CYPRUS INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY

ENGINEERING FACULTY

Lecture 2A
Programming Structure

CMPE223 / ISYE223
ALGORITHMS AND PROGRAMMING
2023 – 2024 Spring
 Guidelines for Structuring Programs
To develop efficient computer solutions to problems:
• Use modules to break the whole into parts, each having a particular function (this
also eliminates rewriting of identical processes).
• Use the three logic structures to ensure the solution flows smoothly from one
instruction to the next.
1. The sequential structure
2. The decision structure
3. The Loop Structure
• Use techniques to improve readability, such as proper naming of variables,
internal documentation, and proper indentation.

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 1. Sequential Structure
• Executes instructions one after the other
sequentially from the top to bottom. Instruction

Instruction

Instruction

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 2. Decision Structure
• Branches to execute one of two
possible sets of instructions.
F T
• Decision Instruction tests a Decision
condition. Instruction
• The instructions on the T
branch are processed when the
result of the condition is True, Intsruction(s) Intsruction(s)
and instructions on the F
branch are processed when the
result of the condition is False.
• Uses the If/Then/Else
instruction (If a condition is
True, Then execute a set of
instructions, or Else execute
another set of instructions).

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 2. Decision Structure (cont’d)
A condition can be one of four things:
• A logical expression, that is, an expression that uses logical operators (AND,
OR, and NOT).
• An expression using relational operators (greater than, less than, greater than
or equal to, less than or equal to, equal to, and not equal to).
• A variable of the logical data type (True or False).
• A combination of logical, relational, and mathematical operators.

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 Case Logic Structure
• The case logic structure is a special variation of the decision structure.
• Sometimes, a solution to a problem requires the computer to select one action
from a set of actions. This kind of solution can be designed through the decision
logic structure, but the case logic structure is more efficient.
• The case logic structure comprises several sets of instructions, usually only one
of which will be selected by a condition and then executed by the computer.
• The case logic structure does not enable the program to loop back to select
another option. A loop structure must enclose the case structure if the solution
requires looping back.

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 Case Logic Structure (cont’d)
• Executes one set of instructions out of
several sets. (This is a special case of the
decision structure)

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 3. Loop Structure
Loop
Instruction
• The loop structure is used for
repeating the same task over
and over for different sets of Instruction
data.

Instruction

Instruction

Instruction

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 3. Loop Structure (cont’d)
There are three types of loop structures
1. The While loop repeats instructions while a condition is True and stops
repeating when a condition arises that is not True.
2. The Repeat/Until loop repeats instructions while a condition is False or until
a condition is True.
3. The automatic counter loop: A variable is set equal to a given number and
increases in equal given increments until it is greater than an ending
number.
• Each of the three loop structures has a specific use according to the language
and/or the problem.
• The algorithm and the flowchart differ with each type of loop structure.
• It is essential to indent the instructions in the loop structure to improve
readability.

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 3. Loop Structure (cont’d)
Counter
• The automatic-counter loop. Begin End
StepValue

Instruction

Instruction

Counter

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 Recursion
• Another type of loop structure is recursion.
• Recursion occurs when a module (function) calls itself.
• The condition that ends the loop must be within the module.
• Recursion usually works faster than conventional loop structures.

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 Guidelines for Designing Modules
• A module controls the order of processing of a single function, such as printing,
calculating, or entering data.
• There is one entrance and one exit to a module (the processing starts at the top
and ends at the bottom).
• Each module must be short enough to be easily read and modified.

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 Types Of Modules
• The Control module shows the overall flow of the data through the program. All
other modules are subordinate to it.
• The Initialisation module processes instructions that are executed only once
during the program, and only at the beginning.
• These instructions include opening files and setting the beginning values of
variables used in processing.
• Wrap-up modules process all instructions that are executed only once during the
program and only at the end. These instructions include closing files and printing
totals, among others.

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 Types Of Modules
• The Process modules may be processed only once, or they may be part of a loop,
which is processed more than once during the solution. There are several kinds of
Process modules:
• Calculation modules do arithmetic calculations, accumulating (summing to
calculate totals), counting, or manipulating numerical data in some other way,
such as putting numbers in numerical order. Sometimes Calculation modules
manipulate string data to perform tasks such as putting a list of values in
alphabetical order.
• Print modules print output lines (the results of the processing, line by line),
including headings and summaries.
• Read and Data Validation modules read or input the data into the internal
memory of the computer, validate data (check the accuracy of the data),
enter data from the keyboard, and so forth. Validation modules are usually
separate from Read modules.

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 Cohesion and Coupling
• Modules should be functionally
independent and perform a single task Module 1
(cohesion).
Module 2
• Cohesion is the ability of each module
to be independent of other modules.
• However, modules must be connected
(coupling) to allow data sharing.
• High cohesion and low coupling usually
indicate a well-structured design.
Module 3 Module 4

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 Cohesion
• Cohesion is the ability of a module to work independently from all other
modules.
• Each module should have a single entry and exit to work independently.
• Cohesion allows us to write a module and test it independently. This module can
then be used in a more than one program (which effectively makes it a “black
box”, we need not worry about what the instructions are as long as a correct
value is returned).
• Cohesion is a measurement of how closely related the functions are.
• High cohesion is desirable because modules written with high cohesion tend to
be more understandable, more reliable, and reusable.

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 Coupling
• Modules may need to share data from other modules. This sharing of data is
called coupling.
• Coupling is accomplished by some type of interface between modules that
enables data to be passed from one module to another with the minimum
interruption of modular independence.
• Coupling allows communication between modules.

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 Ways to Accomplish Coupling
• The three ways to couple modules are through the use of:
1. Global variables
2. Parameters
3. Return value

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 1. Local and Global Variables
• Local variables are defined within each module and can only be used by the
module itself. Other modules do not know the existence of those variables;
hence, they can not access them. This allows cohesion.
• Global variables are defined outside of all the modules. hence all modules can
see and access global variables. They are global to the program and this allows
coupling.
• The significant difference between the two is the scope of the variables.
• Scope designates where the variable's value can be used—the visibility of a
variable by different modules.

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 Scope of Variables
Global to all modules

Variables : A, B, C, G
Local to Control Module
Control Module
Variables : X, Y, Z
Local to Module 1
Module 1
Variables : D, E, X, Y

Local to Module 2
Module 2
Variables : H, E, X, Z

Local to Module 3
Module 3
Variables : X, J, K

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 2. Parameters
• Parameters are local variables that are sent from one module to another (a way
of facilitating coupling that allows the communication of data between modules).
• They are placed after the module (function) name and within parenthesis, for
example: Read(A, B, C).
• There are two ways to send data from one module to another through the use of
parameters.
• The first is to send a copy of the variable's value, call-by-value parameter.
• The second is to send the address of a variable, call-by-reference parameter
specified by using an asterisk (*) in front of the variable name.

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 The actual parameters
2. Parameters (cont’d) Calling module are the list of
parameters that follow
the module name
ControlPay being processed in the
call-by-reference Process Read(*Hours, *PayRate) calling module.
Process Calc(Hours, PayRate, *Pay)
call-by-value Process Print(Pay)
End

Read(*Hrs, *Rate)
Called module
Enter Hrs, Rate
Print Hrs, Rate
The formal Exit
parameters are
the list of Calc(Hrs, Rate, *Pay) Called module
parameters that Pay = Hrs * Rate
Exit
follow the
module name of Print(Pay) Called module
the called Print Pay
module. Exit

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 2. Parameters (cont’d)
• Notice that the variable names in the actual parameter listing may or may not be
the same as those in the formal parameter listing.

ControlPay
Process Read(*Hours, *PayRate) Read(*Hrs, *Rate)
Process Calc(Hours, PayRate, *Pay) Enter Hrs, Rate
Process Print(Pay) Print Hrs, Rate
End Exit

Calc(Hrs, Rate, *Pay)

Pay = Hrs * Rate
The values are sent and received according to Exit
the position in the listings (the first variable in
the actual listing corresponds to the first Print(Pay)
variable in the formal listing, the second to the Print Pay
second, and so forth). Exit

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 Parameters (cont’d)
• Using parameters is one of the best methods of coupling modules.
• Parameters in the formal parameter listing are neither local nor global variables
and therefore should not be declared as local or global variables.
• In the event of variable name duplication, the local variable has precedence over
the parameter variable, and the parameter variable has precedence over the
global variable.
• When the program looks for the variable name, it first looks at the local
variable list, then at the formal parameter list, and last at the global variable
list. An error occurs if it is not found in any of the three lists.

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 3. The Return Value
• The return value is the result of a function.
• At the conclusion of the function's execution, the result is placed temporarily in
the function name.
• The return value is only sent from the called module into the calling module.
• The value of the function's name will no longer be available once the instruction
has been executed.
• The next call to the same function will return a new result within the function
name.

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 Coupling Diagram
• A coupling diagram indicates how data couples modules together.
• A coupling diagram has a rectangle for each module and a line
connecting the modules for each parameter sent from one module to
another.
• The double-headed arrows indicate that these parameters are call-by-
reference parameters and changes can be seen by both modules.
• Single-headed arrows indicate that these are call-by-value parameters
and changes can be seen only by the called module.

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 Coupling Diagram (cont’d)
call-by-reference Hours
ControlPay Pay call-by-value
PayRate
Hours PayRate Pay

Hrs Rate Hrs Rate Pay Pay

Read Calc Print

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 References
Sprankle, M., & Hubbard, J. (2008). Problem solving and programming
concepts. Prentice Hall Press.

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