Systems of Linear Equations

Example 1.6. Solve the linear system using elementary row operations.

−3x1 + 2x2 + 4x3 = 12

x1 − 2x3 = −4
2x1 − 3x2 + 4x3 = −3

Solution. Our goal is to perform elementary row operations to obtain a triangular structure
and then use back substitution to solve. The augmented matrix is
 
−3 2 4 12
1 0 −2 −4 .
2 −3 4 −3

Interchange Row 1 (R1 ) and Row 2 (R2 ):

   
−3 2 4 12 1 0 −2 −4
R ↔R2
1 0 −2 −4 −−1−−→ −3 2 4 12 
2 −3 4 −3 2 −3 4 −3

As you will see, this first operation will simplify the next step. Add 3R1 to R2 :
   
1 0 −2 −4 1 0 −2 −4
3R +R2
−3 2 4 12  −−1−−→ 0 2 −2 0 
2 −3 4 −3 2 −3 4 −3

Add −2R1 to R3 :
   
1 0 −2 −4 1 0 −2 −4
−2R1 +R3
0 2 −2 0  − −−−−→ 0 2 −2 0 
2 −3 4 −3 0 −3 8 5

Multiply R2 by 12 :
   
1 0 −2 −4 1
R2
1 0 −2 −4
0 2 −2 0  −2−→ 0 1 −1 0 
0 −3 8 5 0 −3 8 5
Add 3R2 to R3 :    
1 0 −2 −4 1 0 −2 −4
3R2 +R3
0 1 −1 0  − −−−→ 0 1 −1 0 
0 −3 8 5 0 0 5 5
Multiply R3 by 15 :
   
1 0 −2 −4 1
R3
1 0 −2 −4
0 1 −1 0  −5−→ 0 1 −1 0 
0 0 5 5 0 0 1 1
We can continue row reducing but the row reduced augmented matrix is in triangular form.
So now use back substitution to solve. The linear system associated to the row reduced

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augmented matrix is
x1 − 2x3 = −4
x2 − x3 = 0
x3 = 1
The last equation gives that x3 = 1. From the second equation we obtain that x2 − x3 = 0,
and thus x2 = 1. The first equation then gives that x1 = −4 + 2(1) = −2. Thus, the solution
to the original system is (−2, 1, 1). You should verify that (−2, 1, 1) is a solution to the
original system.

The original augmented matrix of the previous example is

 
−3 2 4 12 −3x1 + 2x2 + 4x3 = 12
M= 1 0 −2 −4 →
x1 − 2x3 = −4
2 −3 4 −3
2x1 − 3x2 + 4x3 = −3.
After row reducing we obtained the row reduced matrix
 
1 0 −2 −4 x1 − 2x3 = −4
N = 0 1 −1 0  →
x2 − x3 = 0
0 0 1 1
x3 = 1.
Although the two augmented matrices M and N are clearly distinct, it is a fact that they
have the same solution set.

Example 1.7. Using elementary row operations, show that the linear system is inconsistent.
x1 + 2x3 = 1
x2 + x3 = 0
2x1 + 4x3 = 1
Solution. The augmented matrix is
 
1 0 2 1
 0 1 1 0
2 0 4 1
Perform the operation −2R1 + R3 :
   
1 0 2 1 1 0 2 1
−2R1 +R3
 0 1 1 0 − −−−−→ 0 1 1 0 
2 0 4 1 0 0 0 −1
The last row of the simplified augmented matrix
 
1 0 2 1
0 1 1 0
0 0 0 −1

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Systems of Linear Equations

corresponds to the equation

0x1 + 0x2 + 0x3 = −1
Obviously, there are no numbers x1 , x2 , x3 that satisfy this equation, and therefore, the
linear system is inconsistent, i.e., it has no solution. In general, if we obtain a row in an
augmented matrix of the form
 
0 0 0 ··· 0 c

where c is a nonzero number, then the linear system is inconsistent. We will call this type
of row an inconsistent row. However, a row of the form
 
0 1 0 0 0

corresponds to the equation x2 = 0 which is perfectly valid.

1.4 Geometric interpretation of the solution set

The set of points (x1 , x2 ) that satisfy the linear system

x1 − 2x2 = −1
(1.2)
−x1 + 3x2 = 3

is the intersection of the two lines determined by the equations of the system. The solution
for this system is (3, 2). The two lines intersect at the point (x1 , x2 ) = (3, 2), see Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1: The intersection point of the two lines is the solution of the linear system (1.2)

Similarly, the solution of the linear system

x1 − 2x2 + x3 = 0
2x2 − 8x3 = 8 (1.3)
−4x1 + 5x2 + 9x3 = −9

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is the intersection of the three planes determined by the equations of the system. In this case,
there is only one solution: (29, 16, 3). In the case of a consistent system of two equations,
the solution set is the line of intersection of the two planes determined by the equations of
the system, see Figure 1.2.

x1 − 2x2 + x3 = 0
−4x1 + 5x2 + 9x3 = −9

the solution set is this line

Figure 1.2: The intersection of the two planes is the solution set of the linear system (1.3)

After this lecture you should know the following:

• what a linear system is
• what it means for a linear system to be consistent and inconsistent
• what matrices are
• what are the matrices associated to a linear system
• what the elementary row operations are and how to apply them to simplify a linear
system
• what it means for two matrices to be row equivalent
• how to use the method of back substitution to solve a linear system
• what an inconsistent row is
• how to identify using elementary row operations when a linear system is inconsistent
• the geometric interpretation of the solution set of a linear system

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Systems of Linear Equations

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 Lecture 2

Lecture 2

Row Reduction and Echelon Forms

In this lecture, we will get more practice with row reduction and in the process introduce
two important types of matrix forms. We will also discuss when a linear system has a unique
solution, infinitely many solutions, or no solution. Lastly, we will introduce a convenient
parameter called the rank of a matrix.

2.1 Row echelon form (REF)

Consider the linear system

x1 + 5x2 − 2x4 − x5 + 7x6 = −4

2x2 − 2x3 + 3x6 = 0
−9x4 − x5 + x6 = −1
5x5 + x6 = 5
0=0

having augmented matrix

 
1 5 0 −2 −1 7 −4
0 2 −2 0 0 3 0
 
0 0 0 −9 −1 1 −1
 .
0 0 0 0 5 1 5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0

The above augmented matrix has the following properties:

P1. All nonzero rows are above any rows of all zeros.

P2. The leftmost nonzero entry of a row is to the right of the leftmost nonzero entry of
the row above it.

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