Netaji Subhash Engineering College

Applied Electronics & Instrumentation Engineering

Name – Deepmalya Bhattacharya

Subject – Instrumentation System Design Lab
(ISD Lab)
Subject Code – PC-EI 692
Year – 3rd Semester – 6th
University Roll no. – 10905522014

1|Page
 Name University Roll no.
Sayandip Mondal 10905522007
Agniv Haldar 10905522001
Deepmalya Bhattacharya 10905522014

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to all those who contributed to the
successful completion of this engineering laboratory report, which includes six
experiments conducted over the course of the semester.

First and foremost, I would like to thank Dr. Animesh Bhattacharya and Prof.
Sumitesh Majumder, our lab instructors, for their valuable guidance, clear
explanations, and constant support throughout the experiments. Their expertise
and encouragement were instrumental in helping me understand and apply
engineering principles effectively.

I am also grateful to the lab assistants and technical staff for ensuring the proper
functioning of laboratory equipment and providing timely assistance during
practical sessions.

A special thanks goes to my group members for their collaboration, discussions,

and teamwork, which enriched the learning experience.

2|Page
Name of the Experiment – Design of appropriate signal conditioning circuit for different sensors.
Project Name – Designing of Light detecting Sensor without using a Light Dependent Resistor
(LDR)
Objective –

• To design a circuit that mimics the functionality of an LDR (Light Dependent Resistor)
circuit without using an actual LDR.
• To demonstrate alternative methods for detecting light intensity changes using
components other than LDRs.
• To understand the working principle of light sensors other than LDRs, such as
photodiodes, phototransistors, or cameras.
Components required –

• Bread Board
• Op-Amp (IC 741)
• LED
• Transistor
• Wires
• Resistors
Equipments required –

• Soldering Rod
• Solder
• Soldering Flux
• Hack-saw
Introduction –
An LDR is a light-sensitive component whose resistance varies with the intensity of light falling
on it. However, alternatives to LDRs are commonly required when better sensitivity, response
time, or digital interfacing is needed.
We are using for this project is transistor which is cut at top for better sensitivity. Due to low
voltage output we are preparing the circuit with an op-amp to amplify it.
Theory –

• Circuit Design - The circuit designed here uses a transistor to detect changes in light
intensity. Instead of an LDR, we exploit the photoconductive property of a standard
transistor. The proposed design is based on the fact that certain transistors can exhibit
slight photoelectric effects when exposed to light.

3|Page
 • Transistor Configuration - In this design, a transistor is utilized, and it is intentionally
exposed to varying light intensities. When light strikes the transistor, photons may
interact with the semiconductor material, leading to a slight increase in the base current.
This phenomenon, known as the photoelectric effect, can cause a measurable change in
the voltage between the collector and emitter.
The transistor is biased such that the base-emitter junction is forward biased and the
collector-emitter junction is reverse biased. When photons hit the base region, they
provide additional energy to the charge carriers, causing a minor current to flow from the
collector to the emitter. The resulting change in voltage is directly related to the intensity
of the incident light.
• Amplifier Circuit - Since the voltage change induced by the light on the transistor may be
relatively small, an operational amplifier can be used to amplify the signal to a more
detectable and usable level. The amplifier may be configured as a voltage amplifier with
a high gain to enhance the small signal received from the transistor.
The use of an amplifier, however, is optional and depends on the desired sensitivity of
the circuit. In simpler designs or applications where, high sensitivity is not required, the
transistor itself may provide sufficient signal strength.
• Output Interface - The change in voltage across the collector-emitter junction is used as
the output signal.

Working Principle –

1. In the Absence of Light (Dark Mode):

• The transistor remains OFF.

• No current flows from collector to emitter.
• The transistor remains OFF.
• The LED remains OFF.
4|Page
 2. When Light Falls on the Transistor:

• Light energy generates base current.

• The transistor turns ON, allowing current to flow from collector to emitter.
• This small current is amplified if an additional transistor is used.
• The LED gets sufficient current and turns ON, indicating the presence of light.

Applications –

• Automatic Night Lamps

• Light Sensing in Optical Communication
• Object Detection in Security Systems
• Industrial Light Sensors
• Infrared Remote Controls

Conclusion –

Replacing LDRs with components like photodiodes or phototransistors can improve response
time, sensitivity, and integration with digital systems. The circuit designed here effectively mimics
the functionality of an LDR-based system with improved performance characteristics.

5|Page
Name of the Experiment – Electronic circuit design using PCB layout with suitable software
Project Name – PCB Simulation of an Astable Multivibrator Circuit with Alternating LED Blinking Using
EasyEDA

Objective – The objective of this project is to design and simulate an astable multivibrator using NPN
bipolar junction transistors (BJTs), with the output visually represented through the alternating blinking
of two LEDs. We developed the schematic diagram in EasyEDA, configuring component values to ensure
proper oscillation frequency, and running simulations to confirm the correct operation of the circuit.
Additionally, the project seeks to deepen understanding of transistor switching behavior, RC time
constants, and the feedback mechanisms that underlie oscillatory circuits.

Software Used – EasyEDA

EasyEDA is an online-based electronic design automation tool that enables users to design, simulate, and
generate printed circuit boards (PCBs) for a variety of electronic applications. It combines schematic
capture, circuit simulation, PCB layout, and a component library all in one platform. One of the major
advantages of EasyEDA is its accessibility, as it does not require installation and can be run directly from
a web browser. The software provides a user-friendly interface for placing components, wiring them
together, and configuring simulation parameters using a SPICE-based engine. For this project, EasyEDA
played a central role in both the construction and testing phases. The schematic editor allowed for precise
placement of components, while the simulation engine enabled us to verify the circuit's functionality
before any physical implementation. The waveform viewer was particularly useful in observing the voltage
changes at key nodes in the circuit, which confirmed the timing and behavior of the multivibrator.
Additionally, EasyEDA's comprehensive component library ensured we had access to standard parts like
the 2N2222 transistors, capacitors, and LEDs needed for the simulation.

Introduction –
In the realm of electronics, multivibrator circuits have long served as foundational elements for generating
clock signals, pulses, and oscillations. Among the three basic types of multivibrators – astable,
monostable, and bistable – the astable multivibrator is unique in its ability to continuously oscillate
between two unstable states without the need for any external triggering. This self-oscillating behavior
makes it incredibly useful in applications requiring regular, repetitive switching or timing, such as LED
blinkers, clock pulse generators, and tone generation circuits. In this project, we set out to simulate the
functioning of an astable multivibrator circuit using EasyEDA, a powerful online tool for electronic design
automation. Our primary aim was to construct a circuit that can alternately switch two LEDs on and off,
thereby demonstrating the principles behind transistor-based multivibrators.

Theory –

Circuit Design and Schematic Explanation – The circuit was designed using four NPN 2N2222
transistors, though only two were strictly necessary for the basic astable multivibrator operation. The
remaining transistors may be used for signal amplification or as part of an extended circuit configuration.
The core multivibrator consists of two cross-coupled transistor stages. Each transistor's collector is
connected to the base of the other through a 10uF capacitor, while the base of each transistor is also
connected to a 100kΩ resistor to ensure proper biasing. Current-limiting resistors of 1kΩ were placed in
series with the LEDs to prevent excessive current that could damage the diodes. A 5V DC voltage source
6|Page
was connected to power the entire circuit, with all components referenced to a common ground. When
simulated, this configuration led to the two LEDs blinking alternately, as expected. Each switching event
is controlled by the charging and discharging of the capacitors. When one capacitor charges through its
associated resistor, it provides the base current to the transistor on the opposite side, turning it on. This
in turn causes the first transistor to turn off, initiating a cycle of mutual switching. The duration for which
each LED remains on is determined by the RC time constant of the resistor and capacitor on its side of the
circuit.

Simulation Process in EasyEDA – The simulation process began by opening EasyEDA and starting a new
schematic project. Components were selected from the built-in library and placed on the schematic editor
workspace. After ensuring all components were correctly connected, we added a .tran 10 SPICE command
to simulate the circuit's behavior over a 10-second period. This transient analysis was appropriate for
capturing the time-domain behavior of the blinking LEDs. Once the simulation was run, we used the
waveform viewer to examine the voltage at the collector nodes of the transistors. The result was a clean,
alternating square wave pattern, indicating that the transistors were indeed switching on and off in a
stable oscillation. This visual confirmation from the simulation ensured that our circuit design was valid
and functioned as an astable multivibrator.

Observations and Analysis – From the simulation, it was clear that the circuit produced a regular square
wave output, with each transistor turning on and off alternately. The LEDs blinked in opposition to each
other, with one being on while the other was off, switching states approximately every second. This
behavior is consistent with theoretical expectations for an astable multivibrator. The precise timing of the
blinks was dictated by the 10uF capacitors and 100kΩ resistors, forming an RC constant that determines
the time between transitions. We also observed that modifying the values of either the resistors or
capacitors resulted in a change in the blinking frequency. Increasing the capacitance or resistance slowed
down the blinking, while decreasing them sped it up. This demonstrated the circuit's sensitivity to
7|Page
component values and emphasized the importance of accurate calculations when designing timing
circuits.

Conclusion –
The simulation of the astable multivibrator using EasyEDA was a highly successful endeavor that allowed
us to explore fundamental electronic principles in a practical, visual way. Through this project, we gained
a deeper understanding of how transistor-based oscillators function, how feedback mechanisms can
create stable oscillations, and how RC circuits influence timing behavior. The use of EasyEDA simplified
the design and validation process, providing both a learning platform and a professional-grade design
environment. This project serves as a foundational exercise for students and hobbyists interested in
electronic circuit design. It offers valuable insights into the interaction between components in a feedback
loop and lays the groundwork for more complex applications such as pulse-width modulation, signal
generation, and digital logic circuit timing. The visual feedback of blinking LEDs makes the learning process
engaging and reinforces theoretical concepts with hands-on simulation. In conclusion, this astable
multivibrator project not only fulfilled its initial objective but also opened doors to deeper explorations in
electronics design and simulation.

8|Page
Name of the Experiment – Design of appropriate signal conditioning circuit for different sensors.
Project Name – Design of Charge Amplifier for Piezoelectric Sensor
Objective – The charge produced by a piezoelectric material in response to mechanical stress is quite
small. Typical values for the piezoelectric coefficient are in the tens or hundreds of picocoulombs per
newton. One newton is a significant amount of force, whereas 100 picocoulombs is a miniscule amount
of charge. Clearly, then, we will need an amplifier that can convert the sensor’s charge into a usable signal.

Keywords – Charge, Amplifier, Piezoelectric Sensor.

Introduction – A charge amplifier is a current integrator driven by an electrical source with capacitive
nature such as a piezoelectric sensor. Contrary to what its name may suggest, a charge amplifier does not
amplify the electric charge present at its input. The charge amplifier just transfers the input charge to
another reference capacitor and produces an output voltage equal to the voltage across the reference
capacitor. Thus, the output voltage is proportional to the charge of the reference capacitor and,
respectively, to the input charge; hence the circuit acts as a charge-to-voltage converter. The input
impedance of the circuit is almost zero because of the Miller effect. Hence all the stray capacitances are
virtually grounded and they have no influence on the output signal. A typical measuring chair with a charge
amplifier is shown in Figure 1; examples of laboratory and industrial charge amplifiers are shown in Figure
2.

9|Page
Theory – The general arrangement of a measurement circuit containing a piezoelectric sensor
and a charge amplifier is shown in Figure. 3. Two operational amplifiers in series are commonly
used for describing the operational characteristics of such circuits. The first amplifier (the charge
amplifier), which converts the charge q into a voltage E2, has both capacitive Cf and resistive Rf
feedback. The second amplifier (an inverting amplifier), which is used to standardize the output
sensitivity of the measurement system, has a variable resistive input R1= bR (0 < b < 1) and a fixed
resistive feedback R. The circuit can be reduced for analysis to the form shown in Figure. 4 to
combine the transducer capacitance C, the cable capacitance Q, and the amplifier input
capacitance into an effective amplifier input capacitance C. The differential equation that
describes the behaviour of this circuit is obtained as follows:

10 | P a g e
The effect of this term on charge amplifier performance is usually specified in terms of a
maximum input capacitance C permitted for each level of feedback capacitance 𝐶𝑓 available in
the particular instrument. When the limitation on Input Capacitance is satisfied, the differential
equation governing the charge-amplifier performance becomes

11 | P a g e
The above equation indicates that two parameters (𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝑓) are available in the charge-
amplifier circuit for controlling voltage sensitivity. The charge sensitivity 𝑆𝑞 of a particular
transducer can be standardized to a value 𝑆𝑞 ∗ by adjusting the potentiometer to the required
position b. In this way it is possible to have convenient charge sensitivities such as 1, 10,
100pC/unit of 𝑎. Once the charge sensitivity is standardized, instrument range is established by
selecting the proper feedback capacitance. Typical instruments provide values from 10 to
50,000pF in a 1- 2-5-10 sequence.

Applications –
• Common applications include amplification of signals from devices such as piezoelectric
sensors and photodiodes, in which the charge output from the device is converted into a
voltage.
• Charge amplifiers are also used extensively in instruments measuring ionizing radiation,
such as the proportional counter or the scintillation counter, where the energy of each
pulse of detected radiation due to an ionising event must be measured. Integrating the
charge pulses from the detector gives a translation of input pulse energy to a peak voltage
output, which can then be measured for each pulse. Normally this then goes to
discrimination circuits or a multi-channel analyser.
• Charge amplifiers are also used in the readout circuitry of CCD imagers and flat-panel X-
ray detector arrays. The amplifier is able to convert the very small charge stored within
an in-pixel capacitor to a voltage level that can be easily processed.

Advantages –
• The output voltage is proportional to the charge produced by the perizo-electric
transducer.
• The amount of charge present is not affected by the cable capacitance. Since the amplifier
detects charge rather than voltage, the system is completely independent of shunt
capacitance and the changes in their value. This is important because of the fact that the
output is not influenced by cable capacitance and hence large cable lengths can be used
without any distortion of the input signal. Also the system temperature characteristics
are dependent only on the charge versus temperature characteristics of the transducer
and are not affected by the changes in the capacitance of transducer or the cable.
• The sensitivity K, as well as the time constant are independent of the capacitance of the
crystal and also that of connecting cables. These advantages are not available in ordinary
voltage amplifiers.

12 | P a g e
Disadvantages –
• The signal to noise ratio (S/N) tends to be small.
• The natural frequency of the transducer is reduced due to loss of stiffness caused by the
what amounts to a short circuit across the crystal.

Conclusion –
There is a wide selection of charge amplifiers. The most important criteria when selecting the
right charge amplifier are:
• Number of measuring channels.
• Measuring range: small or large charge signals.
• Measurement type: measurement with zero-point reference (quasi-static) or purely
dynamic (high-pass behaviour).
• Frequency range of the signals to be measured.
• Data use: analog or digital.

13 | P a g e
Name of the Experiment – Design of sensors for measurement of process parameters.
Project Name – Design of a moisture for measuring moisture content of soil.
Objective – To design a moisture senor which contains two probes, when interfaced with Arduino and
inserted in the soil will display the percentage moisture in the serial monitor.

Introduction – Soil moisture sensors measure the volumetric water content in soil. These sensors
can be stationary or portables such as handheld probes. Stationary sensors are placed at the
predetermined locations and depths in the field, whereas portable soil moisture probes can
measure soil moisture at several locations.

Theory – A soil moisture sensor is a device that measures the amount of water in the soil, often used in
agriculture, horticulture, and environmental science to optimize irrigation and monitor soil conditions.
Soil moisture sensors don't directly measure water content but instead measure a related property of the
soil, such as its electrical resistance, dielectric constant, or interaction with neutrons. Thus, it is an indirect
mode of measurement. These typically refer to sensors that estimate volumetric water content.

The moisture sensor components:

1. Probes: The probes here are iron nails fixed to a wooden block with the help of nuts and
bolts, about 70% of its length is insulated in order to reduce resistance an enhance
accuracy.

14 | P a g e
 2. Arduino Uno: the designed probe was then interfaced with Arduino Uno board containing
a required code in embedded C which executes the instructions to give the output data
as visible in the serial monitor.

3. Soil sample: we have used sand, potted plants with differently watered as our samples.
4. Arduino IDE is used here for writing the code and then interfacing the Arduino Uno with
the computer for this project

Circuit –

15 | P a g e
One of the probe is connected with the 5V VCC, the other is grounded, the green line represents
the connection to the A0, the analog input from the sensor is sent to this port, the blue line
represents the connection of resister.
Code and output –

For low moisture content

For high moisture content

16 | P a g e
Comparison with Standard Values:

Standard Value Observed Value Error

13% 10% 3%
22% 20% 2%
42% 40% 2%
82% 80% 2%
98% 97% 1%

Application –
1. Agriculture and Irrigation (Optimized Irrigation, Smart Irrigation Systems, Crop Health
Monitoring etc)
2. Environmental Monitoring (Ecological Restoration, Soil Quality Assessment, Drought
Monitoring etc)

17 | P a g e
 3. Other Applications like Horticulture and Gardening, Industrial Applications, Wireless
Sensor Networks, Weather Integration.

Conclusion –

The moisture sensor here when compared to a standard calibrated device we observe and
average error of 2.33%. It is developed with easily available elements in turn making it
inexpensive. The interfacing circuitry is simple along with an efficient code.

References –

1. Wikipedia

2. https://www-instructables-com.cdn.ampproject.org

3. https://store.arduino.cc/products/arduino-uno-rev3

18 | P a g e
Name of the Experiment – Design of sensors for measurement of process parameters.
Project Name – Design of thermistor for measurement of temperature
Introduction – TEMPERATURE SENSING ALARM
This circuit is a temperature sensing as well as alarm circuit. The circuit raises an alarm whenever
the temperature crosses a certain limit.
Temperature monitoring is a very important and frequently used application in industries and in
many other places where the temperature should be kept below a maximum allowable level.
Although it is not an industry level calibrated circuit, it is quite sufficient where it is not a mission
critical application.

Circuit diagram –

19 | P a g e
Components required –

• BC547 Transistor – The BC547 is an NPN bipolar junction transistor (BJT) commonly used
for switching and amplification in low-power electronic circuits. It has three terminals:
collector (C), base (B), and emitter (E). A small current applied to the base controls a larger
current flowing from the collector to the emitter, making it ideal for signal amplification
and electronic switching applications. The BC547 has a maximum collector-emitter
voltage of 45V, a collector current of 100mA, and a power dissipation of 500mW. It is
widely used in oscillators, amplifiers, and sensor interfacing circuits.
• 1N4007 Diode – The 1N4007 is a general-purpose rectifier diode used in power supplies,
voltage protection circuits, and rectification applications. It allows current to flow in one
direction while blocking reverse current, preventing potential circuit damage. It has a
maximum reverse voltage of 1000V and a forward current rating of 1A, making it suitable
for high-voltage rectification applications. The diode is commonly used in AC to DC
conversion, voltage clamping, and as a flyback diode in inductive circuits to protect
transistors from voltage spikes.
• 220Ω Resistor – A 220Ω resistor is typically used for current limiting and voltage control
in circuits. One of its most common applications is in LED circuits, where it limits current
flow to prevent LED burnout. It is also used as a base resistor for transistors, ensuring that
the transistor operates within safe current limits. Additionally, it can be a part of voltage
divider networks, where it helps regulate voltage levels in different parts of a circuit.
• 1MΩ Resistor – A (1,000,000 ohms) resistor is often used in circuits that require high
impedance. It plays a key role in pull-up or pull-down configurations, ensuring stable logic
levels in digital circuits. In analog applications, it is used in voltage divider circuits for
precise control of low-current signals.
• Buzzer – A buzzer is an electroacoustic device that produces sound when an electric signal
is applied. It can be either piezoelectric, which uses a vibrating crystal to generate sound,
or electromagnetic, which uses a coil and diaphragm. The buzzer operates at voltages
typically between 3V and 12V and consumes low power.

Working principle – When a small input signal is applied to the base of the first transistor, it
switches on and amplifies the signal. This triggers the second transistor, which further amplifies
the current. The increased current then drives the buzzer, making it sound. The diode prevents
voltage spikes that could damage the transistors when the circuit turns off.

Advantages –
• Low cost
• Less power consumption
• Reliable
• Fast response
• Sensitivity
• Wide range of applications

20 | P a g e
Disadvantages –
• False alarm
• Uses continuous power supply
• Blinded by nearby objects
• Senses near range temperature only

Applications –
• Medical Devices – Thermistors are used in medical equipment like thermometers, incubators,
and patient monitoring systems for accurate temperature measurement.
•
• Automobile Industry – Used in engine temperature monitoring, battery management systems,
and climate control systems.
• Battery Protection – Used in lithium-ion battery packs to prevent overheating and ensure safe
operation.
• Fire Detection Systems – Integrated into fire alarms and safety systems to detect temperature
rises due to fires.

Conclusion – This circuit is a simple temperature-sensitive alarm system that activates a buzzer when the
1N4007 diode is heated. The circuit operates based on the principle that a diode's forward voltage
decreases as temperature increases, allowing more current to flow and triggering a Darlington pair of
BC547 transistors. These transistors amplify the signal and switch on the buzzer, producing an alert sound.

21 | P a g e
Name of the Experiment – Design of process control loop
Project Name – Water level Control
Objective – To design and implement a process control loop system for monitoring and regulating
key process variables (such as temperature, pressure, or flow) using appropriate sensors,
controllers, and actuators to ensure system stability and optimal performance.

Introduction – Water level control systems are essential in various industrial and domestic
applications to ensure the efficient management and utilization of water resources. These
systems monitor the water level in tanks or reservoirs and maintain it within a desired range by
controlling pumps or valves. The need for automation in such systems arises from the limitations
of manual control, including inefficiency, human error, and time consumption.

In this project, a microcontroller-based water level control system is designed to automatically

detect and regulate water levels using sensors and actuators. When the water level drops below
a set threshold, the controller activates a pump to refill the tank and turns it off when the upper
limit is reached. This type of control system not only conserves water but also protects equipment
from dry running or overflow.

Such systems are widely used in water treatment plants, agricultural irrigation, overhead tanks,
and industrial process control, providing reliable and low-maintenance operation.

22 | P a g e
Theory – The photo shows a schematic diagram of an automated water level control system. Let's
break down each element and its function:
1. Water Pool: On the left, a rectangular container labeled "Water pool" represents the tank or
reservoir where the water level is being monitored and controlled.
2. Water Level Sensor Probes: Three wires (red, green, and yellow/orange) are submerged at
different depths within the water pool. These are conductive probes acting as water level
sensors. Their different lengths indicate they are set to detect different water levels (e.g.,
low, medium, high). The controller detects when the water bridges the common probe and
the other probes, completing an electrical circuit.

Why these probes are suitable:

• Conductivity Detection: These probes work by the controller sending a small electrical
current through them. When the water level reaches and bridges the common probe and
another probe, it completes a circuit, signaling the controller about the water level.
• Stainless Steel: The stainless-steel construction makes them resistant to corrosion in
water, ensuring a longer lifespan.
• Designed for Water Level Control: They are specifically made for this type of application.
To connect them correctly, you would need to:
a) Consult the Datasheet/Wiring Diagram of the "Blue 5V Water Level Controller Switch
Liquid Level Sensor Module." This will tell you exactly which terminal corresponds to the
common connection and the trigger levels for pumping and drainage.
b) Follow the Wiring Instructions that come with the SSM Aquamax sensors. These
instructions will usually identify the common wire and the function of the other colored
wires.
In summary, these SSM Aquamax stainless steel sensors are the correct type of probes to use
with the water level controller shown in the earlier image. You just need to ensure you connect
them to the correct terminals on the controller module based on the module's wiring diagram.

23 | P a g e
3. Water Pump Motor (Controller Module): The blue circuit board labelled "water pump
motor" is the core of the control system. It's a "Blue 5V Water Level Controller Switch Liquid
Level Sensor Module" (based on our earlier discussions about similar modules). This module:
• Receives signals from the water level sensor probes.
• Contains electronic circuitry to interpret these signals.
• Houses a relay (the blue rectangular component).
• Has screw terminals for connecting power, sensors, and the pump/valve.
• Is labeled with "Pin1 for drainage" and "Pin3 for pumping," indicating its capability to
control water movement for both purposes based on the sensor inputs.
PUMP USAGE:
In the context of the water level control system shown in the image, the pump's work is to move
water, either into the "water pool" (pumping/filling) or out of it (drainage), based on the signals
it receives from the water level controller module.
Here's a breakdown of its specific roles depending on the system's operation:
1. Pumping/Filling Operation (Controlled by "Pin3 for pumping"):
• When the water level in the "water pool" drops below a certain threshold (detected
by the water level sensor probes), the controller module will activate the relay
connected to the pump.
• This activation will supply power to the pump, causing it to turn on and move water
from a source (not shown) into the "water pool," increasing the water level.
• The pump will continue to run until the water level reaches a higher threshold, at
which point the controller module will deactivate the relay, turning the pump off.
2. Drainage Operation (Controlled by "Pin1 for drainage"):
• Conversely, if the system is configured for drainage and the water level in the "water
pool" rises above a certain threshold, the controller module will activate the relay.
• This will turn on the pump, causing it to move water out of the "water pool" to a
drain or another location, decreasing the water level.
• The pump will continue to run until the water level drops below a lower threshold,
at which point the controller module will deactivate the relay, turning the pump off.
In essence, the pump is the actuator in this system.2 It's the device that performs the physical
work of moving the water according to the instructions given by the control system (the water
level controller module) based on the sensor readings.
The pump shown is a 12V device, indicating it requires a 12V power supply to operate. The
transformer in the circuit likely steps down the mains AC voltage to provide this lower voltage
for the controller and the pump.

24 | P a g e
 3. 12V Device (such as water pump or magnetic valve): A small electric motor is shown,
labelled as a "12V device, such as water pump or magnetic valve." This is the actuator that
will move the water. It requires a 12V power supply to operate.
4. Transformer: Located at the top left, the transformer is a device used to step down the
household AC mains voltage (likely 230V AC) to a lower voltage suitable for the system.
The wiring suggests it's providing a lower AC voltage (potentially around 9-12V AC) to the
subsequent circuitry.
5. Circuit Breaker (or similar protection device): Situated at the top right, this component
with a switch lever is likely a Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB) or a fuse. It's connected in
the AC mains circuit before the transformer to provide overcurrent protection, preventing
damage and fire hazards in case of a fault.
6. Wiring: Various colored wires connect all the components:

▪ Red and Black wires (from the mains to the circuit breaker and then to the transformer):
Carry the AC mains voltage.
▪ Blue wires (from the transformer to the controller module): Likely carry the stepped-
down AC voltage to power the controller and potentially be rectified and regulated for
the 12V pump.
▪ Wires from the sensor probes (red, green, yellow/orange) to the controller module: Carry
the signals indicating the water level.
▪ Red and Black wires from the controller module to the 12V pump/valve: Carry the 12V
power (switched by the relay) to operate the pump/valve.
Explanation of the System's Operation –
The system works as follows:
1) The water level in the "Water pool" rises and falls.
2) The conductive probes at different heights detect these changes. When water reaches a
probe, it completes a circuit with the common probe.
3) The "water pump motor" controller module senses these completed circuits.
4) Based on the configuration (likely determined by internal circuitry and the connection of
the probes to specific input pins), the controller decides whether to activate the relay.
5) The water level triggers the need for pumping (e.g., falls below a certain level), the relay
closes, allowing the 12V power supply (derived from the transformer and likely rectified
and regulated within the module) to flow to the 12V pump/valve, turning it on to add
water.
6) If the water level triggers the need for drainage (e.g., rises above a certain level), the relay
closes (potentially a different set of contacts), powering the 12V pump/valve to remove
water.
7) The system automatically maintains the water level within a desired range by switching
the pump/valve on and off based on the signals from the probes.

25 | P a g e
Safety and Precautions – You should absolutely NOT directly connect the transformer to a
household plug point without using a Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB) or a fuse. Doing so is
extremely dangerous and poses significant risks of:

• Electric Shock: Direct contact with live mains voltage (typically 230V AC) can be lethal.
• Fire Hazard: An overload or fault in the transformer or the connected circuit can draw
excessive current.2 Without a protective device like an MCB or fuse, this can lead to
overheating, insulation damage, and potentially a fire.
• Damage to Equipment: A fault can send excessive voltage or current to the
transformer and the connected devices, causing them to burn out or be destroyed.
• Damage to the Household Wiring: A significant fault could even damage your home's
electrical wiring.
The Role of the MCB (or Fuse):
An MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker) and a fuse are safety devices designed to protect electrical
circuits from overcurrents.

• MCB: An electromagnetic device that automatically trips and interrupts the circuit
when the current exceeds a predetermined safe level.4 It can be reset after the fault
is cleared.
• Fuse: A sacrificial device containing a thin wire that melts and breaks the circuit when
an overcurrent flows through it.5 It needs to be replaced after it blows.
Why you MUST use a protective device:

• Fault Protection: If there's a short circuit or an overload in the transformer or the

connected low-voltage circuit, the MCB or fuse will trip/blow, cutting off the power
and preventing a dangerous situation.
• Safety Standard: Electrical codes and safety standards in Howrah and elsewhere
mandate the use of overcurrent protection devices for all electrical circuits connected
to the mains supply.
How to Connect Safely:
The proper way to connect the transformer to a household plug point is:
1) Plug the transformer into a properly wired and earthed wall socket.
2) Ensure the wall socket is protected by an MCB in your household's electrical panel. The
rating of the MCB should be appropriate for the expected current draw of the transformer
and any connected devices.
If you are unsure about electrical wiring and safety procedures, it is strongly recommended to
consult a qualified and licensed electrician. They can ensure the connections are made safely and
according to local electrical codes.

26 | P a g e
Conclusion – In conclusion, directly connecting a transformer to a household plug point without
an MCB or fuse is a serious safety hazard and should never be done. Always prioritize safety when
working with electricity.
References –

• Wikipedia
• https://gemini.google.com/app/f9defec7e192e322?hl=en-IN
• https://docs.google.com/document/d/1Nu3yj-
KrLtV1YWBO4OYczdIaRt7Ixj02htdeoiqkiEs/edit?usp=sharing

27 | P a g e