IJBR-Vol.4-ISS 2 Zia Ul Haq et al.

(2023 )

CRITERIA FOR ASSESSING AND ENSURING THE

TRUSTWORTHINESS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

1. Zia Ul Haq Kakar 2. Rizwana Rasheed

Department of Education Greenwich Department of Business Administration Iqra
University, Karachi, Pakistan University, Main Campus, Karachi, Pakistan
3. *Aamir Rashid 4. Salma Akhter
Department of Business and Economics Government Girls Model High School
York College, The City University of New Mission Road Quetta, Pakistan
York (CUNY) Jamaica, New York, United
States

ABSTRACT

The trustworthiness of qualitative data has been debatable, yet it has strong support from its supporters.
However, the importance and worth of qualitative data cannot be undermined. This paper presents a
critical review of the trustworthiness of the qualitative data. The degree of trustworthiness of qualitative
research can be measured by ensuring the credibility, transferability, dependability, and conformability of
research design, process, and action. The guarantee of trustworthiness in qualitative research is more
complex than in quantitative research due to its subjective nature. Many researchers and experts denied
the generalizability of qualitative research. However, few researchers, like Guba (1985), developed a
widely accepted model and strategies to ensure the trustworthiness and generalizability of qualitative
research. Credibility is like internal validity in quantitative analysis and provides the actual data about the
phenomenon. Transferability shows the degree of application of the research finding in other exact
natures of context, people, groups, and settings. If the findings of one study are replicated in a similar
population, condition, or context, then the findings are dependable. Neutrality is the degree of fairness of
results consisting of purity of initial responses and bias-free.

Key Words: Credibility; Dependable; Neutrality; Transferability; Trustworthiness; Guba Model

https://doi.org/10.56249/ijbr.03.01.44
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (Aamir Rashid)
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. Licensee HCBF, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan.
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1. Introduction

Qualitative research is generally viewed as a soft science and criticised for lacking
generalizability and trustworthiness compared to quantitative research (Mays & Pope, 1995).
Every research study finding should have the quality of generalizability. It is a common

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question: Why should any research result be considered the same for others apart from the
research population? The question may be valid that every individual is unique, and the
population consists of these remarkable individuals who may differ from others. This question
needs a satisfactory answer in both qualitative and quantitative research results.

1.1 Underlying Research Problem

The case for qualitative research, in this regard, is more complicated as qualitative research is an
in-depth study that increases the subjectivity of results. Koch & Harrington (1998) view
qualitative research as subjective with involved researcher bias, lacking trustworthiness and
generalizability. This view shows that qualitative research is more personal and needs inclusive
measures to control preferences and minimise subjectivity.

1.2 Varying Research Perspective

Different research paradigms have different perspectives regarding subjectivity in qualitative

research. The positivists generally criticised qualitative research's trustworthiness because they
considered the validity and reliability of qualitative research not to suit the naturistic work.
Positivists favour quantitative research, where validity and reliability ensure the generalizability
of research findings. The stress of positivism is on objectivity. However, there are different
paradigms, and researchers have different perspectives on research and its findings. However,
qualitative research is the only different approach to studying humans and is not inferior to any
other research approach. This research approach emphasises discovering in-depth individual
experiences, exploring the human phenomenon, and helping in theory development (Vishnevsky
& Beanlands, 2004).

1.3 Importance of Trustworthiness in Qualitative Research

The most important factor influencing the rigour of qualitative research investigations is
trustworthiness (Amankwaa, 2016; Eryilmaz, 2022). It is generally accepted that quantitative and
qualitative research designs need credibility to generalise the findings. Every research design has
its techniques to enhance credibility. The efforts and ability of researchers in the qualitative
study are indications of trustworthiness. Validity and reliability are also important to ensure the
study's trustworthiness and credibility; transferability words are used in place of validity and
reliability in qualitative research. Every researcher accepts the importance of rigour, objectivity,

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and consistency of research, and they try to develop criteria to ensure trustworthiness. Lincoln
and Guba (1985) gave one of the most popular and generally accepted criteria for the
trustworthiness of qualitative research. They indicated four important concepts, credibility,
transferability, dependability, and conformability, to increase trustworthiness (Ghafouri &
Ofoghi, 2016; Earnest, 2020; Eryilmaz, 2022; Enworo, 2023; Riazi & Ghanbar, 2023).

According to Lincoln and Guba (1985), credibility is the process, just like internal validity
positivists recommended for the rigour of quantitative research. In qualitative research design,
transferability is similar to external validity or generalizability in quantitative research design.
Likewise, dependability is like reliability, and conformability is like objectivity, which increases
the trustworthiness of qualitative research. These recommended constructs have been recognised
by several researchers (Riazi & Ghanbar, 2023).

There are several constructs which help promote trustworthiness in qualitative research. The
systematic research design, the researcher's credibility, the findings’ acceptability, and
appropriate research methods decide the trustworthiness of qualitative research (Rose & Johnson,
2020; Johnson & Parry, 2015; Lincoln & Guba, 1985). It means that the research design
appropriateness is necessary to generalise the results. The personality and status of the researcher
in society regarding believability is also an essential aspect of gauging the generalizability of
research findings.

The assurance of trustworthiness in qualitative research is necessary as the researcher claims that
it is trustworthiness that provides qualitative research with a prominent place in the academic
world. It is a general perception that qualitative studies must be credible (Creswell & Miller,
2000). Thus, to increase trustworthiness in qualitative research, multiple aspects such as
epistemological understanding, in-depth literature review skills, theoretical understanding, and
argument skills are important for the researcher to master. Other elements such as various data
collection techniques, appropriate data analysis procedures, connection with theories, and
interaction among these concepts are also important to understand and apply trustworthiness in
qualitative research. Additionally, addressing the validity and reliability helps improve the
study’s trustworthiness. Validity and reliability are explained by Creswell (2014) as the
researcher checks for the accuracy of findings for the specific research, which is called validity,
and reliability is the consistency in results in the same situation by using the same tools.

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Reliability indicates the soundness of research by applying appropriate research methods and the
procedure used for these methods in qualitative research. The consistency and stability of the
methodological approach remain stable over time and space, which are the reliability
characteristics. Reliability ensures the replicability of the research project with similar results.
On the other hand, validity is the accuracy of research findings, which the researcher tends to
research (Creswell & Miller, 2000).

Other researchers also explain the importance of validity and reliability of the trustworthiness of
research results. Patton (2014) indicated validity and reliability for qualitative research,
understanding the techniques or methods used to guarantee the accuracy, integrity, and validity
of findings. The experiences and qualifications of research are other indications of
trustworthiness. If the researcher is more educated and expert, more trustworthy results may be
achieved. The vital objectives or underlying assumptions also help improve the study's
trustworthiness. In qualitative design, the terms and concepts of, Neutrality, Consistency,
Credibility, Conformability, Dependability, Applicability, Transferability are used for
trustworthiness, as the term reliability is used in quantitative research (Lincoln & Guba, 1985;
Paton, 2014; Bazeley, 2013; Flick, 2007; Glesne, 2016; Riazi, & Ghanbar, 2023). The researcher
must ensure trustworthiness in qualitative research by providing validity and reliability. To
ensure validity, researchers need to understand the different aspects of it. Kvale (1989) indicated
three important validity approaches in qualitative research: validation in the investigation,
communication, and action (Kvale, 1989). These approaches show the importance of rigorous
research planning, accurate questionnaire development and precise application, natural
interaction with respondents, and suitable data analysis and interpretation in qualitative research.

The researcher Kvale (1989) also considered researcher experience and literature as important
aspects to ensure generalizability, validity, and reliability. This argument indicated the
importance of knowledgeable researchers, as research is very technical work, so there must be a
learned person to conduct the research. Literature also supported the study results; it clarified
different aspects of the subject under investigation by providing data from prominent scholars.
The other researchers exploring the phenomenon will help researchers design, conduct, and
analyse research studies.

2. Criteria for Assessing the Trustworthiness

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2.1 Guba Model of Trustworthiness

The researchers Lincoln and Guba (1985) expressed that the validity and reliability of the
concept are replaced by trustworthiness, which is important in establishing confidence in results.
This argument indicates that validity, reliability, quality, trustworthiness, and rigour differentiate
good research from flawed research, which are all important whatever the research paradigm is.

Many researchers developed a trustworthiness model to improve the credibility of qualitative

research, such as Kirk and Miller, 1986; and Leininger, 1985 but the Guba model is the most
popular and suitable. Guba claimed a need for a specific trustworthiness model for the qualitative
researcher to improve the generalizability of research findings (Guba, 1981). Guba proposed a
model to assess trustworthiness, which is comparatively conceptually more well-developed than
other models. Guba (1981) indicated in his model four important aspects, Credibility,
Applicability, Consistency, and Neutrality, equally applicable to both quantitative and qualitative
research to improve trustworthiness (Morse, 2015; Staffileno et al., 2021; Riazi & Ghanbar,
2023). Guba suggested different strategies in this model to assess criteria due to philosophical
differences in qualitative and quantitative research designs. On the one hand, these strategies are
important for qualitative researchers to improve trustworthiness. On the other hand, for readers
to assess the value of research results.

2.1.1 Truth Value

Truth value indicates the researcher's confidence regarding the results of subjects or information
and the study context (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Rose & Johnson, 2020). It shows how confident
the researcher is about the truth of findings, data, results, and the reliable context from which the
data is collected. The study context is important for the generalisation of the research study.
Keeping in mind the importance of internal validity and how to manage the threats to internal
validity and the validity of instruments used for the study indicated the assessment criteria of
truth value (Sandelowski, 1986). The term internal validity is used in qualitative research to
control compound variables by the researcher to control or randomise. Qualitative research is
subject-oriented and can be obtained from human experiences. In 1985, Guba and Lincoln
coined the word credibility for this concept.

2.1.2 Credibility

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One of the important criteria for generalizability is internal validity, which shows what is
intended to measure. Merriam (1998) expressed that the equivalent concept of internal validity is
credibility in the qualitative study. Ensuring trustworthiness (Lincoln & Guba, 1985) is
considered credibility the most important factor. The other researcher also viewed the
importance of credibility, as the researcher explained that credibility shows the truth of data and
respondents’ views and their interpretation (Polit & Beck,2012; Cope, 2014; Ghafouri & Ofoghi,
2016; Enworo, 2023; Hanson et al., 2019, p. 1017). Guba (1981) elaborated that internal validity
explains only one possible reality the researcher wants to measure. Guba further explained that if
the concept of one reality is being changed with multiple realities, as postmodernists view, the
researcher has to represent those realities by testing findings against various groups or experts
regarding the phenomenon. This argument indicates that the credibility in qualitative research
and internal reliability in quantitative research is only applicable to trustworthiness if the
researchers believe in one single reality.

The researcher Sandelowski (1986) explains that if the respondents of the study or any individual
immediately recognise the explanation or the interpretation made by the researcher about the
human experience and find that experiences they had, the findings are credible. If the study's
findings were similar to human experiences and commonly accepted, the study is credible. The
other aspect of credibility is the researcher’s experiences in the field of research. The
researcher’s explanation of his history of research experience and verifying research findings
enhance credibility. It means that in qualitative research, the researcher must explain his research
experiences comprehensively so that the readers may infer the result's credibility in the light of
the researcher’s authority. The other aspect of credibility is the easy understanding of findings.
The study is credible if the qualitative data results are recognised by readers easily and shared
adequately with others. The researcher has to fully engage and use proper observation methods
and audit trails as strategies to improve credibility. Truth value is perhaps one of the most
important criteria for assessing qualitative research.

2.1.3 Applicability/ Transferability

Applicability shows the degree of application of the research findings in the exact nature of
context, people, groups, and settings. The term transferability is also used for applicability. The
generalizability of research findings in other contexts is considered the applicability of research

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data Lincoln and Guba (1985), (Houghton et al., 2013; Polit & Beck,2 012; Cope, 2014;
Ghafouri & Ofoghi, 2016; Riazi & Ghanbar, 2023). The qualitative study result will be
considered applicable when the one who was not part of the study or the readers can associate it
with their own experiences. The recognition of findings by a large population shows the
applicability of results in qualitative research. It is also considered that the degree of external
threat to validity management will decide the degree of applicability in qualitative research. The
establishment and use of sampling techniques are important in generalising findings from a
sample to a large population, which is the quality of external validity (Payton, 1979).

The positivist argued that the study's findings must be generalisable for the wider population.
The qualitative study sample is always specific to small numbers of individuals covering small
numbers of the particular environment, so generally, it is considered that the findings or
conclusions are not suitable to use or apply to other situations or populations. According to
Erlandson et al. (1993), naturalistic inquiries denied generalizability because they argued that
there are always specific individuals and contexts in which the study is conducted. It means that
every individual is unique, and every context is different, so how can a study find my
generalised? This question may also apply to the quantitative research study. It is commonly
understood that every individual is also part of society.

In contrast, in response to individual uniqueness, the researchers Stake (1994) and Denscomb
(1998) argued that every unique case is also part of a large group, so the unique case's result may
be generalised. If the individuals recognised that the situation of the study is similar, they are
living; they could relate the results to their situation. The argument increases the importance of
the explanation context knowledge of the study that individuals can repeat with their context to
understand the study findings comprehensively. Guba (1985) stresses the researcher's
responsibility to ensure the availability of valuable, comprehensive contextual information on
fieldwork, which will help the reader understand and infer results regarding them in context.
Ensuring the availability of both aspects may provide the reader's confidence in transforming the
development to other situations. A sufficient description of the understudied phenomenon should
be included, which will be helpful to the reader in understanding the phenomenon.

There are two perspectives regarding the applicability of qualitative research. The first
perspective is that the applicability or generalisation of qualitative data is not always possible.

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The propagandas stress that the qualitative method is always conducted in a natural setting with
less control of variables. Each natural set is unique, and the findings will be unique, too, which is
not generalised. Sandelowski (1986) considered generalisation an illusion because, according to
him, every researcher, research situation, research interaction, and information is unique and
different. Furthermore, qualitative research aims to investigate a particular phenomenon rather
than to generalise the phenomenon. So, the generalizability or the applicability of research data is
out of the question.

The second perspective stresses the generalizability or applicability of the qualitative method.
Guba (1981) is the prominent propagator of the second perspective and fevered the applicability
of the qualitative method and developed the criteria to assess the applicability. According to him,
the research must adhere to this assessment criterion, and the study is deemed credible when the
findings are applicable outside of the study. Furthermore, he explained that the degree of
similarity of fitness indicated the quality of the study. Lincoln and Guba (1985) argued that
applicability is more than the researcher's responsibility to transfer data to the new situation or
population than the original situation. They stressed that as comprehensive as the description of
data regarding the compression of the situation would be, the chances of applicability will have
increased.

2.1.4 Dependability/ Consistency

Consistency or dependability of data is the third criterion of trustworthiness. Polit and Black
(2012) explain that dependability is data consistency over similar contexts (Polit & Black, 2012;
Cope, 2014; Ghafouri & Ofoghi, 2016; Hanson et al., 2019; Enworo, 2023). If the findings of
one study are replicated in a similar population, condition, or context, the findings are
dependable (Koch, 2006). Every research data must be replicated and have a degree of
consistency to ensure trustworthiness. The dependability in qualitative research means the
reliability of the research study, as indicated by the researcher. In quantitative analysis, the term
reliability is used for consistency, and it is the criterion expressing the consistency, stability, and
equivalence of research results (Sandelowski, 1986; Riazi & Ghanbar, 2023). The positivist
considered reliability as the technique of consistency. If the study were conducted again with the
same methods, similar participants, and similar contexts, similar results would be achieved, and
the study would be reliable.

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Nevertheless, Fidel (1993), Marshall, and Rossman (1999) argued that this would be difficult in
qualitative research due to its subjective nature, context, and situation. Qualitative research
differs from quantitative research, and it is challenging to ensure consistency but not impossible.
Researchers indicated criteria for insurance of dependability.

Florio-Ruane (1991) viewed that, in qualitative research, the researcher's observation is very
knotted to the situation. The researcher elaborated that “published descriptions of one study are
fixed, contextualised, and frozen. The use of this description for another study will not work
effectively. It indicated that there must be a comprehensive contextualised description of every
study to support the reader in understanding the results.

Infect the quantitative perspective regarding consistency is based on a single reality. If it applies
to the assumption of multiple realities, then this concept of consistency will be irrelevant.
Qualitative research, unlike quantitative, is not very controlled in nature, so extraneous and
unexpected variables can impact the reliability or trustworthiness. The researcher Duffy (1985)
differentiated the structured experimental design from unstructured and natural qualitative
research strategies. Furthermore, the qualitative researcher’s main quality is to explore the
originality of phenomena by using in-depth tools in an open environment rather than control. It is
also an important point to note that the instrument in qualitative research is the researcher and
respondent to assess the consistency. Moreover, qualitative research aims to explore the
uniqueness of the human situation, the variation of the situation, and subjective identification,
not the identical repetition (Field & Morse, 1985).

On the other hand, Lincoln and Guba (1981) indicated strong ties between credibility and
dependability. Furthermore, they stress the overlapping method, such as individual interviews
and focus group discussions, and the degree of consistency will increase by triangulation. Guba's
concept of dependability can be understood as traceable variability. The sources to understand
the variability improvement are the richness of researcher insight regarding study and sharing of
information and life situations. Additionally, qualitative researchers value the range of
experiences, so all kinds of situations may be included. Researchers must identify the outlying
data in qualitative research to define the limits of experiences or phenomena. Every member in
the group or part of the study must be considered important.

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In qualitative research, to ensure dependability, the research process must have been described
in detail so that the other researcher who intends to conduct a similar study can repeat the
process. The research process must be considered. The prototype model and detailed discretion
will help the readers assess and understand the research procedure and results in light of this
procedure.

2.1.5 Neutrality / Conformability

Neutrality is suggested in the fourth criterion of trustworthiness: the degree of unbiasedness of

the researcher in the research and interpretation process. Guba (1981) indicated it, including
motivational and perspective prejudices. Some researchers used the word conformability and
considered it the data consisting of participant responses rather than researcher choices,
viewpoints, and biases (Polit & Beck, 2012; Cope, 2014). The impartial nature of the researcher
can have derived results from the participant’s responses objectively. The researcher can explain
to imitate conformability about the conclusion, interpretation, and results by exemplifying that it
was derived directly from data (Ghafouri & Ofoghi, 2016; Olmos-Vega et al., 2022; Riazi &
Ghanbar, 2023; Enworo, 2023).

The direct quotes of participants' inclusion in reporting the data will help improve the neutrality
of the research. Patton (1987) considered conformability or objectivity as a science that can be
obtained by using appropriate instruments and skills to control human perception.

Furthermore, the researcher indicated that data collection tools are designed and applied by
humans, and biases are inevitable, so it’s impossible to ensure absolute objectivity. It shows that
the subjective nature of humans will always affect research planning, implementation, and
action. Researcher biases and prejudice are always there to decrease neutrality. In qualitative
research, objectivity is used for neutrality and ensured through an appropriate methodology that
establishes validity and reliability. In quantitative analysis, proper distance between researcher
and respondent is necessary to ensure reliability to control researcher bias by randomisation,
processes, and instruments. The propagators argued that this is scientifically important to control
the influences of the researcher on respondents and respondents on the researcher and ultimately
on the study.

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On the other hand, qualitative research encourages the closeness of researcher and respondent to
ensure the quality of findings. The worth of data can be boosted by increasing contacts of
researcher and respondent and the observation period. Lincoln and Guba (1985) argued that
qualitative research data is more important than a researcher’s to enhance neutrality. So, it is
crucial to consider the neutrality of data instead of the neutrality of the researcher. Furthermore,
they indicated it could achieve neutrality after establishing truth value and applicability.

Table 1: Trustworthiness in Qualitative Research, Criteria and Strategies

Criteria Credibility Transferability/ Dependability/ Conformability/

Applicability Consistency Neutrality
Credibility shows Applicability Dependability is Neutrality is the
the truth of data offers the degree the consistency degree of fairness
respondents' views of application of of data over of results, which
and their the research similar contexts. consists of the
interpretation. findings in the If the findings of purity of original
Definitions

exact nature of one study are responses of the

context, people, replicated in a study participants
groups, and similar and free from
settings. population, every kind of
condition, or biases
context, the
study findings
are dependable
(Koch, 2006)
1. Prolong 1. Theoretical, 1. Overlap 1. Triangulation
Engagement at Sit purposive Methods:
sampling:
2. Persistent 2. Collect thick 2. Stepwise 2.Parecacing
Observation descriptive data Replication Reflexivity
Strategies for Improvement

3. Peer Debriefing: 3. Develop a 3. Establish an

thick description "Audit Trail"
of the data
4. Triangulation 4. The Audit
process.
5. Collection of 5. Coding
Referential Record
Adequacy Material
6. Member Checks 6. Triangulation
7. Establishing 7. Expert
structural opinion
Corroboration or
Coherence

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8. Repeated
Observation

3. Assurance of Trustworthiness in Qualitative Research

3.1 Strategies to Ensure Trustworthiness in Qualitative Research

Several strategies throughout the research process can ensure trustworthiness in qualitative
research. Research process planning can use some strategy. These strategies can be applied in the
data collection process, and others are in the data interpretation process. Every criterion of
trustworthiness in qualitative research can use specific strategies. Some strategies, such as
triangulation and reflexivity, are helpful for multiple criteria.

3.2 Strategies for Credibility Improvement

3.2.1. Prolong Engagement at Site

Prolonged engagements are one of the most critical strategies suggested by Lincoln & Guba
(1985), cited Leininger (1985), to improve the Credibility of qualitative research. The qualitative
researcher needs to spend more time with respondents and in context to identify and document
themes, patterns, and values and develop trust (Riazi & Ghanbar, 2023; Eryilmaz, 2022; Enworo,
2023).

It will also be helpful for the researcher to recognise the participant’s context, values, social
norms, and level of understanding to control his own biases, perceptions, and participant biases.
Understanding participant culture is also important to understand the real picture. Lincoln and
Guba (1985) indicated that prolonged engagement is an important strategy to identify patterns,
understand the perspective, and allow the researcher and respondent to familiarise themselves
with the investigator. The researcher, Kielhofner (1982), is also in favour of long interaction and
argues that this enhances research findings and helps understand hidden facts.

There is no rule regarding the engagement of time. It depends on the nature of the study, the
researcher, and the context where the study is conducted. However, it is worth mentioning that
over-involvement may disturb the study findings.

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3.2.2. Persistent Observation

Persistent observation is another important strategy Lincoln Guba (1985) suggested, cited
Leininger (1985), to ensure credibility in a qualitative study (Enworo, 2023). Continued
observation of the phenomenon under numerous natural situations is necessary to explore reality.
It is also important to understand the overall qualities of the strengths of the findings. Atypical
characteristic needs more observation to explore and identify, which is needed to rigour the
qualitative study (Riazi & Ghanbar, 2023). The researcher can identify and eliminate the
irrelevant aspects by observing continually (Eisner, 1979). So, the researcher needs to spend
adequate time on site and with participants to validate the characterisation. (Eryilmaz, 2022).

3.2.3. Peer Debriefing

Peer debriefing is also an important strategy for credibility. Debriefing about research is an
important strategy given by Guba (1981) to assess and evaluate the overall process to understand
the areas for improvement. On the one hand, debriefing with supervisors and colleagues helps
the researcher understand the weaknesses and helps them control perceptions and biases. These
sessions with collaboration will be beneficial to recognise other vital approaches that may be
used in the research process. Guba (1981) indicated that sometimes, in the field, ongoing
activities need timely redirection, and the debriefing process can identify the areas of
improvement. (Eryilmaz, 2022).

3.2.4. Triangulation

Triangulation is one of the most common, popular, and important strategies to enhance the
credibility and quality of research. Triangulation is when the researcher investigates multiple
aspects and multiple understanding perspectives to conform to the complete investigation of the
phenomenon (Atkinson & Delamont, 2008; Knafl & Breitmayer, 1989). Triangulation is when
another assessment and cross-check are conducted to improve credibility. Triangulation is a
method in which various sources, diverse perspectives, theories, many investigators, and various
techniques are used to assess and cross-check the research plan, process, and interpretation
(Denzin, 1978). The researcher triangulated the study through different methods, but four types
were prevalent and effective, as given by Kneel and Breitmeyer in 1989. Triangulation of
methods in which the compression of data collected through various tools, such as interviews,

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observation, and focal group discussions, is the most common kind of triangulation. The
triangulation of data sources is the second type. The investigator must triangulate the variety of
data concerning time, space, experience, setting, and procedures (e.g., interactive observation
and passive observation). The third kind of triangulation is theoretical triangulation. The
observation and investigation of the phenomenon using different theoretical lenses or testing the
phenomenon using different theoretical approaches to understand the phenomenon deeply is
called theoretical triangulation. The fourth is the triangulation of investigators. The research
study conducted by more than one researcher or group of researchers investigated the
phenomenon to understand a different perspective of this kind of triangulation. Team members
always have different experiences, approaches, points of view, and understanding from different
angles, which will help understand the phenomenon deeply by sharing their opinions and
purifying the findings and results.

3.2.5. Collection of Referential Adequacy Material

Thesis supportive activity, discussed by Guba (1981) to improve credibility. The supporting raw
data about the study area include audio, videos, documents, etc. Collecting the research study
topic will support the investigator in interpreting data and improving the study's credibility. For
example, videotapes about the collaborative strategies used by the teacher while investigating the
impacts of collaborative strategy on students' motivation will provide evidence about the variety
and effectiveness of the strategy (Eryilmaz, 2022).

3.2.6. Member Checks

Member checks are also one of the most common and effective techniques discussed by Lincoln
and Guba (1985). Member check is the process of sharing data in report form and collecting
participant feedback (Rose & Johnson, 2020; Eryilmaz, 2022). Member check is a significant
opportunity to test research findings, interpretations, and explanations linking culture (Davis &
Lachlan, 2017). The participants will judge the data accuracy and the researcher’s
interpretations through member checks (Riazi & Ghanbar, 2023).

The continued testing and assessment of research, data, process, analytical categories,
interpretation, and conclusion by another expert informant are member-checking strategies to
improve qualitative research credibility. This process can be adopted in the planning phase,

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during the data collection process, after data collection, and at any time on the spot. This
technique can be used by applying several styles, keeping in mind the needs of the study. Peer
check is also alike. Reforming or altering study tools can ensure process credibility (Mays &
Pope, 1995). Improving the effectiveness process after understanding with the help of interviews,
observation, and other tools can also enhance it. Lastly, by reading the reports, interrelations, and
discussions, it can also be improved by relating with theories and literature.

3.2.7. Establishing Structural Corroboration or Coherence

This is the strategy elaborated by Guba (1981) for the insurance of consistency of data and its
interpretation. Internal coherence among all data within the study structure is necessary for
credibility. The researcher must ensure that there is no internal contradiction or conflict. The
contraction is possible, as different perspectives and data are collected from different sources.
Still, the investigator needs to indicate these patients' disputes in the interpretation process,
which will enhance credibility.

3.3 Strategies of Transferability Improvement

3.3.1. Theoretical, Purposive Sampling

Theoretical purposive sampling is a vital strategy given by Gaba (1981) to improve

transferability. In this strategy, the panel of judges helps the investigator select the sample for the
under-research phenomenon. In this type of sample (nominated sample), there must be one or
two members of the family or support group that help the researcher in the sampling procedure
(Field & Morse, 1985), which is not typical purposive sampling. Theoretical sampling is when
the specialist collectively identifies the sample and envisions covering the maximum uncovered
information. The importance and relevancy are the primary targets in this sampling. The data
collected and interpreted by experts regarding study sampling is more authentic than individually
selected sampling. This is effective in the improvement of trustworthiness in the qualitative
study.

3.3.2. Collect Thick Descriptive Data

Thick descriptive data is another important strategy in which the investigator collected
comprehensive contextual information to compare it with another context to ensure

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transferability. Comparing the two contexts' characteristics will allow the assessors to understand
the phenomenon in light of already researched phenomena of the same nature. The background
information of respondents, context, setting, time, and space collected by the investigator
informed others to assess the transferability of the research study. Lincoln and Guba (1986)
stress that investigators' responsibility is to provide sufficient contextual information, which
others can use to judge the transferability.

3.3.3. Develop Thick Description of Data

Another essential strategy given by Guba (1981) is this strategy; the researcher has to
comprehensively describe the background of the study to provide the opportunity for readers to
have a proper understanding of the phenomenon. The researcher must elaborate the contextual
knowledge regarding the research study, considering another context, to allow others to judge
and fit it in their contexts.

3.4 Strategies for the Dependability Improvement

3.4.1. Overlap Methods

Overlap methods are an impertinent strategy proposed by Guba (1981) to ensure the
dependability or stability of a research study. Campbell, Schwartz, and Cherst (1966) consider
the overlap method as a triangulation method in which different methods are used in the cycle.
This overlap method is very important to overcome the shortages of one method. Using two or
more methods in a cyclic position will cover the weaknesses of each other and provide
comprehensive and real data. It is also important to notice that this strengthened stability if all
the methods provide the same result (Guba, 1978). It is commonly understood that more than one
data collection method offers more comprehensive information. The triangulation of these
methods helps us understand a clear picture of the phenomenon.

3.4.2. Stepwise Replication

A thesis is an important strategy discussed by Guba (1981) for improving dependability. This is
analogous to the “split-half" reliability of the test in quantitative research. Data is divided into
two halves; two research groups work on the analysis process and compare the results.
Communication between groups and team members is important to understand the nature of the

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research study and share their perspectives about every research step. Lincoln and Guba (1985)
stress the daily communication of teams and team members to cross-check and develop visions
for further operation. They also recommended that criteria be developed before starting the
process, and the communication must also be documented.

3.4.3. Establish an “Audit Trail”

An audit trail is the external auditing process suggested by Guba (1981). In this process, the
external auditor reinvestigates the data collection, analysis, and interpretation process to
understand the appropriateness of these processes. The auditor can analyse the documents and
observe the processes, and the audit report must be documented. The auditor may have indicated
the weaknesses in the data collection procedure, data analysing method, and data interoperation
so that the researcher could overcome the shortages (Earnest, 2020; Eryilmaz, 2022).

3.4.4. The Audit Process

Guba (1981) expressed that the audit process should be authentic and regulated. For this purpose,
there should be some criteria. The audit procedure must be evaluated by someone or a team to
assess the degree of effectiveness, authenticity, and applicability of the process and
appropriateness in light of pre-specified criteria.

3.4.5. Coding Record

Coding record is also an important strategy to improve the study’s dependability. The researcher
has to code the data in the data analysis process, adopt this technique, and then, after at least two
weeks, analyse the data and compare the results. This process will decrease the bias of the
researcher in the analysis process.

3.4.6. Triangulation

The triangulating process is also beneficial in the enhancement of credibility. By using

triangulation, the researcher can compensate for the weaknesses of one data collection method
with another data collection method. Krefting (1990) views that triangulating the methods can
improve dependability. Three important aspects, data triangulation, method triangulation, and
investigator triangulation, are indicated by researchers to improve trustworthiness (Denzin, 2015;
Riazi & Ghanbar, 2023).

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3.4.7. Expert Opinion

Expert opinion will be very helpful to improve the data collection tools, data collection process,
analysis strategies, and interpretation of the research study. It will ultimately enhance the degree
of credibility. The researcher, Krefting (1990) views that colleagues, peers, and methodological
experts can help check the research plan and implementation to improve the study's credibility.

3.4.8. Repeated Observation

Repeated and continuous observation of sites, events, and subjects and recording the important
points regarding the study can improve and enhance the degree of stability. Lincoln and Guba
(1985) also considered continuous repeated observation as an important strategy for improving
dependability.

3.5 Strategies to Improve the Conformability

3.5.1. Triangulation

Lincoln and Guba (1985) suggested triangulation as a vital strategy to improve conformability. It
is one of the most central strategies for strengthening trustworthiness. It is helpful to improve
credibility, transferability, and conformability (Earnest, 2020). The collection of a variety of
perspective knowledge, using various data collection methods, and comparing results in the
triangulation process are very helpful in improving conformability. (Eryilmaz, 2022). The
researcher stressed that there must be at least two data collection methods for every research
study to identify the real picture of the phenomenon by triangulation of the data. The other aspect
of triangulation is understanding the phenomenon in light of different perspectives and theories.
So, triangulation helps understand every aspect of the subject.

3.5.2. Practicing Reflexivity

Reflexivity is an important strategy, which indicates to the researcher regarding his influences on
data. Reflexivity is the understanding that the researcher's values, background, knowledge, and
experiences can affect the research findings (Earnest, 2020). The assessment of the researcher's
influences on research results is important to understand and control in several ways. The expert
opinion, member check, literature, and coding will be helpful strategies to prevent the
researcher's biases and minimise subjectivity ( Olmos-Vega et al., 2022)

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Aamodt (1982) argued that qualitative research is reflexive because the researcher is a part of the
research process instead of an observer. The results should reflect reality based on the data
received from informants (Pratt, 2009). The researcher must adopt the research context. For that
purpose, the researcher needs to reflect on his characteristics and evaluate how his characteristic
influences or corrupt the data collection process and data analysis. Researchers suggested that
“Filed journal” is one of the best techniques the investigators must maintain throughout the study
process. The researcher has to describe three kinds of information about the study in the field
journal. The description of the daily schedule, logistics, methodologies, and their relational,
made by the researcher, are the two aspects. The third is a personal diary in which the
researcher's thoughts, ideas, and feelings are reflected and generated by the researcher in
response to the respondent's responses. There must be content about questions the researcher
wants to discover and problems researchers face. By developing this research process, the
researcher may understand his bias and preconceived assumptions. In light of these indications of
biases, the researcher must change or modify the data collection process. This will ensure the
conformability of the study.

4. Conclusion

Qualitative researcher data are as generalisable as quantitative data. Opting for systematic
research design at the data collection stage, interpretation, and reporting of the results can resolve
qualitative quality issues (Mays & Pope, 2000). As mentioned by Martin (2003),” We cannot say
in advance how far we must go in our quest to determine the context that led to this move, but
this indeterminacy is simply the minimal flexibility required to understand complexity." The
trustworthiness of qualitative research relies on credibility, transferability, dependability, and
neutrality. The researchers advocated trustworthiness in qualitative research by conducting
research studies and developing models to ensure the generalizability of data. The research
provided four important criteria of trustworthiness and explored essential strategies of every
criterion to ensure trustworthiness. There are a number of strategies/techniques suggested by the
researcher, especially Guba, to be adopted in a research study to ensure trustworthiness. Experts
and researchers in the field highly accept the Guba model of the trustworthiness of qualitative
data. Credibility is like internal validity in quantitative research and provides true data about the
phenomenon. The strategies to ensure credibility are prolonged engagement at the site, persistent

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observation, peer debriefing, triangulation, collection of referential adequacy material, member

checks, and establishing structural corroboration or coherence. Transferability shows the degree
of application of the research finding in other exact natures of context, people, groups, and
settings. The primary technique to ensure applicability is theoretical purposive sampling,
collecting thick descriptive data and developing a thick description. If the findings of one study
are replicated in a similar population, condition, or context, the study findings are dependable.
The important technique for consistency is overlaps methods, stepwise replication, establishing
an audit trail, the audit process., coding record, triangulation, expert opinion, and repeated
observation. Neutrality is the degree of fairness of results, which consists of the purity of original
responses of the study participants’ original responses and free from every kind of bias. The
impertinent strategies to ensure neutrality are triangulation and prefacing reflexivity. These all
are important to ensure trustworthiness in qualitative research.

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