Introduction to IoT

Access Technologies
IoT (Internet of Things) access technologies enable devices to connect to the
internet, facilitating the exchange of data. These technologies are the foundation
of smart home devices, industrial sensors, and wearable technology.
 Physical Layer in IoT Access Technologies
In the context of the Internet of Things (IoT), the physical layer refers to the lowest layer of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)
model, which is responsible for the physical connection between devices. The physical layer deals with the transmission and reception of
raw data bits over a physical medium, such as cables, wireless signals, or optical fibers. In the case of IoT technologies, the physical layer
plays a crucial role in enabling communication between IoT devices and networks.
Here are some key aspects of the physical layer in IoT technologies:
1.Communication Medium:
1. Wired Connections: IoT devices may use wired connections such as Ethernet, Power over Ethernet (PoE), or other industrial
communication protocols like Modbus, Profibus, or CAN bus.
2. Wireless Connections: Many IoT devices communicate wirelessly using technologies such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, Z-Wave,
LoRa (Long Range), NB-IoT (Narrowband IoT), and others.
2.Transceivers:
1. IoT devices are equipped with transceivers that allow them to transmit and receive data over the chosen communication medium.
Transceivers can include components such as antennas, radio frequency (RF) modules, and modulation/demodulation circuits.
3.Power Considerations:
1. Power consumption is a critical consideration in IoT devices, especially those deployed in remote or battery-powered
environments. The physical layer design needs to optimize power usage for efficient operation and prolonged device life.
 Physical Layer in IoT Access Technologies
• Sensors and Actuators:
• The physical layer may include connections to sensors that collect data from the environment, and actuators that enable the
device to take actions based on the received data. These components contribute to the overall physical layer design in IoT
systems.
• Protocols and Standards:
• The physical layer adheres to specific communication protocols and standards depending on the chosen technology. For
example, IoT devices using Wi-Fi will follow IEEE 802.11 standards, while those using Zigbee will follow the Zigbee Alliance
standards.
• Security:
• Security measures at the physical layer are essential to prevent unauthorized access or tampering. This may involve encryption
of data transmitted over the physical medium and the implementation of secure hardware elements.
• Range and Coverage:
• Depending on the application, the physical layer design must consider factors such as communication range and coverage. For
example, Low Power Wide Area Network (LPWAN) technologies are designed for long-range communication with low power
consumption.
 MAC Layer in IoT Access Technologies
The Medium Access Control (MAC) layer is a sublayer of the data link layer in the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model. In the
context of IoT access technologies, the MAC layer plays a crucial role in managing access to the communication medium, scheduling
transmissions, and coordinating the interaction between devices in a network. Different IoT access technologies may have specific MAC
layer protocols and mechanisms tailored to their requirements. Here are some aspects of the MAC layer in IoT access technologies:
1.Wireless Technologies:
1. In many IoT scenarios, especially those involving wireless communication, the MAC layer manages access to the shared wireless
medium. It addresses issues such as contention, collision avoidance, and efficient use of available bandwidth.
2.MAC Protocols:
1. Various MAC protocols are employed in IoT access technologies to facilitate communication. Some common MAC protocols
include:
1. CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance): This protocol is often used in wireless networks to
avoid collisions by sensing the channel before transmitting.
2. TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access): TDMA divides the communication channel into time slots, with each device allocated
specific time intervals for transmission.
3. FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access): FDMA divides the frequency spectrum into channels, with each device
assigned a specific frequency band for communication.
4. Random Access Protocols: Some IoT technologies use random access protocols where devices contend for access to the
medium. Examples include ALOHA and slotted ALOHA.
Topology in IoT Access Technologies

Star Topology Mesh Topology Wireless Sensor

Devices are connected to a Devices are interconnected, Networks
central hub, simplifying creating a redundant network Consist of interconnected sensor

network management and with multiple communication nodes, facilitating data

enabling point-to-point paths, enhancing reliability and collection and transfer in

communication. fault tolerance. various applications such as

environmental monitoring and
industrial automation.
 Star topology is a network configuration in which all nodes (devices) in the network are connected to a central hub or switch. In
the context of IoT (Internet of Things) technologies, the star topology is a commonly used network architecture due to its simplicity
and ease of management. Here are some key aspects of star topology in IoT:
1.Centralized Hub or Gateway:
1. In a star topology, all IoT devices communicate with a central hub or gateway. This central device is responsible for
managing the communication within the network. It may be a physical device like a router, gateway, or a central server in
the cloud.
2.Simplicity of Design:
1. The star topology is straightforward to design and implement. Each IoT device only needs to establish a connection with the
central hub, simplifying the overall network structure.
3.Ease of Troubleshooting:
1. Troubleshooting and maintenance are relatively easy in a star topology. If an IoT device is experiencing issues, it can be
isolated from the network without affecting the rest of the devices. This makes it simpler to identify and address problems.
 Mesh topology is another network configuration used in IoT (Internet of Things) technologies. In a mesh topology,
devices are interconnected, and each device can communicate directly with every other device in the network. This
creates a robust and resilient network where multiple paths exist for data to travel from one device to another. Here are
key characteristics of mesh topology in a simple way:
1.Direct Device Communication:
1. In a mesh topology, devices can talk to each other directly without needing a central hub. This direct
communication capability allows for efficient data exchange between devices.
2.Redundancy and Reliability:
1. Mesh networks are resilient because if one path between devices fails, there are alternative paths available. This
redundancy enhances the reliability of the network; even if some devices or connections fail, communication can
continue through other routes.
3.Self-Healing:
1. Mesh networks are self-healing, meaning that if a device or connection breaks, the network can automatically find
alternative paths for communication. This makes mesh topologies suitable for dynamic and changing
environments.
Advantages of Different Access
Technologies
Scalability Power Efficiency
IoT access technologies provide scalable Some technologies offer ultra-low power
solutions, enabling seamless integration of consumption, extending the operational life
numerous devices into the network of battery-powered devices and reducing
infrastructure. energy costs.

Interoperability
Support for standard communication protocols ensures interoperability across diverse IoT
ecosystems and devices.
Security of ieee 802.15.4g
1 Encryption Mechanisms 2 Access Control
Implements robust encryption using Utilizes mechanisms such as secure key
symmetric and asymmetric exchange and authentication to control
cryptographic algorithms to secure data access, ensuring the integrity and
transmission and prevent unauthorized confidentiality of the network.
access.
 IEEE 802.15.4g is a standard within the IEEE 802.15 family, specifically designed for Low-Rate Wireless Personal Area Networks
(LR-WPANs) in the context of the Internet of Things (IoT). This standard is well-suited for applications that require low power
consumption, extended range, and reliable communication in challenging environments. Here are some aspects of IEEE 802.15.4g
in the context of IoT:
1.Smart Utility Networks:
1. One of the primary applications of IEEE 802.15.4g is in smart utility networks, especially in the context of Smart Grids. It
provides a communication standard for devices within utility networks, enabling smart metering, grid monitoring, and other
utility-related applications.
2.Extended Range:
1. IEEE 802.15.4g is designed to provide an extended communication range compared to previous versions of the IEEE
802.15.4 standard. This makes it suitable for IoT applications in environments where devices may be spread out over larger
geographical areas.
3.Adaptive Data Rate:
1. The standard supports adaptive data rate mechanisms, allowing devices to adjust their transmission rates based on the
channel conditions. This feature is particularly useful in IoT deployments where devices may operate in dynamic and
challenging RF environments.
4.Frequency Bands:
1. IEEE 802.15.4g operates in various sub-GHz frequency bands to provide better range and penetration through obstacles.
This makes it suitable for IoT applications that require communication in environments with potential interference.
• IEEE 802.15.4g
• Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM):
• The use of OFDM as the modulation scheme enhances the reliability of communication in environments with multipath
interference. OFDM divides the available spectrum into multiple narrowband channels, improving overall performance.
• IPv6 Support:
• IEEE 802.15.4g includes support for IPv6, which is crucial for the integration of LR-WPANs into the broader IoT ecosystem.
IPv6 allows devices to have unique addresses and facilitates direct communication with other devices on the internet.
• Interoperability:
• Interoperability is a key consideration in IoT deployments, and IEEE 802.15.4g ensures that devices from different manufacturers that comply
with the standard can communicate effectively within the same network. This promotes a standardized approach to IoT device connectivity.
802.15.4e
1 TSCH (Time-Slotted Channel Hopping)
A standard for low-power wireless personal area networks, it enables highly reliable
and energy-efficient communication by scheduling radio transmissions within time
slots.

2 Enhanced Beacon Synchronization

Utilizes periodic beacon transmissions for network synchronization, ensuring
accurate timekeeping and coordination among network nodes.

3 Adaptive Data
Rates
Adjusts data transmission rates based on network conditions, enhancing
communication reliability and optimizing power consumption.
 IEEE 802.15.4e is a standard within the IEEE 802.15 family of standards, specifically tailored for Low-Rate Wireless Personal Area
Networks (LR-WPANs) in the context of the Internet of Things (IoT). IEEE 802.15.4e introduces enhancements to address the
unique requirements of industrial and process automation applications. Here are some key aspects of IEEE 802.15.4e in the context
of IoT:
1.Deterministic and Time-Sensitive Networking (TSN):
1. IEEE 802.15.4e introduces features to provide deterministic communication and time-sensitive networking capabilities. This
is crucial for applications in industrial automation, where precise timing and reliability are essential.
2.Enhancements for Industrial IoT (IIoT):
1. The standard focuses on meeting the specific needs of Industrial IoT applications, such as those found in factory automation,
process control, and other industrial settings. It addresses challenges related to communication reliability and low-latency
requirements.
3.Time-Slotted Channel Hopping (TSCH):
1. IEEE 802.15.4e incorporates Time-Slotted Channel Hopping (TSCH) as a mechanism for organizing communication into
timeslots. This approach helps in managing communication schedules, reducing interference, and providing determinism in
data transmission.
• Synchronization:
• Synchronization features are crucial in industrial settings where devices need to coordinate their actions. IEEE
802.15.4e includes mechanisms for time synchronization among devices, ensuring that they operate on a shared
timeline.
• Efficient Power Management:
• Like other standards in the IEEE 802.15.4 family, IEEE 802.15.4e is designed with energy efficiency in mind. This is
particularly important for battery-powered or energy-harvesting devices commonly found in IoT deployments.
• Support for Star and Mesh Topologies:
• The standard supports various network topologies, including star and mesh configurations. This flexibility allows for the
deployment of IEEE 802.15.4e in diverse industrial scenarios.
• Interoperability:
• Interoperability is a key consideration, especially in industrial environments with devices from different manufacturers.
IEEE 802.15.4e aims to facilitate interoperability between devices that comply with the standard.
• Security:
• Security features are integrated to address the protection of data in industrial applications. This includes mechanisms
for secure communication, authentication, and data integrity.
1901.2a

5 1K
Enhanced Speed Extended Range
Significant increase in data transmission speed, Provides an extended coverage area, ideal for IoT
capable of supporting high-bandwidth IoT applications deployments in large-scale industrial facilities or
and multimedia streaming. outdoor environments.
IEEE 1901.2a is a technology standard that provides a comprehensive framework for low-frequency power line communications
(PLC) in IoT access technologies. It outlines the modulation techniques used in PLC, noise mitigation strategies, and channel
estimation methods to ensure reliable and efficient communication over power lines.

The standard also includes specifications for smart grid applications, home automation, industrial IoT, and other real-world
applications of PLC.
One of the key advantages of IEEE 1901.2a is its compatibility with existing IEEE standards such as IEEE 802.11ah and Zigbee
protocol stack, which allows for seamless integration with wireless networks in IoT environments.

Additionally, the standard offers security features comparable to other IoT security technologies to protect against cybersecurity
threats.
Overall, IEEE 1901.2a plays an essential role in enabling reliable and efficient communication between smart objects over power
lines while ensuring interoperability with other devices and systems in an IoT environment.
802.11ah
Low Power Consumption Support for power-efficient operation, extending
battery life for IoT devices.

Long Range Connectivity Enables connectivity over long distances, suitable

for agricultural and environmental monitoring
applications.
 IEEE 802.11ah is a standard that falls under the IEEE 802.11 family of wireless communication standards, specifically designed for
Low Power, Wide Area (LPWA) networks, and it is often associated with IoT (Internet of Things) applications. Here are key aspects
of IEEE 802.11ah in the context of IoT:
1.Low Power, Wide Area Networking (LPWAN):
1. IEEE 802.11ah is designed to operate in the sub-1 GHz frequency band, providing extended range and improved penetration
through obstacles. This makes it suitable for LPWAN applications, where devices are spread over a wide area and need to
communicate with low power consumption.
2.Extended Range:
1. One of the primary features of IEEE 802.11ah is its extended communication range. This is achieved by utilizing lower
frequency bands, which allow signals to travel longer distances and better penetrate through walls and other obstacles.
3.Support for Numerous Devices:
1. IEEE 802.11ah supports a large number of devices within a single network. This is beneficial for IoT scenarios where a
multitude of devices, such as sensors or smart devices, need to be connected and communicate efficiently.
4.Energy Efficiency:
1. The standard is designed with a focus on energy efficiency, making it suitable for battery-operated IoT devices. It includes
mechanisms to reduce power consumption during communication, enabling longer battery life for devices.
5.Sub-GHz Frequency Bands:
1. IEEE 802.11ah operates in frequency bands below 1 GHz, which offers advantages in terms of signal propagation and
interference avoidance. This is particularly beneficial for outdoor and long-range communication in IoT deployments.
LoRaWAN

Gateway Low Power Scalable

Infrastructure
Utilizes gateways for bidirectional Operation
Emphasizes ultra-low power Architecture
Offers a scalable network
communication between consumption to extend battery life, architecture, supporting thousands
end-devices and network servers, making it suitable for remote and of IoT devices within a single
enabling long-range IoT battery-powered IoT sensor network, enabling wide-area
connectivity. deployments. coverage and efficient device
management.
 LoRaWAN (Long Range Wide Area Network) is a wireless communication protocol designed for low-power, wide-area networks
(LPWANs) to enable long-range communication for Internet of Things (IoT) devices. LoRaWAN is well-suited for applications that
require low data rates, long battery life, and the ability to connect devices over significant distances. Here are key aspects of
LoRaWAN in the context of IoT:
1.Long Range Communication:
1. LoRaWAN offers long-range communication capabilities, allowing IoT devices to transmit data over several kilometers in
outdoor environments. This makes it suitable for applications such as smart agriculture, smart cities, and industrial
monitoring.
2.Low Power Consumption:
1. One of the key advantages of LoRaWAN is its low power consumption. Devices using LoRaWAN can operate on battery
power for extended periods, making it suitable for IoT applications where power efficiency is critical.
3.Low Data Rates:
1. LoRaWAN is designed for low data rate applications. While it may not be suitable for high-bandwidth applications, it is
well-suited for transmitting small amounts of data at regular intervals, which is common in many IoT use cases.
4.Bi-Directional Communication:
1. LoRaWAN supports bi-directional communication, allowing devices to both send and receive data. This enables control and
management of IoT devices remotely.
 Network layer in IoT
The network layer, often referred to as Layer 3 in the OSI (Open
Systems Interconnection) model, plays a crucial role in the Internet of
Things (IoT) by providing end-to-end communication and routing
between devices within a network.

The network layer is responsible for managing the connectivity,

addressing, and routing of data packets as they travel from the source
to the destination in an IoT environment.
Overview of IP (Internet Protocol)
Numeric Data Routing Protocol Suite
Addressing
IP provides a numerical label to It defines the methods for data to IP operates as part of the TCP/IP
each device connected to the be appropriately routed from its protocol suite, allowing for
internet, enabling the delivery of source to its destination through standardized communication
data packets to the intended the network. across the internet.
destination.
IP version 4 (IPv4) in
IoT
1 Simplified Addressing 2 Routable
IPv4 uses a 32-bit address, simplifying Infrastructure
It provides the foundational framework
the process of identifying devices in IoT for the routing of packets, ensuring
networks. effective communication within IoT
environments.

3 Limited Address
Space
The declining availability of IPv4 addresses presents a significant constraint for the expanding
IoT landscape.
Limitations of IPv4 in
IoT
Address Exhaustion NAT Security
The exhaustion of IPv4 Dependency
Network Address Translation Vulnerabilities
addresses hinders the (NAT) is heavily relied upon IPv4's limitations increase the

scalability of IoT networks, to manage address shortages, propensity for security gaps,

potentially limiting the adding complexity and exposing IoT devices to

connectivity of new devices. potential security potential cyber threats.

vulnerabilities.
IP version 6 (IPv6) in
IoT

Expanded Address Simplified Enhanced Security

Space Networking
It simplifies network Features
IPv6's adoption introduces a infrastructure, eliminating the IPv6 incorporates advanced
vastly expanded address space, need for NAT and streamlining security features, addressing the
accommodating the the path for end-to-end vulnerabilities prevalent in IPv4
proliferation of devices in IoT connectivity. and bolstering IoT security.
networks.
Advantages of IPv6 in IoT
Broad Address Space Enhanced Security Efficient Packet Routing

Scalability Autoconfiguration Seamless Mobility Support

Transition from IPv4 to IPv6 in
IoT
1 Preparation
Phase
IoT ecosystems evaluate the readiness and compatibility of devices and
infrastructure for IPv6 integration.

2 Implementation Stage
Gradual deployment of IPv6 across IoT networks, alongside backward compatibility
mechanisms for IPv4 devices.

3 Transition
Completion
Validation of the successful integration of IPv6 while managing the coexistence of
both IP versions during the migration.
Challenges in implementing IPv6 in IoT

1 Legacy Device 2 Interoperability 3 Resource

Compatibility Concerns Constraints
The need to ensure the Integration of diverse IoT Addressing the resource
seamless operation of older platforms and protocols limitations of constrained
IoT devices within while maintaining the nodes and networks amid
IPv6-dominant efficiency of IPv6 the transition to IPv6.
environments. communication.
 Constrained nodes and networks are a significant consideration in the context of the Internet of Things (IoT),
particularly when dealing with devices that have limitations in terms of processing power, memory, energy, and
communication capabilities. Here are some key concepts related to constrained nodes and networks in IoT:
1.Constrained Nodes:
1. Definition: Constrained nodes refer to IoT devices with resource limitations, such as low processing power,
limited memory, energy constraints (especially for battery-powered devices), and often restricted communication
capabilities.
2. Examples: Sensors, actuators, and small embedded devices are typical examples of constrained nodes. These
devices are designed to perform specific tasks with minimal resources.
2.Constrained Networks:
1. Definition: Constrained networks refer to communication networks composed of constrained nodes. These
networks are characterized by devices with limited resources and are designed to support communication
among these devices.
2. Examples: Low-Power Wide Area Networks (LPWANs), like LoRaWAN and NB-IoT, are examples of
constrained networks optimized for long-range communication with low-power devices. Zigbee and 6LoWPAN
(IPv6 over Low-Power Wireless Personal Area Networks) are examples of constrained networks suitable for
short-range communications.
• Characteristics of Constrained Nodes:
• Limited Resources: Constrained nodes have limited resources, including processing power, memory, and energy. This requires optimization in
terms of data processing and communication protocols.
• Energy Efficiency: Due to limited battery life, energy efficiency is crucial for constrained nodes. Protocols and mechanisms that minimize energy
consumption during communication and in idle states are essential.
• Low Data Rates: Constrained nodes often operate at low data rates to conserve energy and accommodate limited communication capabilities.
• Challenges in Constrained Networks:
• Reliability: Constrained networks must maintain reliability in communication despite limited resources. Protocols need to be designed to handle
potential packet loss and ensure successful data delivery.
• Scalability: As the number of devices in an IoT deployment increases, the network should scale efficiently. Managing a large number of
constrained nodes poses challenges in terms of addressing, routing, and overall network management.
• Interoperability: Constrained networks may consist of devices from various manufacturers, necessitating interoperability standards and protocols
to ensure seamless communication.
• Protocols for Constrained Networks:
• CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol): CoAP is a lightweight protocol designed for constrained devices and networks. It enables
communication using a RESTful architecture over UDP (User Datagram Protocol).
• MQTT-SN (MQTT for Sensor Networks): An adaptation of the MQTT protocol for constrained networks, providing lightweight, publish-subscribe
communication.
• 6LoWPAN (IPv6 over Low-Power Wireless Personal Area Networks): This protocol enables the use of IPv6 on constrained devices, allowing
them to be part of the larger internet.
 The adaptation of IPv6 for constrained environments, such as those found in the Internet of Things (IoT). Specifically, it includes the
6LoWPAN (IPv6 over Low-Power Wireless Personal Area Networks) protocol, which is designed to enable the use of IPv6 over
low-power, low-rate wireless networks. Let's explore the transition from 6LoWPAN to the broader concept of 6Lo in IoT:
1.6LoWPAN (IPv6 over Low-Power Wireless Personal Area Networks):
1. Definition: 6LoWPAN is a protocol adaptation layer that allows IPv6 to be used over low-power, low-rate wireless networks. It is
designed to address the constraints of devices in such networks, including limited processing power, memory, and energy.
2. Characteristics:
1. Header Compression: 6LoWPAN employs header compression techniques to reduce the overhead associated with IPv6
packet headers, optimizing the use of constrained resources.
2. Stateless Address Autoconfiguration: Similar to IPv6, 6LoWPAN supports stateless address autoconfiguration, enabling
devices to obtain IPv6 addresses without the need for a centralized address assignment.
2.6Lo (IPv6 Adaptations for Constrained Environments):
1. Expansion of the Concept: The term "6Lo" is sometimes used more broadly to encompass adaptations and considerations
related to IPv6 in constrained environments beyond just wireless personal area networks.
2. Scope Expansion: While 6LoWPAN specifically addresses low-power wireless networks, the concept of 6Lo may be applied to
various constrained IoT scenarios, including wired networks with similar resource limitations.
3. Adaptations Beyond Wireless: In a broader sense, 6Lo may include adaptations for other communication technologies within
the IoT landscape, recognizing that the constraints faced by devices extend beyond just low-power wireless scenarios.
• Adaptations and Standards:
• IPv6 over Bluetooth Low Energy (IPv6 over BLE): An adaptation of IPv6 for communication over
Bluetooth Low Energy, addressing constraints associated with low-power Bluetooth connections.
• IPv6 over IEEE 802.15.4 Networks: Beyond 6LoWPAN, IPv6 adaptations have been developed for
various IEEE 802.15.4-based networks, which are common in IoT applications.
• Use Cases:
• Smart Home Networks: 6LoWPAN has been applied to smart home networks, where low-power wireless
devices need to communicate with each other and with centralized controllers.
• Industrial IoT (IIoT): Constrained environments in industrial settings often benefit from IPv6 adaptations,
enabling communication among sensors and actuators in energy-efficient and scalable ways.
• Healthcare IoT: In healthcare IoT scenarios, where wearable devices and sensors may have limited
power resources, IPv6 adaptations can be crucial for efficient communication.
 CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol) and MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport) are two popular application layer protocols
commonly used in the context of the Internet of Things (IoT). Both protocols are designed to facilitate efficient communication between
constrained devices, addressing the specific requirements of IoT applications. Let's explore the characteristics of each protocol:
1.CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol):
1. Purpose:
1. CoAP is specifically designed for constrained devices and networks in IoT. It is a lightweight protocol that enables devices to
communicate in a RESTful manner over UDP (User Datagram Protocol).
2. Key Features:
1. Low Overhead: CoAP has a minimal header size and supports header compression, reducing the overall overhead and
making it suitable for constrained environments.
2. Request-Response Model: CoAP follows a request-response communication model, similar to HTTP. It supports various
methods such as GET, POST, PUT, and DELETE.
3. Resource Discovery: CoAP provides mechanisms for resource discovery, allowing devices to discover and interact with
resources on other devices.
4. Observing Resources: CoAP supports resource observation, enabling devices to receive notifications when a resource's
state changes.
MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport):
1. Purpose:
1. MQTT is a publish-subscribe messaging protocol designed for scenarios where devices need to
efficiently exchange messages in a lightweight and asynchronous manner.
2. Key Features:
1. Publish-Subscribe Model: MQTT uses a publish-subscribe model, where devices (clients) can publish
messages to specific topics, and other devices interested in those topics can subscribe to receive those
messages.
2. Quality of Service (QoS): MQTT supports different QoS levels (0, 1, and 2) to ensure reliable message
delivery. The sender and receiver can agree on the level of assurance needed for each message.
3. Last Will and Testament (LWT): MQTT includes a Last Will and Testament feature, allowing a device
to specify a message to be sent if it unexpectedly disconnects.
4. Session Persistence: MQTT supports persistent sessions, ensuring that messages are not lost even if
a device temporarily goes offline.