moles are n1, n2 and n3
respectively. Assuming no loss of energy, the final
temperature of the mixture is
(a) P  PA , T  300 K (b) P  PB , T  300 K
n T  n T  n3T3 n T 2  n2T22  n3T32
(a) 1 1 2 2 (b) 1 1
n1  n2  n3 n1T1  n2T2  n3T3 (c) P  PA , T  300 K (d) P  PA , T  300 K

n12T12  n22T22  n32T32 T1  T2  T3 

(c) (d)
n1T1  n2T2  n3T3 3
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 64

29. The molar heat capacity in a process of a diatomic 33. A and B are two adiabatic curves for two different
Q gases. Then A and B correspond to
gas if it does a work of when a heat of Q is
4
supplied to it is
2 5
(a) R (b) R
5 2
10 6
(c) R (d) R
3 7
First Law of Thermodynamics
30. A gas is compressed at a constant pressure of 50 N/m2 (a) Ar and He respectively
from a volume of 10 m3 to a volume of 4 m3. Energy (b) He and H2 respectively
of 100 J is then added to the gas by heating. Its
(c) O2 and H2 respectively
internal energy is:
(a) increased by 400 J (b) increased by 200 J (d) H2 and He respectively
(c) increased by 100 J (d) decreased by 200 J 34. In a given process for an ideal gas,
31. The slopes of the isothermal and adiabatic curves are dW = 0 and dQ < 0. Then for the gas,
related as: (a) temperature will decrease
(a) isothermal curve slope = adiabatic curve slope (b) volume will increase
(b) isothermal curve slope =  × adiabatic curve slope (c) pressure will remain constant
(c) adiabatic curve slope =  × isothermal curve slope (d) temperature will increase
(d) adiabatic curve slope = (1/2) × isothermal curve 35. Starting with the same initial conditions, an ideal gas
slope expands from volume V1 to V2 in three different
32. Consider P-V diagram for an ideal gas shown in ways. The work done by the gas is W1 if process is
figure isothermal, W2 if isobaric and W3 if adiabatic. Then,
P (a) W2 > W1 > W3 (b) W2 > W3 > W1
1 (c) W1 > W2 > W3 (d) W1 = W2 = W3
constant
P 36. At 27°C, a gas is compressed suddenly such that its
V
pressure becomes (1/8)th of its original pressure. Final
2
temperature will be ( = 5/3):
V (a) 420 K (b) 300 K
Out of the following diagrams, which represents the (c) –142°C (d) 327°C
T-P diagram? 37. In an adiabatic change, the pressure P and
T
T
2
temperature T of a diatomic gas are related by the
2 relation P  TC, where c is equal to:
(i) (ii) (a) 5/3 (b) 2/5
1 1 (c) 3/5 (d) 7/2
P P 38. The P-V diagram shows seven curved paths
T T (connected by vertical paths) that can be followed by
a gas. Which two of them should be parts of a closed
2 1 1 2 cycle if the net work done by the gas is to be at its
(iii) (iv) maximum value
P a
b
P P
c
(a) (iv) (b) (ii) d
(c) (iii) (d) (i) e
f
g
V
(a) ac (b) cg
(c) af (d) cd
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 65

39. Consider two containers A and B containing identical 43. In the cyclic process shown in the figure, the work
gases at the same pressure, volume, and temperature. done by the gas in one cycle is
The gas in container A is compressed to half of its
original volume isothermally while the gas in
container B is compressed to half of its original value
adiabatically. The ratio of final pressure of gas in B to
that of gas in A is:
 1
1
(a) 2–1 (b)  
2
 1 2
 1   1 
(c)   (d)  
 1     1  (a) 28PV (b) 14PV
1 1 1 1
40. In the following indicator diagram, the net amount of
(c) 18PV
1 1 (d) 9PV
1 1
work done by the gas will be
44. Heat energy absorbed by a system in going through a
P
cyclic process shown in figure is

1 2

V
(a) Positive (b) Negative
(c) Zero (d) Infinity
Cyclic and Non-cyclic Processes (a) 107  J (b) 104  J
41. An ideal gas undergoes cyclic process ABCDA as (c) 102  J (d) 10 3  J
shown in given P-V diagram 45. In a cyclic process, work done by the system is
P (a) zero
D C (b) Equal to heat given to the system
2P0
(c) More than the heat given to system
P0 B (d) Independent of heat given to the system
A
V 46. In a cyclic process, the internal energy of the gas
V0 3V0
(a) Increases (b) Decreases
The amount of work done by the gas is:
(a) 6P0V0 (b) –2P0V0 (c) Remains constant (d) Becomes zero
(c) +2P0V0 (d) +4P0V0
Thermodynamic Processes
42. Work done by the gas in the process shown in figure
is 47. A given system undergoes a change in which work
done by the system equals the decrease in its internal
energy. The system must have undergone
(a) isothermal change (b) adiabatic change
(c) isobaric change (d) isochoric change
48. The temperature of a hypothetical gas increases to
2 times when compressed adiabatically to half the
volume. Its equation can be written as
(a) positive (b) negative (a) PV 3/ 2  constant (b) PV 5/ 2  constant
(c) zero (d) cannot say (c) PV  constant
7/3
(d) PV 4/3  constant
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 66

Questions marked with asterisk (*) are

54*. A thermodynamic system is taken through the cycle
deleted from JEE Main
ABCD as shown in figure. Heat rejected by the gas
49. Two samples A and B of same gas have equal during the cycle is:
volumes and pressures. The gas in sample A is
expanded isothermally to double its volume and the
gas in sample B is expanded to double its volume
adiabatically. If work done by the gas is same in two
processes, then value of  for the gas is best given by
(a) 1  2       1 ln 2

(b) 1  2   1     1 ln 2
(a) PV (b) 2 PV
(c) 1  2   1  2    1 ln 2
1
(c) 4 PV (d) PV
(d) None of these 2
50. Two samples A and B of a gas initially at the same 55*. The shown P-V diagram represents the
pressure and temperature are compressed from thermodynamics cycle of an engine, operating with
an ideal monoatomic gas. The amount of heat,
V extracted from the source in a single cycle is:
volume V to (A isothermally and B
2
adiabatically). The final pressure of A is

(a) Greater than the final pressure of B

(b) Equal to the final pressure of B

(c) Less than the final pressure of B

(d) Twice the final pressure of B

Heat Engine
51*. An ideal heat engine working between temperature T1
and T2 has an efficiency h, the new efficiency if both  13 
(a) P0V0 (b)   PV 0 0
2
the source and sink temperature are doubled, will be
 11 
 (c)   PV (d) 4PV
(a) (b)  2
0 0 0 0
2
56*. A reversible engine converts one-sixth of the heat
(c) 2 (d) 3
input into work. When the temperature of the sink is
52*. The thermal efficiency of a hat engine for which the reduced by 62K, the efficiency of the engine is
work output is 2500 J/cycle and the heat input is doubled. The temperatures of the source and sink are
10000 J/cycle, is (a) 80C,37C (b) 95C, 28C
(a) 75% (b) 40% (c) 90C,37C (d) 99C,37C
(c) 25% (d) 0.25% 57*. A heat engine operates between a cold reservoir at
53*. An ideal gas heat engine operates in the Carnot cycle temperature T2  300 K and a hot reservoir at
between 227C and 127C . It absorbs 6 104 cal of temperature T1 . It takes 200 J of heat from hot
heat at higher temperature. Amount of heat converted reservoir and delivers 120 J of heat to cold reservoir
into work, is in a cycle. What could be the minimum temperature
of hot reservoir?
(a) 1.2 104 cal (b) 2.4  104 cal
(a) 200K (b) 300K
(c) 6.0  104 cal (d) 4.8 104 cal (c) 400K (d) 500K
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 67

Questions marked with asterisk (*) are 65*. The coefficient of performance of a Carnot
refrigerator working between 30C and 0C is
deleted from JEE Main (a) 10 (b) 1
58*. An ideal heat engine exhausting heat at 77C is to (c) 9 (d) 0
have a 30% efficiency. It must take heat at 66*. A refrigerator is to maintain eatables kept inside at
(a) 127C (b) 227C 9C , calculate the coefficient of performance?
(c) 327C (d) 673C (Room temperature 36°C)
Carnot Cycle (a) 10.44 (b) 11.44
59*. Even Carnot engine cannot give 100% efficiency (c) 12.44 (d) 13.44
because we cannot 67*. The coefficient of performance for a refrigerator
(a) prevent radiation should be:
(b) find ideal sources (a) Greater than 1 (b) smaller than 1
(c) reach absolute zero temperature (c) Equal to 1 (d) None of these
(d) eliminate friction 68*. A refrigerator is
60*. Which statement is incorrect?
(a) Heat engine
(a) all reversible cycles have same efficiency
(b) An electric motor
(b) reversible cycle has more efficiency than the
irreversible one (c) Heat engine working in backward direction
(c) Carnot cycle is a reversible one (d) Air cooler
(d) Carnot cycle has the maximum efficiency in all 69*. An ideal refrigerator has a freezer at a temperature of
cycles 13C. The coefficient of performance of the engine
is 5. The temperature of the air (to which heat is
1
61*. A Carnot engine, having an efficiency of   as rejected) will be:
10
(a) 325C (b) 325K
heat engine, is used as a refrigerator. If the work done
on the system is 10 J, the amount of energy absorbed (c) 39C (d) 320C
from the reservoir at lower temperature is 70*. The coefficient of performance of a Carnot
(a) 100 J (b) 99 J refrigerator working between 30C and 0C is
(c) 90 J (d) 1 J (a) 10 (b) 1
62*. A Carnot engine takes 3 × 106 cal of heat from a
(c) 9 (d) 0
reservoir at 627°C, and gives it to a sink at 27°C. The
71*. The freezer in a refrigerator is located at the top
work done by the engine is section so that
(a) 4.2 × 106 J (b) 8.4 × l06 J (a) The entire chamber of the refrigerator is cooled
6
(c) 16.8 × l0 J (d) zero quickly due to convection
63*. Two Carnot engines A and B are operated in (b) The motor is not heated
succession. The first one, A receives heat form a (c) The heat gained from the environment is high
source at T = 800 K and rejects to sink at T2 . The (d) The heat gained from the environment is low
second engine B receives heat rejected by the first 72*. The inside and outside temperature of a refrigerator
engine and rejects to another sink at T3  300 K . If are 273 K and 303 K respectively. Assuming that
refrigerator cycle is reversible, for every joule of
the work outputs of two engines are equal, then the
work done the heat delivered to the surrounding will
value of T2 is be
(a) 100 K (b) 300 K (a) 10 J (b) 20 J
(c) 550 K (d) 700 K (c) 30 J (d) 50 J
Refrigeration 73*. A refrigerator works between 4C and 30C . It is
64*. A refrigerator is to maintain eatables kept inside at required to remove 600 cal of heat every second in
9C . If room temperature is 36C , calculate the order to keep the temperature of the refrigerated
coefficient of performance. space constant. The power required is (take, 1 cal =
4.2J)
(a) 10.9 (b) 20.9
(a) 23.65W (b) 236.5W
(c) 30.9 (d) 40.9
(c) 2365W (d) 2.365W
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 68

Numerical Value Type Questions 85. A sample of an ideal gas is taken through the cyclic
74. Internal energy of n1 moles of hydrogen at process ‘abca’ as shown in the figure. The change in
temperature T is equal to the internal energy of n2 the internal energy of the gas along the path ‘ca’ is -
moles of helium at temperature 2T. Then the value of 180 J, the gas absorbs 250 J of heat along the path
5n1 /n2 is ________. ‘ab’ and 60 J along the path ‘bc’. The work down by
75. When two moles of oxygen is heated from 0ºC to the gas along the path ‘abc’ is [in joules]
10ºC at constant volume, its internal energy changes
by 420 J. What is the molar specific heat (in JK–1
mol–1) oxygen at constant volume?
76. An ideal monoatomic gas undergoes a process in
which its internal energy U and density  vary as
U = constant. The ratio of change in internal energy
to the work done by the gas is (0.5x). Find value of x.
77. Two liquids A and B are at 32ºC and 24ºC
respectively. When mixed in equal masses the 86. One mole of an ideal gas    1.4  is adiabatically
temperature of the mixture is found to be 28ºC. The compressed so that its temperature rises from 27ºC to
S  35ºC. The change in the internal energy of the gas (in
ratio of specific heats  A  is
 SB  J) is (given R = 8.3 J/mol K)
78. Two moles of an ideal diatomic gas are contained in a 87. Two identical containers contain the same amount of
rigid container. The temperature of the gas is 300K. ideal gas at identical condition. Gas in one container
At 500K, the gas dissociates into atoms. The heat is expanded to 4 times of its volume at constant
required to raise the temperature from 300K to 600K pressure and gas in another container is expanded to
is  R Joules. Find the value of  . (R is the gas four times of its volume by isothermal process. If W1
constant) and W2 be the respective work done, then
79. Average translational Kinetic energy per unit volume
W1  2
PV  . Find 
of an ideal gas at pressure P is k where k is. W2 In 2 3
2
80. One mole of a monoatomic gas is mixed with three 88. Two cylinders A and B fitted with pistons contain
moles of a diatomic gas. The molecular specific heat equal amounts of an ideal diatomic gas at 300 K. The
2 piston A is free to move while that of B is held fixed.
of mixture at constant volume is RJ/mol K; then
4 The same amount of heat is given to the gas in each
the value of α will be ---- (Assume that the given cylinder. If the rise in temperature of the gas in A is
diatomic gas has no vibrational mode.) 30 K, then the rise in temperature (in K) of the gas in
81. A cylinder with fixed capacity of 67.2 lit contains B is:
helium gas at STP. The amount of heat needed to
raise the temperature of the gas by 20ºC is
closest(integer) to (in J): [Given that R = 8.31 J mol–1
K–1]
82. If the molar heat capacity of a gas in the process PT =
constant is 5R, the number of degrees of freedom of
molecules in the gas is
83. The mass of an oxygen molecule is about 16 times
that of a hydrogen molecule. At room temperature the
rms speed of oxygen molecules is v. The rms speed of
the hydrogen molecules at the same temperature will
be nv, where n is
84. A cylinder with a fixed capacity of 67.2 lit contains
helium gas at STP. The amount of heat needed to
raise the temperature of the gas by 20ºC is xR: Find
x.(R is gas Constant)
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 69

EXERCISE – 2: PREVIOUS YEARS JEE MAINS QUESTIONS

Questions marked with asterisk (*) are 6. 7 mole of certain monoatomic ideal gas undergoes a
temperature increase of 40K at constant pressure. The
deleted from JEE Main increase in the internal energy of the gas in this process
1. The relation between root mean square speed (vrms) and is (Given R = 8.3 JK–1 mol–1) (JEE Main 2022)
most probable speed (vp) for the molar mass M of (a) 5810 J (b) 3486 J
oxygen gas molecule at the temperature of 300 K will (c) 11620 J (d) 6972 J
be: (JEE Main 2022) 7. A gas has n degrees of freedom. The ratio of specific
2 3 heat of gas at constant volume to the specific heat of
(a) vrms  vp (b) vrms  vp
3 2 gas at constant pressure will be : (JEE Main 2022)
1 n n2
(c) vrms  v p (d) vrms  vp (a) (b)
3 n2 n
C  n n
(c) (d)
2. The ratio of specific heats  P  in terms of degree of 2n  2 n2
 CV 
8. Same gas is filled in two vessels of the same volume at
freedom (f) is given by: (JEE Main 2022) the same temperature. If the ratio of the number of
 f   2 molecules is 1:4, then
(a)  1   (b)  1  
 3   f  A. The r.m.s. velocity of gas molecules in two vessels
 f   1 will be the same.
(c)  1   (d)  1   B. The ratio of pressure in these vessels will be 1 : 4
 2  f 
C. The ratio of pressure will be 1 : 1
3. A flask contains argon and oxygen in the ratio of 3 : 2
D. The r.m.s. velocity of gas molecules in two vessels
in mass and the mixture is kept at 27°C. The ratio of
will be in the ratio of 1 : 4 (JEE Main 2022)
their average kinetic energy per molecule respectively.
(a) A and C only (b) B and D only
(JEE Main 2022)
(c) A and B only (d) C and D only
(a) 3 : 5 (b) 9 : 4
9. Which statements are correct about degrees of
(c) 2 : 3 (d) 1 : 1
freedom?
4. According to kinetic theory of gases.
(A) A molecule with n degrees of freedom has n2
A. The motion of the gas molecules freezes at 0 C.
different ways of storing energy.
B. The mean free path of gas molecules decreases if
1
the density of molecules is increased. (B) Each degree of freedom is associated with RT
2
C. The mean free path of gas molecules increases if
average energy per mole.
temperature is increased keeping pressure constant.
(C) A monoatomic gas molecule has 1 rotational
D. Average kinetic energy per molecule per degree of
degree of freedom where as diatomic molecule has
3
freedom is k B T (for monoatomic gases). 2 rotational degrees of freedom.
2
(D) CH4 has a total to 6 degrees of freedom
Choose the most appropriate answer from the options
Choose the correct answer from the option given
given below: (JEE Main 2022)
below: (JEE Main 2022)
(a) A and C only (b) B and C only
(a) B and C only (b) B and D only
(c) A and B only (d) C and D only
(c) A and B only (d) C and D only
5. A vessel contains 16 g of hydrogen and 128 g of
oxygen at standard temperature and pressure. The
volume of the vessel in cm3 is: (JEE Main 2022)
(a) 72 × 105 (b) 32 × 105
4
(c) 27 × 10 (d) 54 × 104
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 70

10. Given below are two statements : 14. 0.056 kg of Nitrogen is enclosed in a vessel at a
Statement I : The average momentum of a molecule temperature of 127°C. The amount of heat required to
double the speed of its molecules is _________k cal.
in a sample of an ideal gas depends on temperature.
(JEE Main 2022)
Statement II : The rms speed of oxygen molecules in 15. The total internal energy of two mole monoatomic
a gas is v. If the temperature is doubled and the oxygen ideal gas at temperature T = 300 K will be ____ J.
(JEE Main 2022)
molecules dissociate into oxygen atoms, the rms speed
16. At a certain temperature, the degrees of freedom per
will become 2v. In the light of the above statements, molecule for gas is 8. The gas performs 150 J of work
choose the correct answer from the options given when it expands under constant pressure. The amount
of heat absorbed by the gas will be …….. J.
below (JEE Main 2022)
(JEE Main 2022)
(a) Both Statement I and Statement II are true 17. One mole of monatomic gas is mixed with three mole
(b) Both Statement I and Statement II are false of a diatomic gas. The molecular specific heat of
(c) Statement I is true but Statement II is false mixture at constant volume is volume is

(d) Statement I is false but Statement II is true

2
RJ / molK ; then the value of α will be ______,
4
11. A vessel contains 14 g of nitrogen gas at a temperature
(Assume that the given diatomic gas has no vibration
of 27°C. The amount of heat to be transferred to the mode) (JEE Main 2022)
gap to double the r.m.s. speed of its molecules will be : 18. Starting with the same initial conditions, an ideal gas
expands from volume V1 to V2 in three different ways.
(Take R = 8.32 J mol-1 k-1) (JEE Main 2022)
The work done by the gas is W1 if the process is purely
(a) 2229 J (b) 5616 J isothermal. W2. if the process is purely adiabatic and
(c) 9360 J (d) 13,104 J W if the process is primly isobaric. Then choose the
correct option (JEE Main 2022)
12. The root mean square speed of smoke particles of mass
(a) W1 < W2 < W3 (b) W2 < W3 < W1
5 × 10–17 kg in their Brownian motion in air at NTP is (c) W3 < W1 < W2 (d) W2 < W3 < W1
approximately. [Given k = 1.38 × 10–23 JK–1] 19. 7 mole of certain monoatomic ideal gas undergoes a
(JEE Main 2022) temperature increase of 40K at constant pressure. The
increase in the internal energy of the gas in this process
–1
(a) 60 mm s (b) 12 mm s–1 is (JEE Main 2022)
(c) 15 mm s–1 (d) 36 mm s–1 (a) 5810 J (b) 3486 J
13. Following statements are given: (c) 11620 J (d) 6972 J
(1) The average kinetic energy of a gas molecule 20. A monoatomic gas at pressure P and volume V is
decreases when the temperature is reduced. suddenly compressed to one eight of its original
(2) The average kinetic energy of a gas molecule volume. The final pressure at constant entropy will be:
increases with increase in pressure at constant (JEE Main 2022)
temperature.
(a) P (b) 8P
(3) The average kinetic energy of a gas molecule
decreases with increases in volume. (c) 32P (d) 64P
(4) Pressure of a gas increases with increase in
temperature at constant pressure.
(5) The volume of gas decreases with increase in
temperature.
Choose the correct answer from the options given
below: (JEE Main 2022)
(a) (1) and (4) only
(b) (1), (2) and (4) only
(c) (2) and (4) only
(d) (1), (2) and (5) only
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 71

Questions marked with asterisk (*) are 24*. Consider the efficiency of Carnot’s engine is given by

deleted from JEE Main  x

 log e , where  and  are constants. If T
sin  kT
21*. Read the following statements :
is temperature, k is Boltzman constant, θ is angular
A. When small temperature difference between a
displacement and x has the dimensions of length.
liquid and its surrounding is doubled the rate of loss
Then, choose the incorrect option. (JEE Main 2022)
of heat of the liquid becomes twice.
(a) Dimensions of β is same as that of force.
B. Two bodies P and Q having equal surface areas are
(b) Dimensions of α–1 x is same as that of energy.
maintained at temperature 10°C and 20°C. The
(c) Dimensions of η–1 sinθ is same as that of αβ
thermal radiation emitted in a given time by P and
(d) Dimensions of α is same as that of β
Q are in the ratio 1:1.15.
25. A thermodynamic system is taken from an original
C. A carnot Engine working between 100 K and 400
state D to an intermediate state E by the linear process
K has an efficiency of 75%
shown in the figure. Its volume is then reduced to the
D. When small temperature difference between a
original volume from E to F by an isobaric process.
liquid and its surrounding is quadrupled, the rate of
The total work done by the gas from D to E to F will
loss of heat of the liquid becomes twice.
be (JEE Main 2022)
Choose the correct answer from the options given
below : (JEE Main 2022)
(a) A, B, C only (b) A, B only
(c) A, C only (d) B, C, D only
22*. In 1st case, Carnot engine operates between
temperatures 300 K and 100 K. In 2nd case, as shown
in the figure, a combination of two engines is used.
The efficiency of this combination (in 2nd case) will
be : (JEE Main 2022)
(a) –450 J (b) 450 J
(c) 900 J (d) 1350 J
26. A certain amount of gas of volume V at 27°C
temperature and pressure 2 × 107 Nm–2 expands
isothermally until its volume gets doubled. Later it
expands adiabatically until its volume gets redoubled.
The final pressure of the gas will be (Use   1.5 )
(JEE Main 2022)
(a) 3.536 × 105 Pa (b) 3.536 × 106 Pa
6
(c) 1.25 × 10 Pa (d) 1.25 × 105 Pa
27*. Let 1 is the efficiency of an engine at T1  447C
and T2  147C while 2 is the efficiency at
1
T1  947C and T2  47C . The ratio will be:
st
(a) same as the 1 case 2
(b) always greater than the 1st case (JEE Main 2022)
(c) always less than the 1st case (a) 0.41 (b) 0.56
(d) may increase or decrease with respect to the 1st case (c) 0.73 (d) 0.70
23*. A Carnot engine has efficiency of 50%. If the 28*. A Carrot engine whose heat sinks at 27°C, has an
temperature of sink is reduced by 40°C, its efficiency efficiency of 25%. By how many degrees should the
increases by 30%. The temperature of the source will temperature of the source be changed to increase the
be : (JEE Main 2022) efficiency by 100% of the original efficiency ?
(a) 166.7 K (b) 255.1 K (JEE Main 2022)
(c) 266.7 K (d) 367.7 K (a) Increases by 18°C
(b) Increases by 200°C
(c) Increases by 120°C
(d) Increases by 73°C
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 72

Questions marked with asterisk (*) are 34. At a certain temperature, the degrees of freedom per
molecule for gas is 8. The gas performs 150 J of work
deleted from JEE Main when it expands under constant pressure. The amount
29*. A Carnot engine takes 5000 kcal of heat from a of heat absorbed by the gas will be …….. J.
reservoir at 727°C and gives heat to a sink at 127°C. (JEE Main 2022)
The work done by the engine is (JEE Main 2022) 35. The pressure P1 and density d1 of diatomic gas
(a) 3 × 106 J (b) Zero  7
6
(c) 12.6 × 10 J (d) 8.4 × 106 J     changes suddenly to P2 (>P1) and d2
 5
30*. The efficiency of Carnot’s engine, working between respectively during an adiabatic process. The
steam point and ice point, will be (JEE Main 2022) temperature of the gas increases and becomes ______
(a) 26.81% (b) 37.81% times of its initial temperature. (JEE Main 2022)
(c) 47.81% (d) 57.81% 36. 0.056 kg of Nitrogen is enclosed in a vessel at a
31. A thermally insulated vessel contains an ideal gas of temperature of 127°C. The amount of heat required to
molecular mass M and ratio of specific heats 1.4. double the speed of its molecules is _________k cal.
Vessel is moving with speed v and is suddenly brought (JEE Main 2022)
to rest. Q
Assuming no heat is lost to the surrounding and vessel 37. A monoatomic gas performs a work of where Q is
4
temperature of the gas increases by (R = universal gas
the heat supplied to it. The molar heat capacity of the
constant) (JEE Main 2022)
gas will be _________R during this transformation.
Mv 2 Mv 2 Where R is the gas constant. (JEE Main 2022)
(a) (b)
7R 5R 38. When a gas filled in a closed vessel is heated by
Mv 2
Mv 2 raising the temperature by 1°C, its pressure increases
(c) 2 (d) 7 by 0.4%. The initial temperature of the gas is ______
7R 5R
K. (JEE Main 2022)
32. A sample of an ideal gas is taken through the cyclic
process ABCA as shown in figure. It absorbs, 40 J of 39*. In a carnot engine, the temperature of reservoir is
heat during the part AB, no heat during BC and rejects 527°C and that of sink 200 K. If the work done by the
60 J of heat during CA. A work of 50 J is done on the engine when it transfers heat from reservior to sink is
gas during the part BC. The internal energy of the gas 12000 kJ, the quantity of heat absorbed by the engine
at A is 1560 J. The work done by the gas during the
from reservoir is ________x 106 J. (JEE Main 2022)
part CA is: (JEE Main 2022)
40*. A heat engine operates with the cold reservoir at
temperature 324K. The minimum temperature of the
hot reservoir, if the heat engine takes 300 J heat from
the hot reservoir and delivers 180 J heat to the cold
reservoir per cycle, is ____ K. (JEE Main 2022)
(a) 20 J (b) 30 J 41. A diatomic gas    1.4  does 400 J of work when it is
(c) –30 J (d) –60 J
33. Given below are two statements: expanded isobarically. The heat given to the gas in the
Statement – I: When amount of an ideal gas process is __________ J. (JEE Main 2022)
undergoes adiabatic change from state (P1, V1, T1) to
 R T2  T1  42. Given below are two statements :
state (P2, V2, T2) then work done is W  ,
1  Statements I : The temperature of a gas is –73C .
C When the gas is heated to 527C , the root mean
where   P and R = universal gas constant. square speed of the molecules is doubled.
CV
Statement – II: In the above case, when work is done Statement II : The product of pressure and volume of
on the gas, the temperature of the gas would rise. an ideal gas will be equal to translational kinetic
Choose the correct answer from the options given energy of the molecules.
below. (JEE Main 2022) In the light of the above statements, choose the correct
(a) Both statement – I and statement – II are true answer from the options given below :
(b) Both statement – I and statement – II are false (JEE Main 2023)
(c) Statement – I is true but statement – II is false
(a) Both statement I and Statement II are true
(d) Statement – I is false but statement – II is true
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 73

(b) Statement I is true but Statement II is false average kinetic energy per molecule of hydrogen and
(c) Both Statement I and Statement II are false oxygen respectively is : (JEE Main 2023)
(d) Statement I is false but Statement II is true (a) 2 : 1 (b) 1 : 1
43. Let  1 be the ratio of molar specific heat at constant (c) 1 : 4 (d) 4 : 1
pressure and molar specific heat at constant volume of 49. The average kinetic energy of a molecule of the gas is
a monoatomic gas and  2 be the similar ratio of (JEE Main 2023)
(a) Proportional to absolute temperature
diatomic gas. Considering the diatomic gas molecule
(b) Proportional to volume
1
as a rigid rotator, the ratio, is (JEE Main 2023) (c) Proportional to pressure
2 (d) Dependent on the nature of the gas
27 35 50. The number of air molecules per cm3 increased from
(a) (b)
35 27 3 1019 to 12  1019 . The ratio of collision frequency
25 21 of air molecules before and after the increase in
(c) (d)
21 25 number respectively is: (JEE Main 2023)
44. The root mean square velocity of molecules of gas is (a) 1.25 (b) 0.75
(JEE Main 2023) (c) 0.25 (d) 0.50
(a) Proportional to square of temperature T 2   51. The temperature of an ideal gas is increased from 200
K to 800 K. If r.m.s. speed of gas at 200 K is v0 . Then,
(b) Inversely proportional to square root of r.m.s. speed of the gas at 800 K will be:
1 (JEE Main 2023)
temperature v0
T (a) (b) v0
4
(c) Proportional to square root of temperature T
(c) 4v0 (d) 2v0
(d) Proportional to temperature T 
52. The ratio of speed of sound in hydrogen gas to the
45. According to law of equipartition of energy the molar speed of sound in oxygen gas at the same temperature
specific heat of a diatomic gas at constant volume is: (JEE Main 2023)
where the molecule has one additional vibrational (a) 1 : 1 (b) 1 : 2
(c) 1 : 4 (d) 4 : 1
mode is :- (JEE Main 2023)
53. The temperature at which the kinetic energy of oxygen
9 5 molecules becomes double than its value at 27C is
(a) R (b) R
2 2 (JEE Main 2023)
3 7 (a) 1227C (b) 927C
(c) R (d) R (c) 627C (d) 327C
2 2
46. At 300K , the rms speed of oxygen molecules is 54. Match List I with List II:
List I List II
 5
times to that of its average speed in the gas.
 (A) 3 Translational (I) Monoatomic gases
22 degrees of freedom
Then, the value of  will be (used   )
7 (B) 3 Translational, 2 (II) Polyatomic gases
(JEE Main 2023) rotational degrees of
(a) 32 (b) 28 freedoms
(c) 24 (d) 27
47. The pressure  P  and temperature T  relationship of (C) 3 Translational, 2 (III) Rigid diatomic gases
rotational and 1
an ideal gas obeys the equation PT 2  constant. The vibrational degrees of
volume expansion coefficient of the gas will be: freedom
(JEE Main 2023)
3 (D) 3 Translational, 3 (IV) Nonrigid diatomic
(a) 3T 2 (b) 2 rotational and more than gases
T
one vibrational degrees
3 3 of freedom
(c) 3 (d)
T T
48. A flask contains hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio of Choose the correct answer from the options given
2 : 1 by mass at temperature 27C . The ratio of below: (JEE Main 2023)
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 74

(a) (A)-(IV), (B)-(II), (C)-(I), (D)-(III) 60. The rms speed of oxygen molecule in a vessel at
1
(b) (A)-(I), (B)-(IV), (C)-(III), (D)-(II)
 5 2
(c) (A)-(IV), (B)-(III), (C)-(II), (D)-(I) particular temperature is 1   v, where v is the
(d) (A)-(I), (B)-(III), (C)-(IV), (D)-(II)  x
average speed of the molecule. The value of x will be:
55. A gas mixture consists of 2 moles of oxygen and 4
22
moles of neon at temperature T. Neglecting all (Take   ) (JEE Main 2023)
vibrational modes, the total internal energy of the 7
system will be, (JEE Main 2023) (a) 4 (b) 27
(c) 28 (d) 8
(a) 16RT (b) 4RT 61. The mean free path of molecules of a certain gas at
(c) 11RT (d) 8RT STP is 1500d, where d is the diameter of the gas
56. Three vessel of equal volume contain gases at the same molecules. While maintaining the standard pressure,
temperature and pressure. The first vessel contains the mean free path of the molecules at 373 K is
neon (monoatomic), the second contains chlorine approximately: (JEE Main 2023)
(diatomic) and third contains uranium hexafloride (a) 1500d (b) 2049d
(c) 1098d (d) 750d
(polyatomic). Arrange these on the basis of their root
62. In an Isothermal change, the change in pressure and
mean square speed  vrms  and choose the correct volume of a gas can be represented for three different
answer from the options given below: temperature; T3 > T2 > T1 as : (JEE Main 2023)
(JEE Main 2023)
(a) vrms  dia   vrms  poly   vrms  mono 
(b) vrms  mono   vrms  dia   vrms  poly 
(c) vrms  mono   vrms  dia   vrms  poly 
(d) vrms  mono   vrms  dia   vrms  poly 
57. The root mean square speed of molecules of nitrogen (a)
gas at 27C is approximately: (Given mass of a
nitrogen molecule  4.6  10 26 kg and take Boltzmann
constant k B  1.4  10 23 JK 1 ) (JEE Main 2023)
(a) 91 m / s (b) 1260 m / s
(c) 523 m / s (d) 27.4 m / s
58. If the r.m.s speed of chlorine molecule is 490 m / s at
27C , the r.m.s speed of argon molecules at the same
(b)
temperature will be (Atomic mass of argon  39.9 u ,
molecular mass of chlorine  70.9 u )
(JEE Main 2023)
(a) 451.7 m / s (b) 651.7 m / s
(c) 551.7 m / s (d) 751.7 m / s
59. A flask contains Hydrogen and Argon in the ratio 2:1
by mass. The temperature of the mixture is 30C . The
ratio of average kinetic energy per molecule of the two
gases (K argon/K hydrogen) is:
(c)
(Given: Atomic Weight of Ar = 39.9)
(JEE Main 2023)
39.9
(a) (b) 1
2
(c) 2 (d) 39.9

(d)
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 75

Questions marked with asterisk (*) are 67. Heat is given to an ideal gas in an isothermal process.
A. Internal energy of the gas will decrease.
deleted from JEE Main B. Internal energy of the gas will increase.
63*. A Carnot engine with efficiency 50% takes heat from a C. Internal energy of the gas will not change.
D. The gas will do positive work.
source at 600 K. In order to increase the efficiency to
E. The gas will do negative work.
70%, keeping the temperature of sink same, the new Choose the correct answer from the options given
temperature of the source will be : (JEE Main 2023) below : (JEE Main 2023)
(a) 360 K (b) 1000 K (a) A and E only (b) B and D only
(c) 900 K (d) 300 K (c) C and E only (d) C and D only
64. Match List I with List II: 68*. Given below are two statements : one is labelled as
List – I List – II Assertion A and the other is labelled as Reason R.
Assertion A : Efficiency of a reversible heat engine
A. Isothermal I. Work done by the gas decreases will be highest at –273°C temperature of cold
internal energy reservoir.
process Reason R : The efficiency of Carnot’s engine depends
not only on temperature of cold reservoir but it
B. Adiabatic II. No change in internal energy depends on the temperature of hot reservoir too and is
given as
Process
 T2 
  1  .
C. Isochoric III. The heat absorbed goes partly  T1 
to increase internal energy and In the light of the above statements, choose the correct
Process
answer from the options given below :
partly to do work (JEE Main 2023)
(a) A is true but R is false
D. Isobaric IV. No work is done on or by the
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct
process gas explanation of A
(c) A is false but R is true
Choose the correct answer from the options given
(d) Both A and R are true and R is the correct
below: (JEE Main 2023)
explanation of A
(a) A  II, B  I, C  III, D  IV
69. The pressure of a gas changes linearly with volume
(b) A  II, B  I, C  IV, D  III from A to B as shown in figure.
(c) A  II, B  II, C  IV, D  III If no heat is supplied to or extracted from the gas then
(d) A  II, B  II, C  III, D  IV change in the internal energy of the gas will be
65. Given below are two statements. One is labelled as (JEE Main 2023)
Assertion A and the other is labelled as Reason R.
Assertion A : If dQ and dW represent the heat
supplied to the system and the work done on the
system respectively. Then according to the first law of
thermodynamics dQ = dU – dW.
Reason R : First law of thermodynamics is based on
law of conservation of energy.
In the light of the above statements, choose the correct
answer from the option given below
(JEE Main 2023) (a) 6 J (b) Zero
(a) A is correct but R is not correct (c) –4.5 J (d) 4.5 J
(b) A is not correct but R is correct Cp
(c) Both A and R are correct and R is the correct 70. The correct relation between   and temperature
explanation of A Cv
(d) Both A and R are correct but R is not the correct T is (JEE Main 2023)
explanation of A 1
66. A bicycle tyre is filled with air having pressure of 270 (a) r  (b) r  T 0
T
kPa at 27ºC. The approximate pressure of the air in the
1
tyre when the temperature increases to 36°C (c) r  (d) r  T
(JEE Main 2023) T
(a) 70 kPa (b) 262 kPa
(c) 278 kPa (d) 360 kPa
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 76

Questions marked with asterisk (*) are The temperature corresponding to the point 'K' is:
(a) –273°C (b) –100°C
deleted from JEE Main (c) –373°C (d) 40°C
71. A hypothetical gas expands adiabatically such that its 76. A source supplies heat to a system at the rate of 1000
volume changes from 08 litres to 27 litres. If the ratio W. If the system performs work at a rate of 200 W.
of final pressure of the gas to initial pressure of the gas The rate at which internal energy of the system
16 Cp increases is (JEE Main 2023)
is . Then the ratio of will be (a) 600 W (b) 1200 W
81 Cv (c) 500 W (d) 800 W
(JEE Main 2023) 77. Given below are two statements:
4 1 Statement I: If heat is added to a system, its
(a) (b) temperature must increase.
3 2
Statement II: If positive work is done by a system in a
3 3 thermodynamic process, its volume must increase.
(c) (d)
2 1 In the light of the above statements, choose the correct
72. Heat energy of 735 J is given to a diatomic gas answer from the options given below
allowing the gas to expand at constant pressure. Each (JEE Main 2023)
gas molecule rotates around an internal axis but do not (a) Both Statement I and Statement II are false
(b) Statement I is true but Statement II are false
oscillate. The increase in the internal energy of the gas
(c) Statement I is false but Statement II are true
will be: (JEE Main 2023) (d) Both Statement I and Statement II are true
(a) 572 J (b) 525 J 78. An air bubble of volume 1 cm3 rises from the bottom
(c) 441 J (d) 735 J of a lake 40 m deep to the surface at a temperature of
73. A sample of gas at temperature T is adiabatically 12°C. The atmospheric pressure is 1×105 Pa, the
expanded to double its volume. The work done by the density of water is 1000 kg/m3 and g = 10 m/s2 . There
3 is no difference of the temperature of water at the
gas in the process is (given,    : depth of 40 m and on the surface. The volume of air
2
bubble when it reaches the surface will be:
(JEE Main 2023) (JEE Main 2023)
(a) W  TR  2  2  (a) 3 cm3 (b) 4 cm3
 
(c) 2 cm3 (d) 5 cm3
T 79*.
(b) W   2  2 Work done by a Carnot engine operating between
R temperatures 127°C and 27°C is 2kJ. The amount of
R heat transferred to the engine by the reservoir is:
(c) W   2  2  (JEE Main 2023)
T
(a) 4 k J (b) 8 kJ
(d) W  RT  2  2  (c) 2.67 kJ (d) 2 kJ
74*. A Carnot engine operating between two reservoirs has 80. Consider two containers A and B containing
monoatomic gases at the same Pressure (P), Volume
1
efficiency . When the temperature of cold reservoir (V) and Temperature (T). The gas in A is compressed
3 1
1 isothermally to of its original volume while the gas
raised by x, its efficiency decreases to . The value of 8
6 1
x, if the temperature of hot reservoir is 99o C, will be: in B is compressed adiabatically to of its original
8
(JEE Main 2023)
volume. The ratio of final pressure of gas in B to that
(a) 16,5 K (b) 33 K
of gas in A is (JEE Main 2023)
(c) 66 K (d) 62 K
1
75. For three low density gases A, B, C pressure versus (a) (b) 8
8
temperature graphs are plotted while keeping them at
3
constant volume, as shown in the figure.
(c) 4 (d) 8 2
(JEE Main 2023)
81. A gas is compressed adiabatically, which one of the
following statement is NOT true. (JEE Main 2023)
(a) The change in the internal energy is equal to the
work done on the gas.
(b) There is no heat supplied to the system
(c) The temperature of the gas increases.
(d) There is no change in the internal energy
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 77

Questions marked with asterisk (*) are 3

Z
2
Z
(a) (b)
deleted from JEE Main 2 3
82. The Thermodynamic process, in which internal energy 3 4
(c) Z (d) Z
of the system remains constant is (JEE Main 2023) 4 3
(a) Isothermal (b) Isochoric 89. During an adiabatic process, if the pressure of a gas is
(c) Adiabatic (d) Isobaric
found to be proportional to the cube of its absolute
83*. An engine operating between the boiling and freezing
C
points of water will have temperature, then the ratio of P for the gas is:
A. efficiency more than 27%. CV
B. efficiency less than the efficiency of a Carnot (JEE Main 2024)
engine operating between the same two temperatures. 5 9
C. efficiency equal to 27% (a) (b)
D. efficiency less than 27% (JEE Main 2023) 3 7
(a) B, C and D only (b) B and D only 3 7
(c) (d)
(c) A and B only (d) B and C only 2 5
84. A thermodynamic system is taken through cyclic 90. If n is the number density and d is the diameter of the
process. The total work done in the process is:
molecule, then the average distance covered by a
(JEE Main 2023)
molecule between two successive collisions (i.e.
mean free path) is represented by : (JEE Main 2024)
1
(a) 2nd2 (b)
2nd 2
1 1
(c) (d)
2nd 2
2n 2 2 d 2
(a) Zero (b) 300 J 91. A sample contains a mixture of helium and oxygen
(c) 100 J (d) 200 J gas. The ratio of root mean square speed of helium
85. Under isothermal condition, the pressure of a gas is and oxygen in the sample, is: (JEE Main 2024)
given by P = aV-3 , where a is a constant and V is the
volume of the gas. The bulk modulus at constant 1 2 2
(a) (b)
temperature is equal to (JEE Main 2023) 32 1
(a) 3P (b) P 1 1
P (c) (d)
(c) (d) 2P 2 2 4
2 92. The specific heat at constant pressure of a real gas
86. The initial pressure and volume of an ideal gas are PO obeying PV 2  RT equation is: (JEE Main 2024)
and VO. The final pressure of the gas when the gas is
R
V (a)  CV (b) CV  R
suddenly compressed to volume o will be: 3
4
R
(Given   ratio of specific heats at constant pressure (c) CV  (d) R
2V
and at constant volume) (JEE Main 2023)
1
93. Energy of 10 non-rigid diatomic molecules at
(a) Po  4  (b) 4Po temperature T is : (JEE Main 2024)

(a) 70 KBT (b) 35 KBT
(c) Po  4  (d) Po 7
(c) RT (d) 35RT
87. The translational degrees of freedom (ft) and 2
rotational degrees of freedom (fr) of CH4 molecule 94. A mixture of one mole of monoatomic gas and one
are: (JEE Main 2024) mole of a diatomic gas (rigid) are kept at room
(a) ft = 2 and fr = 2 (b) ft = 3 and fr = 3 temperature (27°C). The ratio of specific heat of
(c) ft = 3 and fr = 2 (d) ft = 2 and fr = 3 gases at constant volume respectively is:
(JEE Main 2024)
88. If the collision frequency of hydrogen molecules in a
closed chamber at 27°C is Z, then the collision 7 3
(a) (b)
frequency of the same system at 127°C is : 5 5
(JEE Main 2024) 5 3
(c) (d)
3 2
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 78

95. Given below are two statements : (a) 16 (b) 8

Statement (I) : The mean free path of gas molecules (c) 4 (d) 32
is inversely proportional to square of molecular 102. The temperature of a gas having 2.0×1025 molecules
diameter.
per cubic meter at 1.38 atm
Statement (II) : Average kinetic energy of gas
molecules is directly proportional to absolute (Given, k = 1.38×10–23JK–1) is: (JEE Main 2024)
temperature of gas. (a) 500 K (b) 200 K
In the light of the above statements, choose the (c) 100 K (d) 300 K
correct answer from the options given below : 103. N moles of a polyatomic gas (f = 6) must be mixed
(JEE Main 2024) with two moles of a monoatomic gas so that the
(a) Statement I is true but Statement II is false mixture behaves as a diatomic gas. The value of N is:
(b) Both Statement I and Statement II are false (JEE Main 2024)
(c) Both Statement I and Statement II are true (a) 6 (b) 3
(d) Statement I is false but Statement II is true (c) 4 (d) 2
96. The temperature of a gas is –78°C and the average 104. At which temperature the r.m.s. velocity of a
translational kinetic energy of its molecules is K. The hydrogen molecule equal to that of an oxygen
temperature at which the average translational kinetic molecule at 47°C? (JEE Main 2024)
energy of the molecules of the same gas becomes 2 K (a) 80 K (b) –73 K
is: (JEE Main 2024) (c) 4 K (d) 20 K
(a) 127°C (b) 117°C  5
(c) –39°C (d) –78°C 105. If three moles of monoatomic gas     is mixed
 3
97. Two moles a monoatomic gas is mixed with six
moles of a diatomic gas. The molar specific heat of  7
with two moles of a diatomic gas     , the value
the mixture at constant volume is : (JEE Main 2024)  5
9 7 of adiabatic exponent  for the mixture is:
(a) R (b) R
4 4 (JEE Main 2024)
3 5 (a) 1.75 (b) 1.40
(c) R (d) R
2 2 (c) 1.52 (d) 1.35
98. If the root mean square velocity of hydrogen 106. The parameter that remains the same for molecules of
molecule at a given temperature and pressure is 2 all gases at a given temperature is: (JEE Main 2024)
km/s, the root mean square velocity of oxygen at the (a) kinetic energy (b) momentum
same condition in km/s is: (JEE Main 2024) (c) mass (d) speed
(a) 2.0 (b) 0.5 107. A gas mixture consists of 8 moles of argon and 6
(c) 1.5 (d) 1.0 moles of oxygen at temperature T. Neglecting all
99. The average kinetic energy of a monatomic molecule vibrational modes, the total internal energy of the
is 0.414eV at temperature system is (JEE Main 2024)
(Use KB = 1.38×10–23 J/mol–K) (JEE Main 2024) (a) 29RT (b) 20RT
(a) 3000 K (b) 3200 K (c) 27RT (d) 21RT
(c) 1600 K (d) 1500 K 108. P-T diagram of an ideal gas having three different
100. The total kinetic energy of 1 mole of oxygen at 27°C densities 1 , 2 , 3 (in three different cases) is shown
is: in the figure. Which of the following is correct :
[Use universal gas constant (R) = 8.31 J/mole K] (JEE Main 2024)
(JEE Main 2024)
(a) 6845.5 J (b) 5942.0 J
(c) 6232.5 J (d) 5670.5 J
101. Two vessels A and B are of the same size and are at
same temperature. A contains 1 g of hydrogen and B
contains 1 g of oxygen. PA and PB are the pressures of
P
the gases in A and B respectively, then A is:
PB (a) 1  2 (b) 2  3
(JEE Main 2024)
(c) 1  2  3 (d) 1  2
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 79

109. The heat absorbed by a system in going through the 8 2

(c) (d)
given cyclic process is : (JEE Main 2024) 5 5 5
114. A real gas within a closed chamber at 27°C
undergoes the cyclic process as shown in figure. The
gas obeys PV3 = RT equation for the path A to B.
The net work done in the complete cycle is (assuming
R = 8 J/molK): (JEE Main 2024)

(a) 19.6 J (b) 61.6 J

(c) 616 J (d) 431.2 J

110. A total of 48J heat is given to one mole of helium

kept in a cylinder. The temperature of helium
increases by 2°C. The work done by the gas is:
Given, R = 8.3 JK–1 mol–1 (JEE Main 2024) (a) 20 J (b) 205 J
(a) 24.9 J (b) 72.9 J (c) –20 J (d) 225 J
(c) 48 J (d) 23.1 J 115. The pressure and volume of an ideal gas are related
111. Two different adiabatic paths for the same gas as PV 3 / 2  K (Constant). The work done by gas
intersect two isothermal curves as shown in P-V when the gas is taken from state A (P1, V1, T1) to
V state
diagram. The relation between the ratio a and the B (P2, V2, T2) is:
Vd [We modified question statement, In official NTA
Vb paper question was incomplete] (JEE Main 2024)
ratio is: (JEE Main 2024)
Vc (a) 2  P1V1  P2 V2  (b) 2  P2 V2  P1V1 
(c) 2  P1 V1  P2 V2  
(d) 2 P2 V2  P1 V1 
116. A diatomic gas    1.4  does 200 J of work when it
is expanded isobarically. The heat given to the gas in
the process is: (JEE Main 2024)
(a) 850 J (b) 800 J
(c) 600 J (d) 700 J
117. 0.08 kg air is heated at constant volume through 5°C.
The specific heat of air at constant volume is 0.17
kcal/kg°C and J = 4.18 joule/cal. The change in its
internal energy is approximately. (JEE Main 2024)
(a) 318 J (b) 298 J
Va Vb Va Vb
(a)  (b)  (c) 284 J (d) 142 J
Vd VC Vd VC 118. A thermodynamic system is taken from an original
1 2 state A to an intermediate state B by a linear process
Va  Vb  Va  Vb  as shown in the figure. It's volume is then reduced to
(c)   (d)  
Vd  VC  Vd  VC  the original value from B to C by an isobaric process.
The total work done by the gas from A to B and B to
112. A diatomic gas    1.4  does 100 J of work in an
C would be : (JEE Main 2024)
isobaric expansion. The heat given to the gas is:
(JEE Main 2024)
(a) 250 J (b) 150 J
(c) 350 J (d) 490 J
113. The volume of an ideal gas    1.5 is changed
adiabatically from 5 litres to 4 litres. The ratio of
initial pressure to final pressure is: (JEE Main 2024) [We changed options. In official NTA paper no
16 4 option was correct.]
(a) (b) (a) 33800 J (b) 2200 J
25 5
(c) 600 J (d) 800 J
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 80

119. Choose the correct statement for processes A & B 120. The given figure represents two isobaric processes for
shown in figure. (JEE Main 2024) the same mass of an ideal gas, then (JEE Main 2024)

(a) P2  P1 (b) P2  P1
(a) PV   k for process B and PV = k for process A. (c) P1  P2 (d) P1  P2
(b) PV = k for process B and A
T
(c)  k for process A and PV = K for process B
P  1
(d) None of these
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 81

EXERCISE – 3: ADVANCED OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

Objective Questions I [Only one correct option] 7. A gas molecule of mass M at the surface of the Earth
has kinetic energy equivalent to 0°C. If it were to go
1. Which one of the following gases possesses the up straight without colliding with any other
largest internal energy molecules, how high it would rise? Assume that the
(a) 2 moles of helium occupying 1 m3 at 300 K
height attained is much less than radius of the earth.
(b) 56 kg of nitrogen at 107 Nm-2 and 300 K
(kB is Boltzmann constant)
(c) 8 grams of oxygen at 8 atm and 300 K
273k B 546 k B
(d) 6 1026 molecules of argon occupying 40 m3 at (a) (b)
2 Mg 3Mg
900 K
819 k B
2. What will be the temperature when the rms velocity is (c) 0 (d)
2 Mg
double of that at 300 K:
(a) 300 K (b) 600 K 8. A gaseous mixture consists of 16 g of helium and 16
(c) 900 K (d) 1200 K g of oxygen, The ratio CP/CV of the mixture is
3. If Maxwell distribution is valid and VP denotes the (a) 1.4 (b) 1.54
(c) 1.59 (d) 1.62
most probable speed, V the average speed and Vrms  
the root–mean–square speed, then: 9. Let v, v rms and vP respectively denote the mean
(a) V < VP < Vrms (b) V < Vrms < VP speed, root mean square speed and most probable
speed of the molecules in an ideal monoatomic gas at
(c) VP < V < Vrms (d) VP < Vrms < V absolute temperature T. The mass of the molecule is
4. The root–mean–square (rms) speed of oxygen m. Then
molecules (O2) at a certain absolute temperature is V. (a) no molecule can have a speed greater than
If the temperature is doubled and the oxygen gas ( 2vrms )
dissociates into atomic oxygen, the rms speed would vp
(b) no molecule can have a speed less than
be: ( 2)
(a) V (b) 2V (c) v  v p  vrms
(c) 2V (d) 2 2V (d) the average kinetic energy of the molecules is
5. The temperature at which the root mean square speed 3
of a gas will be half its value at 0°C is (assume the 4

mv 2p 
pressure remains constant): 10. The temperature-entropy diagram of a reversible
(a) – 86.4°C (b) – 204.75°C engine cycle is given in the figure. Its efficiency is
(c) – 104.75°C (d) – 68.25°C T
6. Tyre of a bicycle has volume 2 × 10-3 m3. Initially the
tube is filled to 75% of its volume by air at 2T0
atmospheric pressure of p0 = 105 N/m2. When a rider
rides the bicycle the area of contact of tyre with road T0
is A = 24 × 10-4 m2. The mass of rider with bicycle is
120 kg. The number of strokes which delivers, S
S0 2S0
V = 500 cm3 volume of air in each stroke required to
(a) 1/3 (b) 2/3
inflate the tyres is [Take g = 10 m/s2]
(c) 1/2 (d) 1/4
(a) 10 (b) 11
11. When an ideal diatomic gas is heated at constant
(c) 20 (d) 21
pressure, the fraction of the heat energy supplied
which increases the internal energy of the gas, is
2 3
(a) (b)
5 5
3 5
(c) (d)
7 7
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 82

12. A monoatomic ideal gas, initially at temperature T1, is 17. The temperature of a hypothetical gas increases to
enclosed in a cylinder fitted with a frictionless piston. 2 times when compressed adiabatically to half the
The gas is allowed to expand adiabatically to a volume. Its equation can be written as
temperature. T2 by releasing the piston suddenly. If L1 (a) PV3/2 = constant (b) PV5/2 = constant
and L2 are the lengths of the gas column before and 7/3
(c) PV = constant (d) PV4/3 = constant
after expansion respectively, then T1/T2 is given by 18. When an ideal gas ( = 5/3) is heated under constant
2/3
L  L1 pressure, then what percentage of given heat energy
(a)  1  (b)
 L2  L2 will be utilised in doing external work
2/3
(a) 40 % (b) 30 %
L L  (c) 60 % (d) 20 %
(c) 2 (d)  2 
L1  L1  19. The shown P–V diagram represents the
13. A mono atomic gas is supplied the heat Q very slowly thermodynamic cycle of an engine, operating with an
keeping the pressure constant. The work done by the ideal monoatomic gas. The amount of heat, extracted
gas will be from the source in a single cycle is:
2 3
(a) Q (b) Q
3 5
2 1
(c) Q (d) Q
5 5
14. An ideal gas expands isothermally from a volume V1
to V2 and then compressed to original volume V1
adiabatically. Initial pressure is P1 and final pressure
is P3. The total work done is W. Then
(a) P3 > P1, W > 0 (b) P3 < P1, W < 0  13 
(a) P0V0 (b)   PV
(c) P3 > P1, W < 0 (d) P3 = P1, W = 0 2
0 0

15. A cylindrical tube of uniform cross-sectional area A is

 11 
fitted with two air tight frictionless pistons. The (c)   P0V0 (d) 4P0V0
pistons are connected to each other by a metallic wire. 2
Initially the pressure of the gas is P0 and temperature 20. Two samples A and B of a gas initially at the same
pressure and temperature are compressed from
is T0, atmospheric pressure is also P0. Now the
volume V to V/2 (A isothermally and adiabatically).
temperature of the gas is increased to 2T0, the tension The final pressure of A is
in the wire will be (a) Greater than the final pressure of B
(b) Equal to the final pressure of B
Wire (c) Less than the final pressure of B
(d) Twice the final pressure of B
21. A thermodynamic system is taken through the cycle
(a) 2 P0A (b) P0A PQRSP process. The net work done by the system is
PA
(c) 0 (d) 4 P0A
2
16. The molar heat capacity in a process of a diatomic gas
Q
if it does a work of when a heat of Q is supplied
4
to it is
2 5
(a) R (b) R
5 2
(a) 20 J (b) – 20 J
10 6 (c) 400 J (d) – 374 J
(c) R (d) R
3 7
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 83

22. Two rigid boxes containing different ideal gases are 25. An ideal gas is taken through the cycle A  B  C
placed on a table. Box A contains one mole of  A, as shown in the figure. If the net heat supplied
nitrogen at temperature T0, while Box B contains one to the gas in the cycle is 5 J, the work done by the gas
mole of helium at temperature (7/3) T0. The boxes are in the process C  A is
then put into thermal contact with each other and heat
flows between them until the gases reach a common
final temperature. (Ignore the heat capacity of boxes).
Then, the final temperature of the gases, Tf, in terms
of T0 is
5 3
(a) T f  T0 (b) T f  T0
2 7 (a) – 5 J (b) – 10 J
7 3 (c) – 15 J (d) – 20 J
(c) T f  T0 (d) T f  T0 26. In the cyclic process shown in the figure, the work
3 2
done by the gas in one cycle is
23. An ideal gas of mass m in a state A goes to another
state B via three different processes as shown in
figure. If Q1, Q2 and Q3 denote the heat absorbed by
the gas along the three paths, then
P A

3
2
1

B (a) 28 P1V1 (b) 14 P1V

V (c) 18 P1V (d) 9 P1V1
(a) Q1 < Q2 < Q3 (b) Q1 < Q2 = Q3 27. Heat energy absorbed by a system in going through a
cyclic process shown in figure is
(c) Q1 = Q2 > Q3 (d) Q1 > Q2 > Q3
24. A thermodynamic process is shown in the figure. The
pressures and volumes corresponding to some points
in the figure are:
PA = 3 × 104 Pa, PB = 8 × 104 Pa
and VA = 2 × 10–3m3, VD = 5 × 10–3 m3
In process AB, 600 J of heat is added to the system
(a) 107  J (b) 104  J
and in process BC, 200 J of heat is added to the
(c) 102  J (d) 10-3  J
system. The change in internal energy of the system
in process AC would be

(a) 560 J (b) 800 J

(c) 600 J (d) 640 J
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 84

28. One mole of diatomic ideal gas undergoes a cyclic 32. Two Carnot engines A and B are operated in
process ABC as shown in figure. The process BC is succession. The first one, A receives heat from a
adiabatic. The temperatures at A, B and C are 400 K, source at T = 800 K and rejects to sink at T2. The
800 K and 600 K respectively. Choose the correct second engine B receives heat rejected by the first
statement: engine and rejects to another sink at T3 = 300 K. If
the work outputs of two engines are equal, then the
value of T2 is
(a) 100 K (b) 300 K
(c) 550 K (d) 700 K
33. A reversible engine converts one-sixth of the heat
input into work. When the temperature of the sink is
reduced by 62°C, the efficiency of the engine is
(a) The change in internal energy in the process CA is doubled. The temperatures of the source and sink are
700 R.
(b) The changes in internal energy in the process AB (a) 80°C, 37°C (b) 95°C, 28°C
is –350 R. (c) 90°C, 37°C (d) 99°C, 37°C
(c) The change in internal energy in the process BC is 34. An ideal monoatomic gas is confined in a cylinder by
–500 R. a spring-loaded piston of cross section 8.0 × 10–3m2.
(d) The change in internal energy in whole cyclic Initially the gas is at 300 K and occupies a volume of
process is 250 R. 2.4× 10–3 m3 and the spring is in its relaxed state as
29. A thermodynamic system undergoes cyclic process shown in figure. The gas is heated by a small heater
ABCDA as shown in figure. The work done by the until the piston moves out slowly by 0.1 m. The force
system is constant of the spring is 8000 N/m and the
P
C B atmospheric pressure is 1.0 × 105 N/m2. The cylinder
3P0
and the piston are thermally insulated. The piston and
2P0 O the spring are massless and there is no friction
between the piston and the cylinder. The final
P0 temperature of the gas will be:
A D
V
(Neglect the heat loss through the lead wires of the
V0 2V0 heater. The heat capacity of the heater coil is also
(a) P0V0 (b) 2P0V0 negligible)
PV
(c) 0 0 (d) Zero
2
30. Two samples A and B of same gas have equal
volumes and pressures. The gas in sample A is
expanded isothermally to double its volume and the (a) 500 K (b) 300 K
gas in sample B is expanded to double its volume (c) 800 K (d) 1000 K
adiabatically. If work done by the gas is same in two 35. When a system is taken from state i to state f along
the path iaf, it is found that Q = 50 cal and W = 20
processes, then value of  for the gas is best given by
cal. Along the path ibf, Q = 36 cal. W along the path
ibf is
(a) 1 – 2– = (– 1) ln 2
(b) 1 – 2–( – 1) = ( – 1) ln 2
(c) 1 – 2–( – 1) = 2 ( – 1) ln 2
(d) None of these
31. If CV for an ideal gas is given by CV = 3 + 2T, where
T is the absolute temperature of gas, then the equation
of adiabatic process for this gas is
(a) VT2 = constant (b) VT2e2T = constant (a) 14 cal (b) 6 cal
(c) VT3e–2T = constant (d) VT3e2T = constant (c) 16 cal (d) 66 cal
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 85

36. A Carnot engine absorbs 1000 J of heat energy from a 42. Four curves A, B, C and D are drawn in the adjoining
reservoir at 127oC and rejects 600 J of heat energy figure for a given amount of gas. The curves which
during each cycle. The efficiency of engine and represent adiabatic and isothermal changes are
temperature of sink will be:
(a) 50% and – 20oC (b) 40% and – 33oC
o
(c) 70% and – 10 C (d) 20% and – 43oC
37. Equal masses of three liquids A, B and C have
temperatures 10°C, 25°C and 40°C respectively. If A
and B are mixed, the mixture has a temperature of
15°C. If B and C are mixed, the mixture has a (a) C and D respectively (b) D and C respectively
temperature of 30°C. If A and C are mixed, the (c) A and B respectively (d) B and A respectively
mixture will have a temperature of:
Objective Questions II
(a) 16°C (b) 20°C
[One or more than one correct option]
(c) 25°C (d) 29°C
38. The temperatures of equal masses of three different 43. During an experiment, an ideal gas is found to obey a
liquids A, B and C are 12°C, 19°C and 28°C P2
condition = constant [  = density of the gas].
respectively. The temperature when A and B are 
mixed is 16°C, and when B and C are mixed, it is The gas is initially at temperature T, pressure P and
23°C. What will be the temperature when A and C density  . The gas expands such that density
are mixed ?
changes to  /2
(a) 15.6 °C (b) 23.2 °C
(c) 20.3 °C (d) 25.8 °C (a) The pressure of the gas changes to 2P
39. An ideal gas at 27°C is compressed adiabatically to (b) The temperature of the gas changes to 2T
8 (c) The graph of the above process on the P-T
of its original volume. The rise in temperature is
27 diagram is parabola
 5 (d) The graph of the above process on the P-T
   diagram is hyperbola
 3
(a) 475° C (b) 402° C 44. Pick the correct statement (s)
(c) 275° C (d) 375° C (a) The rms translational speed for all ideal-gas
40. A mass of diatomic gas ( = 1.4) at a pressure of molecules at the same temperature is not the same
2 atmospheres is compressed adiabatically so that its but it depends on the mass
temperature rises from 27°C to 927°C. The pressure (b) Each particle in gas has average translational
of the gas in the final state is: 1 2 3
(a) 256 atm (b) 8 atm kinetic energy and the equation mvrms  kT
2 2
(c) 28 atm (d) 68.7 atm establishes the relationship between the average
41. In the following P-V diagram two adiabatics cut two translational kinetic energy per particle and
isothermals at temperatures T1 and T2 (fig.). The
temperature of an ideal gas. It can be concluded
V that single particle has a temperature.
value of a will be
Vd (c) Temperature of an ideal gas is doubled from
100°C to 200°C. The average kinetic energy of
each particle is also doubled.
(d) It is possible for both the pressure and volume of a
monoatomic ideal gas to change simultaneously
without causing the internal energy of the gas to
change.

Vb Vc
(a) (b)
Vc Vb
Vd
(c) V (d) VbVc
a
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 86

45. For the P–V diagram shown, for path 1  2  3, 100 (d) For the change described, the temperature of the
J of heat is given to the system and 40 J of work is gas decreases by 2 K.
done by the system. For path 1  4  3, the work 48. A monoatomic ideal gas having an initial volume of
done by system is 10 J. Then 0.1 m3 and a pressure of 106 N/m2 absorbs 6 × 104 J
of heat. For this situation mark out the correct
statement(s).
(a) The change in internal energy if process is isobaric
is 3.6 × 104 J.
(b) The change in internal energy if process is isobaric
is 6 × 104 J.
(c) The change in internal energy if process is
(a) U3 – U1 = 60 J isochoric is 6 × 104 J.
(d) The change in internal energy if process is
(b) For 3  1 the heat is rejected and equal to 85 J
isothermal is 6 × 104 J.
(c) For 1  4 the work done by system is 10 J
49. In the figure shown, a horizontal cylindrical tube
(d) For 1  4 the heat given to system is 20 J
connected to the vertical wall of a chamber of volume
46. In a certain process, final volume of the gas is equal
V, contains V0 volume of air at atmospheric pressure
to its initial volume. Then for this process
(a) work done by the gas may be equal to zero P0 and temperature T0 by means of a movable piston
(b) work done by the gas is zero A and a valve B. In the beginning valve is closed and
(c) change in internal energy of the gas may be equal the chamber is evacuated. The valve gets opened and
to zero air starts leaking into the chamber very slowly. The
(d) ratio of final to initial pressure is equal to ratio of
volume V  V0 . Take the molar heat capacity of air
final to initial temperature
5
47. 1 mole of an ideal monoatomic gas is confined in a at constant volume equals R, where R is universal
2
cylinder fitted with a piston as shown in the figure.
gas constant. When air occupies the total volume of
Take mass of the piston as 0.5 kg, spring constant,
the chamber, (All walls and piston are made up of
k = 100 N/m, atmospheric pressure p0 = 105 N/m2, insulating material):
and the cross–section area of piston, A = 50 cm2. If
energy of 50 J has been supplied to the system, then
piston moves up by 5 cm [Take g = 10 m/s2]. Initially
the spring is in its natural position. Mark out the
correct statement(s).

(a) Its internal energy is 7PV

0 0

(b) Its temperature is 1.4T0

1.4P0V0
(c) Its pressure is
V
(d) None

(a) Increase in internal energy of the system is

24.625J.
(b) Initial pressure of the gas is 1.01 × 105 N/m2.
(c) For the change described, the temperature of the
gas increases by 2 K.
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 87

50. A monoatomic gas undergoes a cyclic process as 55. Determine efficiency of Carnot cycle if in adiabatic
shown in the figure. The ideal gas follows the expansion volume 3 times of initial value and (Given;
equation T = bV2 for the process B → C. During the 1
cycle; the ratio of maximum to minimum pressure is
  1.5,  0.58 )
3
2 and heat supplied to the gas in B → C is QB → C = 56. For a refrigerator, heat absorbed from source is 800 J
120 J. Assuming usual meanings for the symbols, and heat supplied to sink is 600 J then find
pick correct option(s) coefficient of performance is:
57. A Carnot engine works between 27ºC and 127ºC.
Heat supplied by the source is 500 J. Then heat
ejected (in joules) to the sink is:
58. In an isobaric process, the work done by a di-atomic
gas is 10J, the heat given (in joules) to the gas will
be:
59. A sample of 0.1 g of water at 1000C and normal
TA pressure (1.0 105 Nm-2 ) requires 54 cal of heat
(a) PA = PC (b) 2
TB energy to convert to steam at 1000C. If the volume of
TC the steam produced is 168 cc, the change in internal
(c) 2 (d) QC → A → B = –130J
TB energy (in joules) of the sample, is: (Given; 1cal = 4.2
51. The internal energy U of an ideal gas depends on joules)
pressure P and Volume V of the gas according to 60. One mole of diatomic ideal gas undergoes a cyclic
equation U = 3PV, which of the following conclusion process ABC as shown in figure. The process BC is
can you make regarding the gas? adiabatic. The temperatures at A, B and C are 400 K,
(a) The gas is not a monatomic gas 800K and 600 K respectively. The magnitude of
(b) The gas can be a diatomic gas change in internal energy in the process BC is nR
(c) The gas can be a triatomic gas joules Where R is gas constant. Find the value of n.
(d) Molar specific heat of the gas in an isobaric
process is 4R
Numerical Value Type Questions
52. Two cylinders A and B fitted with pistons contain
equal amounts of an ideal diatomic gas at 300 K. The
piston of A is free to move, while that of B held fixed.
The same amount of heat is given to the gas in each
cylinder. Determine the greatest integral value of the Assertion & Reason
ratio of change in temperature of B to the change in For the following question choose the correct answer
temperature of A. from the codes (A), (B), (C) and (D) defined as follows.
53. On mole of an ideal monoatomic gas is taken through (A) Statement-I is true, Statement-II is also true;
a thermodynamic process shown in the p–V diagram. Statement-II is a correct explanation of Statement- I.
(B) Statement-I is true, Statement-II is also true;
The heat supplied to the system in this process is
Statement-II is not a correct explanation of
k  (  10) p0V0 . Determine the value of k. Statement-I.
(C) Statement-I is true, Statement-II is false.
(D) Statement-I is false, Statement-II is true.
61. Statement-1: The internal energy of a given sample
of an ideal gas depends only its temperature
according to kinetic theory of gases.
Statement-2: The ideal gas molecules do not exert
54. If sink and source temperature of a refrigerator are inter-molecular forces.
7ºC and 847ºC respectively. Then efficiency of the (a) A (b) B
refrigerator is: (c) C (d) D
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 88

62. Statement-1: Internal energy change is zero if the Match the Columns
temperature is constant, irrespective of the process 68.Match the quantities given in column-I with column-II
being cyclic or non-cyclic.
Statement-2: dU = n CvdT for all process and is Column-I Column-II
(A) Adiabatic bulk modulus (p) – P/V
independent of path.
(B) Slope of P-V graph in (q) 2/(–1)
(a) A (b) B
isothermal process
(c) C (d) D
(C) Degree of freedom (r) P
63. Statement-1: A quasi-static process is so called
because it is a sudden and large change of the system. (D) The ratio of molar heat (s) 
Statement-2: An adiabatic process is not quasi-static capacity at constant  1
because it is a sudden and large change of the system. pressure to universal gas
(a) A (b) B constant R
(c) C (d) D 69. Thermodynamic processes are indicated in the
64. Statement-1: When an ideal gas is taken from a following diagram.
given thermodynamics state A to another given
thermodynamic state B by any polytropic process, the
change in the internal energy of the system will be the
same in all processes.
Statement-2: Internal energy of the gas depends only
upon its absolute temperature.
(a) A (b) B
(c) C (d) D Match the following:
65. Statement-1: Work done by a gas in isothermal Column-I Column -II
expansion is more than the work done by the gas in
P Process I a. Adiabatic
the same expansion adiabatically.
Statement-2: Temperature remains constant in Q Process II b. Isobaric
isothermal expansion but not in adiabatic expansion. R. Process III c. Isochoric
(a) A (b) B S. Process IV d. Isothermal
(c) C (d) D 70. One mole of a monatomic ideal gas is taken along
66. Statement-1: In an isothermal process whole of the two cyclic processes E  F  G  E and E 
heat energy supplied to the body is converted into F  H  E as shown in the P–V diagram. The
internal energy. process involved are purely isochoric, isobaric,
Statement-2: According to the first law of isothermal or adiabatic
thermodynamics Q = U + PV
(a) A (b) B
(c) C (d) D
67. Statement-1: In an adiabatic process, change in
internal energy of a gas is equal to work done on or
by the gas in the process.
Statement-2: Temperature of gas remains constant in Match the paths in List I with the magnitudes of the
a adiabatic process. work done in List II and select the correct answer
using the codes given below the lists.
(a) A (b) B
(c) C (d) D List I List II

P. G  E 1. 160 PV
0 0 ln 2

Q. G  H 2. 36P0V0

R. F  H 3. 24PV
0 0

S. F  G 4. 31P0V0
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 89

Paragraph Type Questions 72. Identify the gas filled in the container A and B

Use the following passage, solve Q. 71 to Q. 75 (a) N2, Ne (b) He, H2

Passage
(c) O2, Ar (d) Ar, O2
Two closed identical conducting containers are found in the
73. Total number of molecules in 'A' (Here NA =
laboratory of an old scientist. For the verification of the gas
Avogadro number)
some experiments are performed on the two boxes and the
results are noted. 125
(a) N (b) 3.125 NA
64 A
125
(c) N (d) 31.25 NA
28 A
74. The initial internal energy of the gas in container 'A',
if the containers were at room temperature 300 K
initially
Experiment 1: When the two containers are weighed
WA = 225 g, WB = 160 g and mass of evacuated container (a) 1406.25 cal (b) 1000 cal
WC=100 g. (c) 2812.5 cal (d) none of these
Experiment 2: When the two containers are given same 75. If the gases have initial temperature 300 K and they
amount of heat same temperature rise is recorded. The are mixed in an adiabatic container having the same
pressure change found are PA = 2.5 atm, PB = 1.5 atm volume as the previous containers. Now the
temperature of the mixture is T and pressure is P.
Required data for unknown gas:
Then
Mono (molar mass)
(a) P > PA, T > 300K (b) P > PB, T = 300K
He Ne Ar Kr Xe Rd
4g 20 g 40 g 84 g 131 g 222 g (c) P < PA, T = 300K (d) P > PA, T < 300K
Dia (molar mass)
H2 F2 N2 O2 Cl2
2g 19 g 28 g 32 g 71 g
71. Identify the type of gas filled in container A and B
respectively
(a) Mono, mono (b) Dia, dia
(c) Mono, dia (d) Dia, mono
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 90

EXERCISE – 4: PREVIOUS YEARS JEE ADVANCED QUESTIONS

1. Two gases, Argon (atomic radius 0.07 nm, atomic 4. The PT diagram for an ideal gas is shown in the
weight 40) and Xenon (atomic radius 0.1 nm, atomic figure, where AC is an adiabatic process. Find the
weight 140) have the same number density and are at corresponding PV diagram. (2003)
the same temperature. The ratio of their respective
mean free time is closest to (2001)
(a) 4.67 (b) 2.04
(c) 1.83 (d) 3.67
2. P-V plots for two gases during adiabatic processes are
shown in the figure. Plots 1 and 2 should correspond
respectively to (2001)
(a) (b)

(c) (d) None of these

(a) He and O2 (b) O2 and He

5. If liquefied oxygen at 1 atmospheric pressure is
(c) He and Ar (d) O2 and N2
heated from 50 K to 300 K by supplying heat at
3. An ideal gas is taken through the cycle constant rate, the graph of temperature vs time will be
A  B  C  A, as shown in the figure, if the net (2004)
heat supplied to the gas in the cycle is 5 J, the work
done by the gas in the process C  A is (2002)

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
(a) - 5 J (b) - 10 J
(c) - 15 J (d) - 20 J
6. An ideal gas expands isothermally from a volume V1
to V2 and then compressed to original volume V1
adiabatically. Initial pressure is P1 and final pressure
is P3. The total work done is W. Then (2004)
(a) P3 > P1, W > 0 (b) P3 < P1, W < 0
(c) P3 > P1, W < 0 (d) P3 = P1, W = 0
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 91

7. Statement-1: The total translational kinetic energy of 10. The buoyancy force acting on the gas bubble is
all the molecules of a given mass of an ideal gas is (Assume R is the universal gas constant) (2008)
1.5 times the product of its pressure and its volume. ( p0    gH ) 2/ 5
Statement-2: The molecules of a gas collide with (a)   nRg T0
( p0    gy ) 2/5
each other and the velocities of the molecules change
due to the collision. (2007)  nRgT0
(b)
(a) Statements-1 and 2 are true and statement-2 is a ( p0    gH ) [ p0    g ( H  y )]3/5
2/ 5

correct explanation for statement-1.

(b) Statements-1 and 2 are true and statement-2 is not ( p0    gH ) 3/ 5
(c)   nRgT0
a correct explanation for statement-1. ( p0    gy )8/ 5
(c) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is false.  nRgT0
(d) Statement-1 is false, statement-2 is true. (d)
( p0    gH )3/ 5 [ p0   g ( H  y )]2/5
Use the following passage, solve Q. 8 to Q. 10
11. CV and CP denote the molar specific heat capacities
 5
A small spherical monoatomic ideal gas bubble     is of a gas at constant volume and constant pressure,
 3 respectively.
trapped inside a liquid of density l (see figure). Assume Then, (2009)
that the bubble does not exchange any heat with the liquid. (a) CP – CV is larger for a diatomic ideal gas than for
The bubble contains n moles of gas. The temperature of the a monoatomic ideal gas
gas when the bubble is at the bottom is T0, the height of the (b) CP + CV is larger for a diatomic ideal gas than for
liquid is H and the atmospheric pressure is p0. (Neglect a monoatomic ideal gas
surface tension) C
(c) P is larger for a diatomic ideal gas than for a
CV
monoatomic ideal gas
(d) CP - CV is larger for a diatomic ideal gas than for a
monoatomic ideal gas
12. The figure shows the p–V plot an ideal gas taken
8. As the bubble moves upwards, besides the buoyancy through a cycle ABCDA. The part ABC is a semi–
force the following forces are acting on it (2008) circle and CDA is half of an ellipse. Then, (2009)
(a) Only the force of gravity
(b) The force due to gravity and the force due to the
pressure of the liquid.
(c) The force due to gravity, the force due to the
pressure of the liquid and the force due to
viscosity of the liquid
(d) The force due to gravity and the force due to
viscosity of the liquid
9. When the gas bubble is at a height y from the bottom,
its temperature is (2008) (a) The process during the path A  B is isothermal
2/5 (b) heat flows out of the gas during the path
 p0    gH 
(a) T0   BCD
 p   gy
 0   (c) work done during the path A  B  C is zero
2/5
 p0   g ( H  y )  (d) positive work is done by the gas in the cycle
(b) T0   ABCDA
 p0   gH
 
3/5
 p0    gH 
(c) T0  
 p   gy
 0  
3/5
 p0   g ( H  y ) 
(d) T0  
 p0   gH
 
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 92

13. One mole of an ideal gas in initial state A undergoes a 19. One mole of a monatomic ideal gas is taken along
cyclic process ABCA, as shown in the figure. Its two cyclic processes E  F  G  E and E  F 
pressure at A is p0. H  E as shown in the p–V diagram.
Choose the correct option(s) from the following The process involved are purely isochoric, isobaric,
(2010) isothermal or adiabatic.

(a) Internal energies at A and B are the same

(b) Work done by the gas in process AB is p0V0 ln 4
(c) Pressure at C is p0/4 Match the paths in List I with the magnitudes of the
work done in List II and select the correct answer
(d) Temperature at C is T0/4 using the codes given below the lists. (2013)
14. A diatomic ideal gas is compressed adiabatically to List-I List-II
P. G  E 1. 160 p0V0 ln 2
1
of its initial volume. If the initial temperature of Q. G  H 2 36 p0V0
32
R. F  H 3 24 p0V0
the gas is Ti (in kelvin) and the final temperature is
S. F  G 4 31 p0V0
aTi, the value of a is (2010)
Codes
15. A real gas behaves like an ideal gas if its (2010) P Q R S
(a) pressure and temperature are both high (a) 4 3 2 1
(b) pressure and temperature are both low (b) 4 3 1 2
(c) pressure is high and temperature is low (c) 3 1 2 4
(d) 1 3 2 4
(d) pressure is low and temperature is high
16. 5.6 L of helium gas at STP is adiabatically
compressed to 0.7 L. Taking the initial temperature to
be T1, the work done in the process is (2011)
9 3
(a) RT1 (b) RT1
8 2
15 9
(c) RT1 (d) RT1
8 2
17. A mixture of 2 moles of helium gas (atomic mass = 4
amu) and 1 mole of argon gas (atomic mass = 40
amu) is kept at 300 K in a container. The ratio of the
 v  helium  
rms speeds  rms is (2012)
 v  argon  
 rms 
(a) 0.32 (b) 0.45
(c) 2.24 (d) 3.16
18. Two non-reactive monoatomic ideal gases have their
atomic masses in the ratio 2 : 3. The ratio of their
partial pressures, when enclosed in a vessel kept at a
constant temperature, is 4 : 3. The ratio of their
densities is : (2013)
(a) 1 : 4 (b) 1 : 2
(c) 6 : 9 (d) 8 : 9
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 93

Use the following passage, solve Q. 20 to Q. 21 23. An ideal monoatomic gas is confined in a horizontal
cylinder by a spring loaded piston (as shown in the
In the figure a container is shown to have a movable
figure). Initially the gas is at temperature T1, pressure
(without friction) piston on top. The container and the piston
P1 and volume V1 and the spring is in its relaxed state.
are all made of perfectly insulating material allowing no heat
The gas is then heated very slowly to temperature T2,
transfer between outside and inside the container. The
pressure P2 and volume V2. During this process the
container is divided into two compartments by a rigid
piston moves out by a distance x. Ignoring the friction
partition made of a thermally conducting material that
between the piston and the cylinder, the correct
allows slow transfer of heat. The lower compartment of the
statement(s) is (are) (2015)
container is filled with 2 moles of an ideal monoatomic gas
at 700 K and the upper compartment is filled with 2 moles of
an ideal diatomic gas at 400 K. The heat capacities per mole
3 5
of an ideal monoatomic gas are CV  R , CP  R , and
2 2
5 7 (a) If V2 = 2V1 and T2 = 3T1, then the energy stored in
those for an ideal diatomic gas are CV  R , CP  R .
2 2 1
the spring is P1V1
4
(b) If V2 = 2V1 and T2 = 3T1, then the energy in
internal energy is 3P1V1
(c) If V2 = 3V1 and T2 = 4T1, then the work done by
7
the gas is P1V1
3
20. Consider the partition to be rigidly fixed so that it
(d) If V2 = 3V1 and T2 = 4T1, then the heat supplied to
does not move. When equilibrium is achieved, the
final temperature of the gases will be (2014) 17
the gas is P1V1
(a) 550 K (b) 525 K 6
(c) 513 K (d) 490 K 24. Heat given to process is positive, match the following
21. Now consider the partition to be free to move without option of column I with the corresponding option of
friction so that the pressure of gases in both column II. (2015)
compartments is the same. Then total work done by
the gases till the time they achieve equilibrium will be
(2014)
(a) 250 R (b) 200 R
(c) 100 R (d) –100 R
22. A thermodynamic system is taken from an initial state
i with internal energy Ui=100 J to the final state f
along two different paths iaf and ibf, as schematically
shown in the figure. The work done by the system
along the paths af, ib and bf are Waf =200 J, Wib=50J Column-I Column-II
and Wbf=100 J respectively. The heat supplied to the (a) JK (p)  W > 0
(b) KL (q)  Q < 0
system along the path iaf, ib and bf are Qiaf, Qib and
(c) LM (r)  W < 0
Qbf respectively. If the internal energy of the system (d) MJ (s)  Q > 0
in the state b is Ub=200 J and Qiaf= 500 J, the ratio
Qbf/Qib is (2014)
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 94

25. Column-I contains a list of processes involving 26. One mole of a monatomic ideal gas is taken through a
expansion of an ideal gas. Match this with Column-II cycle ABCDA as shown in the p–V diagram.
describing the thermodynamic charge during this Column- II gives the characteristics involved in the
process. Indicate your answer by darkening the cycle. Match them with each of the processes given in
appropriate bubbles of the 4 × 4 matrix given in the Column-I. (2015)
ORS. (2015)

Column-I Column-II
(a) An insulated container two (p) The
chambers separated by a temperature
valve. Chamber I contains of the gas
an ideal gas and the decreases
Chamber II has vacuum.
Column-I Column-II
The valve is opened.
(a) Process A  B (p) Internal energy decreases
(b) Process B  C (q) Internal energy increases
(c) Process C  D (r) Heat is lost
(d) Process D  A (s) Heat is gained
(b) An ideal monoatomic gas (q) The (t) Work is done on the gas
expands to twice its original temperature
gas increases or volume of the gas 27. A gas is enclosed in a cylinder with a movable
such that its pressure increases frictionless piston. Its initial thermodynamic state at
pressure Pi = 105 Pa and volume Vi = 10-3 m3 changes
1
remains constants. p  , to a final state at Pf = (1/32) × 105 Pa and Vf = 8 × 10-
V2 3
m3 in an adiabatic quasi-static process, such that
where V is the volume of
P3V5 = constant. Consider another thermodynamic
the gas
process that brings the system from the same initial
(c) An ideal monoatomic gas (r) The gas state to the same final state in two steps: an isobaric
expands to twice its original loses heat
expansion at Pi followed by an isochoric
volume such that its
(isovolumetric) process at volume Vf. The amount of
1 heat supplied to the system in the two-step process is
pressure p  , where
V 4/3 approximately (2016)
V is its volume. (a) 112 J (b) 294 J
(d) An ideal monoatomic gas (s) The gas (c) 588 J (d) 813 J
expands such that its gains heat 28. One mole of a monatomic ideal gas undergoes an
pressure p and volume V adiabatic expansion in which its volume becomes
follows the behaviour eight times its initial value. If the initial temperature
shown in the graph. of the gas is 100 K and the universal gas constant R =
8.0 J mol-1 K-1, the decrease in its internal energy, in
Joule, is (2018)
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 95

29. One mole of a monatomic ideal gas goes through a 31. In a thermodynamic process on an ideal monoatomic
thermodynamic cycle, as shown in the volume versus gas, the infinitesimal heat absorbed by the gas is
temperature (V-T) diagram. The correct statement(s) given by TdX, where T is temperature of the system
is/are: [R is the gas constant] (2019) and dX is the infinitesimal change in a
thermodynamic quantity X of the system. For a mole
3 T  V 
of monatomic ideal gas X  Rn    Rn   .
2  TA   VA 
Here, R is gas constant, V is volume of gas. TA and
VA are constants. The List-I below gives some
quantities involved in a process and List-II gives
some possible values of these quantities. (2019)
List-I List-II
(I) Work done by the system (P) 1
in process 1  2  3 RT0 n2
3
(a) Work done in thisthermodynamic cycle (II) Change in internal (Q) 1
1 energy in process RT
(1  2  3  4  1) is | W | RT0 3
2 123
(b) The ratio of heat transfer during possesses (III) Heat absorbed by the (R) RT0
Q12 5 system in process
1  2 and 2  3 is  123
Q23 3
(IV) Heat absorbed by the (S) 4
(c) The above thermodynamic cycle exhibits only RT0
system in process 1  2 3
isochoric and adiabatic processes.
(d) The ratio of heat transfer during processes (T) 1
RT0  3| n2
Q12 1 3
1  2 and 3  4 is 
Q34 2 (U) 5
RT0
30. A mixture of ideal gas containing 5 moles of 6
monatomic gas and 1 mole of rigid diatomic gas is If the procession one mole of monatomic ideal gas is
initially at pressure P0, volume V0 and temperature T0. as shown in the TV-diagram with P0V0 = RT0, the
If the gas mixture is adiabatically compressed to a correct match is,
volume V0/4, then the correct statement(s)/are,

(Given 21.2 = 2.3;23.2 = 9.2; R is gas constant) (2019)

(a) The final pressure of the gas mixture after

compression is in between 9P0 and 10P0.
(b) The average kinetic energy of the gas mixture
after compression is in between 18RT0 and 19RT0
(c) Adiabatic constant of the gas mixture is 1.6
(d) The work |W| done during the process is 13RT0 (a) I  P, II  R, III  T, IV  S
(b) I  P, II  T, III  Q, IV  T
(c) I  S, II  T, III  Q, IV  U
(d) I  P, II  R, III  T, IV  P
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 96

32. Consider a gas of triatomic molecules. The molecules

are assumed to be triangular and made of massless
rigid rods whose vertices are occupied by atoms. The
internal energy of a mole of the gas at temperature T
is: (2020)
TR
The value of is
T0

(a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 2 (d) 3
3
(a) RT (b) 3 RT 35. A thermally insulating cylinder has a thermally
2
insulating and friction less movable partition in the
5 9
(c) RT (d) RT middle, as shown in the figure below. On each side
2 2
33. An ideal gas undergoes a four-step cycle as shown in of the partition, there is one mole of an ideal gas,

the P − V diagram below. During this cycle, heat is with specific heat at constant volume, CV  2R.
absorbed by the gas in (2021) Here, R is the gas constant. Initially, each side has a
volume V0 and temperature T0 . The left side has an

electric heater, which is turned on at very low power

to transfer heat Q to the gas on the left side. As a
result, the partition moves slowly towards the right
reducing the right-side volume to V0 / 2.

(a) steps 1 and 2 (b) steps 1 and 3 Consequently, the gas temperatures on the left and
(c) steps 1 and 4 (d) steps 2 and 4 the right sides become TL and TR , respectively.
34. A thermally insulating cylinder has a thermally Ignore the changes in the temperatures of the
insulating and frictionless movable partition in the cylinder, heater and the partition.
middle, as shown in the figure below. On each side of (2021)
the partition, there is one mole of an ideal gas, with
specific heat at constant volume, CV  2R. Here, R is

the gas constant. Initially, each side has a volume V0

and temperature T0 . The left side has an electric

heater, which is turned on at very low power to

Q
transfer heat Q to the gas on the left side. As a result, The value of is
RT0
the partition moves slowly towards the right reducing
the right-side volume to V0 / 2. Consequently, the gas (a) 4(2 2  1) (b) 4(2 2 1)

temperatures on the left and the right sides become (c) (5 2  1) (d) (5 2  1)
TL and TR , respectively. Ignore the changes in the

temperatures of the cylinder, heater and the partition.

(2021)
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 97

36. An ideal gas of density   0.2 kg m3 enters a is compressed adiabatically from volume kJ
chimney of height h at the rate of   0.8 kg s 1 1
V  m3 and pressure 2 kPa to volume
3
from its lower end, and escapes through the upper end
as shown in the figure. The cross-sectional area of the V
8
lower end is A1  0.1m2 and the upper end is
(IV) Three moles of a diatomic ideal gas (S) 5
A2  0.4 m2 . The pressure and the temperature of the whose molecules can vibrate, is given 9 kJ
gas at the lower end are 600 𝑃𝑎 and 300 𝐾, kJ of heat and undergoes isobaric
respectively, while its temperature at the upper end is expansion.
150 𝐾. The chimney is heat insulated so that the gas (T) 3
undergoes adiabatic expansion. Take g  10 ms 2 and kJ
the ratio of specific heats of the gas   2 . Ignore
Which of the following options is correct?
atmospheric pressure. (2022)
(a) I → T, II → R, III → S, IV → Q
(b) I → S, II → P, III → T, IV → P
(c) I → P, II → R, III → T, IV → Q
(d) I → Q, II → R, III → S, IV → T
 5
38. In the given P-V diagram a monoatomic gas    
 3
is first compressed adiabatically from state A state B.
Then it expands isothermally from state B to state C.
0.6
1
[Given :    0.5ln 2  07 ] (2022)
Which of the following statement(s) is(are) correct? 3
(a) The pressure of the gas at the upper end of the
chimney is 300 𝑃𝑎.
(b) The velocity of the gas at the lower end of the
chimney is 40 𝑚s-1 and at the upper end is 20 𝑚s-1.
(c) The height of the chimney is 590 𝑚.
(d) The density of the gas at the upper end is 0.05 𝑘𝑔
m-3.
37. List I describes thermodynamic processes in four
different systems. List II gives the magnitudes (either
exactly or as a close approximation) of possible
changes in the internal energy of the system due to Which of the following statement(s) is(are) correct?
the process. (2022) (a) The magnitude of the total work done in the
process A → B → C is 144 kJ.
List I List II (b) The magnitude of the work done in the process B
(I) 10-3 kg of water at 100°𝐶 is converted (P) 2 → C is 84 kJ.
to steam at the same temperature, at a kJ (c) The magnitude of the work done in the process A
pressure of 105 𝑃𝑎. The volume of the → B is 60 kJ.
system changes from 10-6 m3 in the (d) The magnitude of the work done in the process C
process. Latent heat of water = 2250 → A is zero.
kJ/kg.
(II) 0.2 moles of a rigid diatomic ideal (Q) 7kJ
gas with volume V at temperature 500 K
undergoes an isobaric expansion to
volume 3 V. Assume 𝑅 = 8.0 𝐽 𝑚𝑜𝑙-1 K-
1
.
(III) One mole of a monatomic ideal gas (R) 4
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 98

39. One mole of an ideal gas expands adiabatically from

an initial state TA ,V0  to final state T ,5V  .
f 0

Another mole of the same gas expands isothermally

from a different initial state TB , V0  , to the same
final state T f ,5V0  . The ratio of the specific heat at
constant pressure and constant volume of this ideal
T
gas is  . What is the ratio A ? (2023)
TB
(a) 5 1 (b) 51 
(c) 5 (d) 51 
40. A closed container contains a homogeneous mixture
 5
of two moles of an ideal monatomic gas     and
 3
 7
one mole of an ideal diatomic gas     . Here 
 5
is the ratio of the specific heats at constant pressure 43. One mole of a monatomic ideal gas undergoes the
and constant volume of an ideal gas. The gas mixture cyclic process J  K  L  M  J, as shown in
does a work of 66 Joule when heated at constant the P-T diagram.
pressure. The change in its internal energy is _____ Match the quantities mentioned in List-I with their
Joule. (2023) values in List-II and choose the correct option. [R is
41. An ideal gas is in thermodynamic equilibrium. The the gas constant.] (2024)
number of degrees of freedom of a molecule of the
gas in n . The internal energy of one mole of the gas
is U n and the speed of sound in the gas is vn . At a
fixed temperature and pressure, which of the
following is the correct option? (2023)
(a) v3  v6 and U 3  U 6
(b) v5  v3 and U 3  U 5
(c) v5  v7 and U 5  U 7
(d) v6  v7 and U 6  U 7 List - I List - II
42. One mole of an ideal gas undergo two different cyclic (P) Work done in (1) RT0 – 4 RT0 ln 2
process I and II, as shown in the P-V diagrams below. the complete cyclic
In cycle I, processes a , b, c and d are isobaric, process
(Q) Change in the (2) 0
isothermal, isobaric and isochoric, respectively. In
internal energy of
cycle II, processes a , b, c  ’and d  are isothermal,
the gas in the
isochoric, isobaric and isochoric, respectively. The
process JK
total work done during cycle I is WI and that during
(R) Heat given to (3) RT0
WI the gas in the
cycle II is WII . The ratio is _____. (2023) process KL
WII
(S) Change in the (4) –2 RT0 ln 2
internal energy of (5) 3RT ln 2
0
the gas in the
process MJ
(a) P  1; Q  3; R  5; S  4
(b) P  4; Q  3; R  5; S  2
(c) P  4; Q  1; R  2; S  2
(d) P  2; Q  5; R  3; S  4
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS 99

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ANSWER KEY 100

Answer Key
CHAPTER -14 THERMAL PHYSICS

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1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (a) 1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (b)

5. (c) 6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (a) 5. (c) 6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (90.00)

9. (b) 10. (a) 11. (c) 12. (a) 9. (16.00) 10. (6.2) 11. (42.00) 12. (a)
13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (c) 16. (d) 13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (c) 16. (a)
17. (a) 18. (d) 19. (a) 20. (c) 17. (b) 18. (a) 19. (12.00) 20. (28.00)
21. (b) 22. (d) 23. (b) 24. (d) 21. (60.00) 22. (300.00) 23. (40.00) 24. (c)
25. (c) 26. (b) 27. (b) 28. (b) 25. (1027) 26. (d) 27. (b)
29. (a) 30. (b) 31. (c) 32. (c)
33. (b) 34. (c) 35. (c) 36. (c)
37. (a) 38. (b) 39. (b) 40. (b)
41. (b) 42. (b) 43. (a) 44. (c)
45. (b) 46. (d) 47. (a) 48. (d)
49. (b) 50. (c) 51. (d) 52. (8.00)
53. (2.00) 54. (1.00) 55. (9.00) 56. (8.00)
57. (3.00) 58. (2) 59. (168.00) 60. (40.00)
61. (140.00) 62. (10) 63. (3.00) 64. (4.00)
65. (2) 66. (5.00)
ANSWER KEY 101

CHAPTER -14 THERMAL PHYSICS

EXERCISE - 3: EXERCISE - 4:
ADVANCED OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS PREVIOUS YEARS JEE ADVANCED QUESTIONS

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1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (d) 1. (    2s ) 2.(8.00) 3.(3.00) 4. (b, c, d)

5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (d) 5.(b) 6.(b) 7. (270.00) 8.(a)

9.(b) 10.(a) 11.(a) 12.(c)
9. (c) 10. (b) 11. (a) 12. (a) 13.(d) 14.(b) 15.(a) 16.(d)
13. (a) 14. (d) 15. (b) 16. (a, b) 17.(c) 18.(c) 19.(a, d) 20.(9.00)
21.(9.00) 22.(a, c, d) 23.(c) 24.(a)
17. (a) 18. (a) 19. (a) 20. (a) 25.(b, d) 26.(2) 27.(a) 28.(b)
21. (b) 22. (c) 23. (b) 24. (b) 29.(9) 30.(4.00) 31.(c) 32.(25000)

25. (b) 26. (a) 27. (b) 28. (d)

29. (a) 30. (c) 31. (a) 32. (d)
33. (b) 34. (a) 35. (b) 36. (2.00)
37. (b) 38. (d) 39. (b) 40. (c)
41. (c) 42. (b) 43. (d) 44. (b, d)
45. (a, d) 46. (a) 47. (a) 48. (a)
49. (A - p; B - q; C - s; D - r) 50. (b)
ANSWER KEY 102

Answer Key
CHAPTER - 15 KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS

EXERCISE - 1 : EXERCISE - 2 :
BASIC OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS PREVIOUS YEARS JEE MAIN QUESTIONS

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1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (b) 1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (b)

5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (a) 5. (c) 6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (c)
9. (b) 10. (d) 11. (c) 12. (b) 9. (b) 10. (d) 11. (c) 12. (c)
13. (d) 14. (b) 15. (c) 16. (d) 13. (a) 14. (12.00) 15. (7479) 16. (750)
17. (b) 18. (c) 19. (d) 20. (d) 17. (3.00) 18. (d) 19. (b) 20. (c)
21. (a) 22. (c) 23. (d) 24. (d)
21. (a) 22. (a) 23. (d) 24. (c)
25. (b) 26. (b) 27. (b) 28. (b)
25. (c) 26. (b) 27. (b) 28. (b)
29. (c) 30. (a) 31. (b) 32. (b)
29. (c) 30. (a) 31. (c) 32. (c)
33. (a) 34. (750.00) 35. (4.00) 36. (12.00)
33.(d) 34.(a) 35. (a) 36. (c)
37. (2.00) 38. (250.00) 39. (16.00) 40. (540)
37.(d) 38. (c) 39. (a) 40. (b)
41. (1400) 42. (b) 43. (c) 44. (c)
41.(b) 42. (b) 43.(d) 44. (c)
45.(b) 46.(c) 47.(b) 48. (a) 45. (d) 46. (b) 47. (d) 48. (b)
49. (b) 50. (c) 51. (b) 52. (c) 49. (a) 50. (c) 51. (d) 52. (d)
53. (d) 54. (d) 55. (c) 56. (b)
53. (a) 54.(b) 55. (b) 56. (d)
57.(d) 58. (b) 59.(c) 60. (a) 57. (c) 58. (b) 59. (b) 60. (c)
61. (c) 62. (b) 63.(c) 64. (a) 61. (b) 62. (d) 63. (b) 64. (b)
65. (c) 66. (a) 67.(a) 68. (c) 65. (c) 66. (c) 67. (d) 68. (d)
69. (c) 70. (c) 71.(a) 72. (a) 69. (d) 70. (b) 71. (a) 72. (c)
73. (b) 74. (6.00) 75. (21.00) 76. (3.00) 73. (d) 74. (d) 75. (a) 76. (d)
77. (1.00) 78. (1600) 79. (3) 80. (3.00) 77. (c) 78. (d) 79. (b) 80. (c)
81. (748.00) 82. (6.00) 83. (4.00) 84. (90.00) 81. (d) 82. (a) 83. (b) 84. (b)
85. (130.00) 86. (166.00) 87. (1.00) 88. (42.00) 85. (a) 86. (c) 87. (b) 88. (b)
89. (c) 90. (c) 91. (b) 92. (c)
93. (b) 94. (b) 95. (c) 96. (b)
97. (a) 98. (b) 99. (b) 100. (c)
101. (a) 102. (a) 103. (c) 104. (d)
105. (c) 106. (a) 107. (c) 108. (a)
109. (b) 110. (d) 111. (b) 112. (c)
113. (c) 114. (b) 115. (b) 116. (d)
117. (c) 118. (d) 119. (a) 120. (d)
ANSWER KEY 103

CHAPTER - 15 KINETIC THEORY OF GASES & THERMODYNAMICS

EXERCISE - 3: EXERCISE - 4:
ADVANCED OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS PREVIOUS YEARS JEE ADVANCED QUESTIONS

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1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (c) 1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (d)

5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (d) 5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (d)
9. (d) 10. (a) 11. (d) 12. (d)
9. (b) 10. (b) 11. (b,d) 12. (b,d)
13. (c) 14. (c) 15. (b) 16. (c)
17. (a) 18. (a) 19. (b) 20. (c) 13.(a,b) 14.(4.00) 15.(d) 16.(a)
21. (b) 22. (d) 23. (a) 24. (a) 17.(d) 18.(d) 19.(a) 20.(d)
25. (a) 26. (d) 27. (c) 28. (c) 21.(d) 22.(2.00) 23.(a,b,c)
29. (d) 30.(b) 31. (d) 32. (c)
24.(a – q; b – p,q; c – s; d – q,r)
33. (d) 34.(c) 35.(b) 36. (b)
25.(a – q; b – p, r; c – p, s; d – q, s)
37. (a) 38.(c) 39.(d) 40. (a)
41. (a) 42.(c) 43.(b,d) 44. (a,d) 26.(a – p,r,t; b – p,r; c – q, s; d – r,t) 27.(c)
45. (a,b,c) 46.(a,c,d) 47.(a,b,c) 48. (a,c) 28.(900) 29. (a,b) 30.(a,c,d) 31.(d)
49. (b,c) 50.(a,b,d) 51. (a,c,d) 52. (1.00) 32.(b) 33.(c) 34.(a) 35.(b)
53. (1.00) 54.(0.75) 55.(0.42) 56. (3.00) 36.(b, c) 37.(c) 38.(c, d) 39.(a)
57. (375) 58.(35.00) 59.(210) 60. (500) 40.(121) 41.(c) 42.(2) 43.(b)
61. (a) 62.(a) 63.(d) 64. (a)
65. (a) 66.(d) 67. (c)
68. (A - r; B - p; C - q; D- s)
69. ( P  c, Q  a, R  d, S  b )
70. ( P  4; Q  3; R  2; S  1 )
71. (c) 72. (d) 73. (b) 74. (c)
75. (b)