Lecture Notes

On
Electrical Power Transmission &
Distribution

5th Semester
Electrical Engineering
 Module-1
- Introduction
The power system is a network which consists generation, distribution and
transmission system. It uses the form of energy (like coal and diesel) and converts
it into electrical energy. The power system includes the devices connected to the
system like the synchronous generator, motor, transformer, circuit breaker,
conductor, etc.

The power plant, transformer, transmission line, substations, distribution line, and
distribution transformer are the six main components of the power system. The
power plant generates the power which is step-up or step-down through
the transformer for transmission.

The transmission line transfers the power to the various substations. Through
substation, the power is transferred to the distribution transformer which step-down
the power to the appropriate value which is suitable for the consumers.

- Structure of Power System

The power system is the complex enterprise that may be subdivided into the
following sub-systems. The subsystems of the power system are explained below
in details.

- Generating Substation
In generating station the fuel (coal, water, nuclear energy, etc.) is converted into
electrical energy. The electrical power is generated in the range of 11kV to 25kV,
which is step-up for long distance transmission. The power plant of the generating
substation is mainly classified into three types, i.e., thermal power plant,
hydropower plant and nuclear power plant.

The generator and the transformer are the main components of the generating
station. The generator converts the mechanical energy into electrical energy. The
mechanical energy comes from the burning of coal, gas and nuclear fuel, gas
turbines, or occasionally the internal combustion engine.

The transformer transfers the power with very high efficiency from one level to
another. The power transfer from the secondary is approximately equal to the
primary except for losses in the transformer. The step-up transformer will reduce
losses in the line which makes the transmission of power over long distances.

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- Transmission Substation
The transmission substation carries the overhead lines which transfer the generated
electrical energy from generation to the distribution substations. It only supplies
the large bulk of power to bulk power substations or very big consumers.

Fig 1-1 Structure of power system

- Distribution Substation
The component of an electrical power system connecting all the consumers in an
area to the bulk power sources is called a distribution system. The bulk power
stations are connected to the generating substations by transmission lines. They
feed some substations which are usually situated at convenient points near the load
centers. The substations distribute the power to the domestic, commercial and
relatively small consumers. The consumers require large blocks of power which
are usually supplied at sub-transmission or even transmission system.

- Power generating station

Power generating station (i.e. power plants) is special plants with a set of
components that have the ability to generate bulk electric power.
A generating station essentially employs a prime mover coupled to an alternator
for the production of electric power.
▪ The prime mover (e.g., steam turbine, water turbine etc.) converts energy from
some other form into mechanical energy.
▪ Alternator converts mechanical energy of the prime mover into electrical
energy.

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▪ The electrical energy produced by the generating station is transmitted and
distributed with the help of conductors to various consumers.

Fig.1-2 Diagram of A generating station

- Sources of electric energy

Since electrical energy is produced from energy available in various forms in
nature, it is desirable to look into the various sources of energy. These sources of
energy are:

(i) The Sun (ii) The Wind (iii) Water……( Renewable energy)
(iv) Fuels (v) Nuclear energy ................(Classical energy)

Depending upon the form of energy converted into electrical energy, the
generating stations are classified as under:
(i) Steam power stations
(ii) Hydroelectric power stations
(iii) Diesel power stations
(iv) Gas station
(v) Nuclear power stations
(vi) Wind power station
(vii) Solar cell (Photo voltage cell)

Types of generating stations:

1. Steam Power Station (Thermal Station): A generating station which
converts heat energy of coal combustion into electrical energy is known as a steam
power station.
A steam power station basically works on the Rankine cycle. Steam is produced in
the boiler by utilizing the heat of coal combustion. The steam is then expanded in
the prime mover (i.e., steam turbine) and is condensed in a condenser to be fed into

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the boiler again. The steam turbine drives the alternator which converts mechanical
energy of the turbine into electrical energy.
Although steam power station simply involves the conversion of heat of coal
combustion into electrical energy, yet it embraces many arrangements for proper
working and efficiency.
The schematic arrangement of a modern steam power station can be divided into
the following stages for the sake of simplicity:
1. Coal and ash handling arrangement
2. Steam generating plant
3. Steam turbine
4. Alternator
5. Feed water
6. Cooling arrangement

Fig. 1-3 Schematic arrangement of steam station

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Efficiency of Steam Power Station
The overall efficiency of a steam power station is quite low (about 29%) due
mainly to two reasons.
*Firstly, a huge amount of heat is lost in the condenser.
*Secondly heat losses occur at various stages of the plant.

(i) Thermal efficiency. The ratio of heat equivalent of mechanical energy

transmitted to the turbine shaft to the heat of combustion of coal is known as
thermal efficiency of steam power station.

(ii) Overall efficiency. The ratio of heat equivalent of electrical output to the
heat of combustion of coal is known as overall efficiency of steam power station
i.e. Overall efficiency,
The overall efficiency of a steam power station is about 29%. It may be seen that
overall efficiency is less than the thermal efficiency. This is expected since some
losses (about 1%) occur in the alternator. The following relation exists among the
various efficiencies.

Advantages of thermal power plant are:

▪ Thermal power station has less initial cost as compared to hydro-electric
generating station.
▪ It requires less space as compared to the hydro-electric power station.
▪ The fuel cost is less as compared to gas.
▪ Hung amount of power can be generated by TPS.
▪ The cost of generation is less as compared to diesel power station.
Disadvantages of thermal power plant are:
▪ The running cost of thermal power station is more as compared to hydro power
station.
▪ It pollutes the atmosphere due to production of large amount of smoke and
fumes.
▪ Maintenance cost is more.
▪ Skilled persons are required for erecting and maintaining the power station.
▪ Land requirement is more for storage of coal and ash.

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2. Hydro-electric Power Station
A generating station which utilizes the potential energy of water at a high level for
the generation of electrical energy is known as a hydro-electric power station.

Constituents of Hydro-electric Plant

The constituents of a hydro-electric plant are
(1) Hydraulic structures
(2) Water turbines and
(3) Electrical equipment. We shall discuss these items in turn.

1. Hydraulic structures. Hydraulic structures in a hydro-electric power station

include dam, spillways, headworks, surge tank, penstock and accessory works

(i) Dam. A dam is a barrier which stores water and creates water head.
(ii) spillways are constructed of concrete piers on the top of the dam, used to
discharge the surplus water from the storage reservoir into the river on the down-
stream side of the dam.
(iii) Headworks. The headworks consists of the diversion structures at the head of
an intake. They generally include valves for controlling the flow of water to the
turbine.
(iv) Surge tank. Open conduits leading water to the turbine require no* protection.
However, when closed conduits are used, protection becomes necessary to limit the
abnormal pressure in the conduit. For this reason, closed conduits are always
provided with a surge tank. A surge tank is a small reservoir or tank (open at the
top) in which water level rises or falls to reduce the pressure swings in the conduit.

2. Water turbines. Water turbines are used to convert the energy of falling water
into mechanical energy. The principal types of water turbines are :

(i) Impulse turbines (ii) Reaction turbines

(i) Impulse turbines. Such turbines are used for high heads.

(ii) Reaction turbines. Reaction turbines are used for low and medium heads.
The important types of reaction turbines are :
(a) Francis turbines is used for low to medium heads.
(b) Kaplan turbines is used for low heads and large quantities of water.

3. Electrical equipment. The electrical equipment of a hydro-electric power

station includes alternators, transformers, circuit breakers and other switching and
protective devices.

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 Fig. 1-5 Schematic arrangement of steam station

Advantages Of A Hydroelectric Power Plant

• No fuel is required as potential energy is stored water is used for
electricity generation
• Neat and clean source of energy
• Very small running charges - as water is available free of cost
• Comparatively less maintenance is required and has longer life
• Serves other purposes too, such as irrigation
Disadvantages
• Very high capital cost due to construction of dam
• High cost of transmission – as hydro plants are located in hilly areas
which are quite away from the consumers

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Nuclear Power Generation

 A nuclear power plant is a thermal power station in which the heat

source is a nuclear reactor. As is typical of thermal power stations, heat
is used to generate steam that drives a steam turbine connected to a
generator that produces electricity.
 Nuclear power plants are a type of power plant that use the process of
nuclear fission in order to generate electricity. They do this by using
nuclear reactors in combination with the Rankine cycle, where the heat
generated by the reactor converts water into steam, which spins a
turbine and a generator.

➢ Nuclear Reactor
The reactor is a key component of a power plant, as it contains the fuel and
its nuclear chain reaction, along with all of the nuclear waste products. The
reactor is the heat source for the power plant, just like the boiler is for a coal
plant. Uranium is the dominant nuclear fuel used in nuclear reactors, and its
fission reactions are what produce the heat within a reactor. This heat is then
transferred to the reactor's coolant, which provides heat to other parts of the
nuclear power plant.
➢ Steam Generation
The production of steam is common among all nuclear power plants, but the
way this is done varies immensely.
The most common power plants in the world use pressurized water reactors,
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which use two loops of circling water to produce steam. The first loop
carries extremely hot liquid water to a heat exchanger, where water at a
lower pressure is circulated. It then heats up and boils to steam, and can then
be sent to the turbine section. Boiling water reactors, the second most
common reactor in power generation, heat the water in the core directly to
steam

➢ Turbine and Generator

Once steam has been produced, it travels at high pressures and speeds
through one or more turbines. These get up to extremely high speeds,
causing the steam to lose energy, therefore, condensing back to a cooler
liquid water. The rotation of the turbines is used to spin an electric generator,
which produces electricity that is sent out the the electrical grid.
➢ Cooling Towers
They work to reject waste heat to the atmosphere by the transfer of heat from
hot water (from the turbine section) to the cooler outside air. Hot water cools
in contact with the air and a small portion, around 2%, evaporates and raises
up through the top. Moreover, these plants do not release any carbon
dioxide—the primary greenhouse gas that contributes to climate change

Advantages of nuclear energy

➢ One of the most low-carbon energy sources.
➢ It also has one of the smallest carbon footprints.
➢ It's one of the answers to the energy gap.
➢ It's essential to our response to climate change and greenhouse gas
emissions.
➢ Reliable and cost-effective

Disadvantages of nuclear power plant

➢ Disposal and storage of nuclear waste.
➢ Uranium decomposes into harmful sub atomic masses.
➢ Accidental leakage of radiation and large-scale accidents can be
catastrophic.
➢ Installation cost is very high as compared to the other power station.

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 Module-II
TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETER
INTRODUCTION
The transmission line performance is based on its electrical parameters such as resistance,
inductance and capacitance. As we know the transmission line are used for delivering electrical
power from one end to other end or one node to other node, the path of power flow i.e. the
transmission line can be represented as an electrical circuit having its parameters connected in a
particular pattern. Since the transmission line consists of conductors carrying power, we need to
calculate the resistance, inductance and capacitance of these conductors.

RESISTANCE OF TRANSMISSION LINE

The resistance of the conductor thus transmission line can be determined by (1.1).
l
R= (1.1)
A
Where '  ' is the resistivity of the wire in  -m, 'l' is the length in meter and ' A' is the
cross sectional area in m2.
When alternating current flows through a conductor, the current density is not uniform over
the entire cross section but is somewhat higher at the surface. This is called the skin effect and this
makes the ac resistance a little more than the dc resistance. Moreover in a stranded conductor, the
length of each strand is more that the length of the composite conductor thus increasing the value
of the resistance from that calculated in (1.1).

INDUCTANCE OF TRANSMISSION LINE

In order to determine the inductance of transmission line, we shall first drive expression
for the inductance of a solid conductor and it will be extended to a single phase transmission line.
Then we shall derive expression for inductance of a group of conductors and then extend it to three
phase transmission line.

INDUCTANCE OF SOLID CONDUCTOR

The inductance of solid conductor can be determined by calculating the flux linkage due
to current flowing and using (1.2).
 
L= (1.2)
I
Where L is the inductance in Henry, λ is the flux linkage in Weber-turns and I is the phasor
current in Ampere.

INDUCTANCE OF SOLID CONDUCTOR DUE TO INTERNAL FLUX

Let us consider a solid conductor of radius ' r' cm and the current flowing is ' I ' A as shown
in Fig.-1.1.

o dx
x

FIG.-1.1 INTERNAL FLUX LINKAGE OF A ROUND CONDUCTOR.

As we know Ampere's law states that the magnetomotive force (mmf) in ampere-turns
around a closed path is equal to the net current in amperes enclosed by the path. Mathematically
is written as (1.3).

mmf =  H • ds = I (1.3)

Where H is the magnetic field intensity in At/m, s is the distance along the path in meter.
Let us consider a tubular element of thickness ' dx' of the conductor at a distance ' x' from
the center of the conductor and the field intensity as ' H x ' at ' x' . It is constant at all points that are

at a distance ' x' from the center of the conductor. Therefore ' H x ' is constant over the concentric

circular path with a radius of ' x' and is tangent to it. Let the current enclosed by this path is ' I x ' .
Hence by (1.3) we can write as follows.

H x • dx = I x  2xH x = I x (1.4)

Ix
 Hx = (1.5)
2x
Assuming the current density to be uniform thorugh out the cross section of the conductor,
the current at a radius of ' x' is given by (1.6)
 2x 2
Ix = I (1.6)
2r 2
Substituting (1.6) in (1.5) we get
x
Hx = I (1.7)
2r 2
The flux density at a distance of ' x' is given by
Bx = Hx = 0 r H x (1.8)
Considering the unit length of the conductor i.e. one metre, the flux in the tubular element
of thickness ' dx' of the conductor can be given by (1.9).
dx = Bx dx (1.9)
Combining (1.7), (1.8) and (1.9)
I
dx =  xdx (1.9)
2r 2
The flux linkage at ' x' can be given by
x2 I 3
dx = 2 dx =  x dx (1.10)
r 2r 4
The total internal flux linkage can be obtained by integrating (1.10) over the range of ' x' ,
i.e., from '0' to ' r' as follows.
r r
I (1.11)
 =  dx =   3
x dx
0 0 2r 4

I
= (1.12)
8
For relative permeability to be r = 1 we have 0 = 4 X10−7 , hence (1.12) can be written
as follows, which is the flux linkage due to internal flux.
I
int = X 10−7 Wb-T/m (1.13)
2
Hence the inductance of the conductor due to internal flux is obtained by using (1.2) and
(1.13).
int 1
Lint = = X10−7 H/m (1.14)
I 2
INDUCTANCE OF SOLID CONDUCTOR DUE TO EXTERNAL FLUX
Now we shall calculate the inductance of solid conductor due to flux linking with the
conductor externally. Let us consider two points ' P1 '&' P2 ' at a distance of ' D1 '&' D2 ' from the
center of the conductor and external to it. Let us consider a tubular element of thickness ' dx' of
the conductor at a distance ' x' from the center of the conductor and the field intensity as ' H x ' at

' x' . as shown in Fig.-1.2.

r
o dx
x

FIG.-1.2 EXTERNAL FLUX LINKAGE OF A ROUND CONDUCTOR.

The current enclosed by the tubular element is the total current i.e. ' I ' . Hence the fieled
intensity is given by (1.15).
I
Hx = (1.15)
2x
The flux density at a distance of ' x' is given by
Bx = Hx = 0 r H x (1.16)
Considering the unit length of the conductor i.e. one metre, the flux in the tubular element
of thickness ' dx' of the conductor can be given by (1.17).
dx = Bx dx (1.17)
Combining (1.15), (1.16) and (1.17)
I
dx =  dx (1.18)
2x
The flux linkage at ' x' can be given by
 I
dx =  dx (1.19)
2x
The total internal flux linkage can be obtained by integrating (1.19) between two points
' P1 '&' P2 ' as follows.
D2 D2
I
 =  dx =   dx (1.20)
D1 D1
2x
I D2
= ln (1.21)
2 D1
For relative permeability to be r = 1 we have 0 = 4 X10−7 , hence (1.12) can be written
as follows, which is the flux linkage due to external flux.
D2
ext = 2 X10 I ln
−7
Wb-T/m (1.22)
D1
Hence the inductance of the conductor due to external flux is obtained by using (1.2) and
(1.22).
ext = 2 X10−7 ln D2
Lext = (H/m) (1.23)
I D1
Therefore the total inductance due to internal and external flux can be given by combining
(1.14) and (1.23).
1 D2
L=L +L = X10−7 + 2 X10−7 ln (H/m) (1.23)
int ext
2 D1
1 D2 −7
L = 2 X 10  4 + ln D  (H/m) (1.24)
 1

Considering the flux linking with the conductor up to a point ' P' at a distance ' D' from the
center of the conductor (1.24) can be modified as
1 D
L = 2 X10−7 + ln (H/m) (1.25)
  

4 r
Or we can write
   D
L = 2 X 10−7 ln D = 2 X 10−7  ln  (H/m) (1.26)
 1   r 
' 

−
 e 4r 
INDUCTANCE OF A SINGLE-PHASE LINE
Now we shall calculate the inductance of a single phase transmission line having solid
conductors as shown in Fig.-1.3. One conductor is the return circuit for the other. This implies that
if the current in conductor 1 is ' I ' then the current in conductor 2 is '−I ' . First let us consider
conductor 1. The current flowing in the conductor will set up flux lines. However, the flux beyond
a distance D + r2 from the center of the conductor links a net current of zero.
Conductor-1 Conductor-2

o o

FIG.-1.3 SINGLE PHASE TRANSMISSION LINE

The inductance of the conductor-1 and conductor-2 is given by (1.27) and (1.28)
respectively.
−7 D
L1 = 2 X 10 ln '  (H/m)
 (1.27)
r
 1
−7  D
L2 = 2 X 10  ln '  (H/m) (1.28)
r
 2
The total inductance of the single phase transmission line is then can be calculated as the
sum of these inductances since the flux lines set up by current in conductor-1 shall have same
direction as the flux lines set up by the current in conductor-2. Hence
−7  D D
L = L1 + L2 = 2 X 10  ln ' + ln '  (H/m) (1.29)
r r
 1 2 

If r1 = r2 = r then
 D
L = 4 X 10−7 ln (H/m) (1.30)
 
 r' 
FLUX LINKAGE IN A GROUP OF CONDUCTORS
Let us consider a group of conductors as shown in Fig.-1.4. The total current in this group
of conductors is the phasor sum of all the currents and given by (1.31).
 I a + Ib + Ic + +Ij + + In = 0 (1.31)

Where ' I j ' is the current in the ' j th ' conductor

FIG.-1.4 FLUX LINKAGE IN A GROUP OF CONDUCTORS

By (1.14) and (1.22) we can write the flux linkage of conductor − a up to point ' P' due to
current I a i.e. including internal flux linkage and excluding all the flux linkage beyond point ' P'
(because all the flux lines beyond point ' P' enclose a total zero current).
−7  I a DaP 
aPa = 2 X 10 (1.32)
 + I a ln a 
 4 r 
D
aPa = 2 X10−7 I a ln aP (1.33)
ra
The flux linkage of conductor − a up to point ' P' due to current I b is the flux produced

by current I b between the point ' P' and conductor − a i.e. within limiting distances DbP & Dab
and can be written as (1.34).
D
 = 2 X10−7 I ln bP (1.34)
aPb b
Dab

Similarly the total flux linkage conductor − a up to point ' P' due to all the currents can
then be given by (1.35).
 

D D
= 2 X 10−7 I ln aP + I ln bP + I ln DcP + +I DjP + +I DnP 
ln ln
 a 
r
aP b c j n
 Dab Dac D D 
a aj an 

(1.35)
Let the point ' P' to move far away infinitely it mean we consider all the flux linkages with
the conductor due to all the currents in the group. Using (1.31) in (1.35) and rearranging logarithm
terms and assuming distances DaP , DbP , DcP , DnP are nearly to be same as compared to the
radius of the conductors, we get (1.36), which is the flux linkage of conductor − a up to point ' P'
in group of conductors.
 1 1 1 1
 = 2 X 10−7 I ln + I ln + I ln + +I ln + +I 1  (1.36)
 a ln 
r
a b c j n
D D D D
 a ab ac aj an 

The above derivation is true for the sum of all currents to be zero in the group.

INDUCTANCE OF COMPOSITE CONDUCTOR LINES

Let us consider two groups of conductors as shown in Fig.-1.5. Each group form one side
of a line. The parallel filaments are cylindrical and share equal currents. The conductor − A1
I
consists of ' n' parallel filaments each carrying current and the conductor − A consists of ' m'
' ' 2
n
I
parallel filaments each carrying '− ' current. The distances between the conductors are given
m
corresponding subscripts such as ' Dab ' represents the distance between filament ' a' and 'b' .
From (1.36) we can write the flux linkage with filament − a as follows due to filaments
in both the groups of conductors.
I 1 1 1 1 1 
 = 2 X 10−7 ln + ln + ln + + ln + + ln
a  
n  ra Dab Dac Daj Dan 
I  1 1 1 1 1  (1.37)
− 2 X 10−7 ln + ln + ln + + ln + + ln
 
m  Daa Dab Dac Daj Dam 

It can be simplified as
 m Daa Dab Dac Daj Dam 
−7
a = 2 X 10 I ln  (1.38)
 n ra DabDac Daj Dan 
 

Conductor-A1 Conductor-A2
FIG.-1.5 SINGLE PHASE LINE CONSITING OF COMPOSITE CONDUCTORS
The inductance of filament − a is given by
a  mD D D Daj Dam 
−7 aa ab ac
La = = 2 X 10 nln  (1.39)
I  n 
ra DabDac Daj Dan 
n
Similarly the inductance of filament − b is given by
b  mD D D Dbj Dbm 
−7 ba bb bc
Lb = = 2 X 10 nln  (1.40)
I
n  n DbarbDbc Dbj Dbn 

The average inductance of the filaments of conductor − A1 is

La + Lb + L c + + Ln
Lav = (1.41)
n
Since all the filaments of this group are electrically in parallel the total inductance of
conductor − A1 is given by (1.42)
Lav La + Lb + Lc + + Ln
L A1 = = (1.42)
n n2

L = 2 X10−7 ln
mn (Daa Dab Dac Dam )(Dba Dbb Dbc Dbm ) (Dna Dnb Dnc Dnm ) 
n (r D D )(Dba rD ) (D naD nbD nc r ) 
A1
 
2
D D
 a ab ac an b bc bn n 
(1.43)
 Replacing the term ra by Daa and so on for all the filaments, we can rewrite the (1.43) as

L = 2 X10−7 
mn (Daa Dab Dac Dam )(Dba Dbb Dbc Dbm ) (Dna Dnb Dnc Dnm ) 
A ln 
1

n2 ( Daa Dab Dac Dan )( Dba Dbb Dbc Dbn ) ( Dna Dnb Dnc Dnn ) 
(1.44)
A closer look at the above equation for inductance conclude that the terms of numerator
consists of distances between the filaments of two groups and the terms of denominator consists
of distances between the filaments of the same group. Hence the numerator of the logarithm term
is known as mutual geometric mean distances (mutual GMD) and the denominator of the logarithm
term is known as self geometric mean distances (self GMD). The self GMD is also called as
geometric mean radius or GMR. Hence (1.44) can be written as
 mutual GMD  Dm 
L = 2 X 10−7 ln = 2 X10−7 (1.44)
 ln



self GMD 
A1
 Ds 
Similarly the inductance of conductor − A2 can be determined and the total inductance of
the line is given by (1.45)
L = LA + LA (1.45)
1 2

INDUCTANCE OF THREE PHASE LINE

Continuing as above we shall first calculate the flux linkage and then the inductance. As
we know for a three phase line the phasor sum of currents is zero assuming a balance system. Let
us consider a three phase line as shown in Fig.-1.6.

D D

FIG.-1.6 THREE PHASE LINES HAVING CONDUCTORS WITH SYMMETRICAL SPACING

 For this three phase system the flux linkage with conductor − a due to all the currents is
given by (1.46) by referring to (1.36).
 1 1
a = 2 X10−7 I a ln 1 + Ib ln + I c ln  (1.46)
 ra D D

Since I a + Ib + I c = 0 , (1.46) can be reduced to (1.47)

 D
 = 2 X 10−7 I ln (1.47)
a  a 
 ra 

Hence the inductance of phase-a is given as

 D
L = a = 2 X10−7 ln (1.48)
a
Ia ra
Similarly the inductance for other two phase can be determined by (1.49) and (1.50) as
below.
b D
L = = 2 X10−7 ln (1.49)
b
Ib rb
c D
L = = 2 X10−7 ln (1.50)
c
Ic rc
However if the conductors are spaced asymmetrically as shown Fig.-1.7, then the
inductance of three phase line can be calculated as below.

Dab

Dca

Dbc

FIG.-1.7 THREE PHASE LINES HAVING CONDUCTORS WITH ASYMMETRICAL SPACING

The flux linkage of conductor − a due to all the currents can be given by (1.51)
 1 1 
 = 2 X 10−7 I ln r + Ib ln D + I ln 1 (1.51)
a  a c 
 a ab Dca 
 The flux linkage of conductor − b due to all the currents can be given by (1.52)
 1 1 1 
 = 2 X 10−7 I ln + I ln r + I ln D (1.52)
b  a b c 
 Dba b bc 

The flux linkage of conductor − c due to all the currents can be given by (1.53)
 1 1
c = 2 X 10−7 I a ln 1 + Ib ln + Ic ln  (1.53)
 Dca Dcb rc 

As we see the flux linkage with all the three phases are different hence the inductance of
three phases shall be different and can be calculated as above. However to make it equal a method
known as transposition is used. In this method each conductor occupies each position for one third
length of the transmission line total length as shown in Fig.-1.8.
Hence the flux linkage of conductor − a due to all the currents at the position −1,
position − 2 and position − 3 can be given by (1.54)

I ln 1 + I ln 1 + I ln 1 
a1 = 2 X10−  a
7
b c  (1.54a)
 ra Dab Dca 
7
I ln 1 + I ln 1 + I ln 1 
a 2 = 2 X10  a
−
b c  (1.54b)
 ra Dbc Dab 

7 I ln 1 + I ln 1 + I ln 1 
a3 = 2 X10  a
−
b c  (1.54c)
 ra Dca Dbc 

Phase-a Phase-c Phase-b

Position-1

Dab

Phase-b Phase-a Phase-c

Position-2
Dca
Dbc

Phase-c Phase-b Phase-a

Position-3
l/3 l/3 l/3

FIG.-1.8 TRANSPOSITION OF PHASES

The total flux linkage of the phase –a of the transposed line is given by average of the flux
linkage in these three positions.
 a1 + a 2 + a3
a = (1.55)
3
Using (1.54) and (1.55) and the fact that I a = −(I b + I c ) we get
a 3 Dab Dbc Dca
L = = 2 X 10−7 ln (1.56)
ra
a
Ia
(1.56) can be written as
Deq
L = 2 X 10−7 ln (1.57)
a
Ds

Where Deq = 3 Dab Dbc Dca and Ds = ra

We have derived expression for inductance of transmission line. It can b seen that the
expression contains a logarithm of a ratio. This numerator of this ratio is the mutual distances
between the conductors of different phases and the denominator is the distance between the
conductors of same group or the sub-conductors. It can also be seen that inductance depends upon
the size of the conductors and the distances between the conductors i.e. the configuration of the
conductors.

INDUCTANCE OF BUNDLE CONDUCTOR

In extra high voltage transmission line bundle conductors are used to reduce the effect of
corona. The bundle conductors consists of two or more sub-conductors as shown in Fig.-1.9.

d
Two Sub-Conductors
d

d d

d
Three Sub-Conductors d
Four Sub-Conductors
FIG.-1.9 BUNDLE CONDUCTORS
 The inductance of bundle conductors can be calculated by determining its self GMD as
follows.
For a bundle conductor having two sub-conductors the self GMD is given by

Ds,bundle = 4 (Ds Xd )2 = Ds d

For a bundle conductor having three sub-conductors the self GMD is given by

Ds,bundle = 9 (Ds XdXd )3 = 3 Ds d 2

For a bundle conductor having four sub-conductors the self GMD is given by

(
Ds,bundle = 16 Ds XdXdX 2d )
4
= 1.094 D sd 3

The bundle conductors have reduced reactance. Increasing the number of sub-conductors
reduces the reactance because of increased GMR of the bundle. For the calculation of inductance
CAPACITANCE OF LONG SOLID CONDUCTOR LINE
Let us consider a solid conductor as shown in Fig.-2.1 having radius ' r' . The electric flux
density at ' x' meters from the conductor can be computed by imagining a cylindrical surface
concentric with the conductor from the conductor.

+q r x
o

FIG.-2.1 SOLID CONDUCTOR HAVING CHARGE ' q'

The cylindrical surface is the surface of equipotential and the electric flux density on the
surface is equal to the flux leaving the conductor per unit length divided by the area of the surface
in an axial length. The electric flux density is given by (2.1).
q
Df = C / m2 (2.1)
2x
Where ' q' is the charge on the conductor per unit length. The electric filed intensity is
defined as the ratio of electric flux density to the permittivity of the medium and given by (2.2)
 q
E= V /m (2.2)
2xk
Let us take two points ' P1 & P2 ' be located at distances ' D1 & D2 ' respectively from the
center of the conductor as shown in Fig.-2.2.

P1
D1

D2 P2
+q r
o

FIG.-2.2 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS ' P1 & P2 '

The conductor is an equipotential surface in which we can assume that the uniformly
distributed charge is concentrated at the center of the conductor. The potential difference 'V12 '

between the points ' P1 & P2 ' is the work done in moving a unit of charge from ' P2 ' to ' P1' .
Therefore the voltage drop between the two points can be computed by integrating the field
intensity over a radial path between the equipotential surfaces and given by (2.3).
D2 D2
q q D
V12 =  Edx =  dx = ln 2 (V) (2.3)
D1 D1
2  xk 2k D1

The capacitance between the conductors of two wire line is defined as charge on the
conductors per unit of potential difference between them. It can be given by (2.4)
q
C = (F /m) (2.4)
V
Let us consider two conductors having charges ' qa & qb ' on two conductors as shown in
Fig.-2.3.
 Conductor-a Conductor-b
qa qb

o o

FIG.-2.3 CAPACITANCE BETWEEN TWO WIRE LINE

The potential difference between two conductors is given by (2.5)
D q r
Vab = a ln + b ln b (V)
q
(2.5)
2k ra 2k D

For qa = −qb = q
qa 2
V = ln D (V) (2.6)
ab
2k rarb
For ra = rb = r
q D
Vab = ln (V) (2.7)
k r
The capacitance between the conductors is hence given by (2.8)
q k
Cab = = D (F/m) (2.8)
V ln
r
Referring to Fig.-2.4 where capacitance to neutral is considered. The capacitance to neutral
between the conductors is hence given by (2.9)
2k
Cn = Can = Cbn = 2Cab = (F/m to neutral) (2.9)
ln(D r )

CAPACITANCE OF THREE PHASE LINE

Let us derive expression for capacitance of three phase line whose conductors are spaced
equilaterally as shown in Fig.-1.6.
The voltage between two phases ' a & b" shall be expressed as follows.
D q r q D
Vab = a ln + b ln
q + c ln (V) (2.10)
2k r 2k D 2k D
Where ' qa , qb & qc ' are the charges on the conductors of phases ' a, b & c' respectively.
 Similarly the voltage between two phases ' a & c" shall be expressed as follows.
D q D qc r
Vac = a ln + b ln +
q ln (V) (2.11)
2k r 2k D 2k D
Adding (2.10) and (2.11)We get
1  D r
V +V = 2q ln + (q + q )ln (V) (2.12)
2k  D
ab ac b c
a
r
Since for a balanced system the phasor sum is given as qa + qb + qc = 0 and the voltage

phasor is given as Vab + Vac = 3Van we can write

D
Van = qa ln (V) (2.13)
2k r
Hence the capacitance is determined as
q
C = a 2k (F/m to neutral) (2.14)
=
Van ln(Deq r )
an

However if the conductors of three phase line are not equally spaced then the capacitance
of the line is derived as follows.
Let us consider the conductors as shown in Fig.-1.7 and the conductors are transposed as
shown in Fig.-1.8.
Hence for position-1, the voltage between two phases ' a & b" shall be expressed as
1  D r D 
V = q ln 12 + q ln + q ln 23 (V) (2.15)
ab
2k  a
r b
D c
D 
 12 31 

Hence for position-2, the voltage between two phases ' a & b" shall be expressed as
1  D r D 
V = q ln 23 + q ln + q ln 31 (V) (2.16)
ab
2k  a
r b
D c
D 
 23 12 

Hence for position-3, the voltage between two phases ' a & b" shall be expressed as
1  D r D 
V = q ln 31 + q ln + q ln 12 (V) (2.17)
ab
2k  a
r b
D c
D 
 31 23 

Using (2.15), (2.16) and (2.17), the average voltage is given by

1  Deq
Vab = q
 a ln +q r  (V) (2.18)
2k r ln 
b
 Deq 

Where Deq = 3 D12D23D31

 Similarly the voltage between two phases ' a & c" shall be expressed as follows.
1  Deq r 
Vac = q a ln + q ln  (V) (2.19)
2k r c
D
 eq 

Using (2.18) and (2.19) we can write

qa D
Van = ln eq (V) (2.20)
2k r
Hence the capacitance is determined as
q
C = a 2k (F/m to neutral) (2.21)
=
Van ln(Deq r )
an

CAPACITANCE OF BUNDLE CONDUCTOR

The capacitance of bundles conductor can be calculated as above and given by (2.22)
2k
Can =
ln(Deq DsC,bundle )
(F/m to neutral) (2.22)

Where ' DsC,bundle' is the modified GMR of the bundle conductor and can be given as follows

for different bundle conductors as shown in Fig.-1.9.

For a bundle conductor having two sub-conductors

DsC,bundle = 4
(rXd )2 = rd

For a bundle conductor having three sub-conductors

DsC,bundle = 9
(rXdXd )3 = 3 rd 2

For a bundle conductor having four sub-conductors

(
DsC,bundle = 16 rXdXdX 2d )
4
= 1.094 rd 3

Earth affects the calculation of capacitance of three-phase lines as its presence alters the
electric field lines. Usually the height of the conductors placed on transmission towers is much
larger than the spacing between the conductors. Therefore the effect of earth can be neglected for
capacitance calculations, especially when balanced steady state operation of the power system is
considered. However for unbalanced operation when the sum of the three line currents is not zero,
the effect of earth needs to be considered.
 Module-III
INTRODUCTION
We have derived expression for resistance, inductance and capacitance for transmission
line in last two chapters. It can be seen that all these parameters depend upon the size of conductors
and its configuration. Furthermore we also conclude that the parameters depend upon the length
of the transmission line. In fact these parameters are distributed throughout the transmission line
not just single element. The circuit consisting of these parameters are shown in Fig.3.1 below.
IS R L IR

VS C VR

FIG.-3.1 TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS

The resistance and inductance are known as series parameters and hence forms series
impedance of the transmission line. The capacitance is known as shunt parameters and hence
forms shunt admittance. The transmission line can be represented as two port network as shown
in Fig.-3.2 such that we can write:
VS = AVR + BI R (3.1)

I S = CVR + DIR (3.2)

IS IR

VS A,B,C,D VR

FIG.-3.2 TWO PORT EQUIVALENT OF TRANSMISSION LINE

The performance of the transmission line depend upon the total value of series impedance
and shunt admittance. This is the reason that the transmission line is classified into three categories.
Short length transmission line (Generally up to 80 kms)
Medium length transmission line (Generally up to 80 to 240 kms)
 Long length transmission line (Generally above 240 kms)
The total series impedance and shunt admittance of the transmission line is given by
Z = (R + jL)l (3.3)
Y = jCl (3.4)
Where ' l' is the length of the transmission line in kms, ' Z & Y ' are the total series
impedance and shunt admittance respectively.

SHORT LENGTH TRANSMISSION LINE

Since the length of the line is less, the total value of series impedance is quite comparable
with respect to shunt admittances and hence the shunt admittance is neglected and the transmission
line consists of only series impedance as shown in Fig.-3.3
R L IR
IS

VS VR

FIG.-3.3 SHORT LENGTH EQUIVALENT OF TRANSMISSION LINE

For the circuit in Fig.-3.3 the network equations are given by
VS = VR + ZIR (3.5)

IS = IR (3.6)
Hence comparing (3.1), (3.2), (3.5) and (3.6) we get for short transmission line:
A =1 B = Z (3.7)
C = 0 D =1 (3.8)

MEDIUM LENGTH TRANSMISSION LINE

The shunt admittance cannot be neglected if the length of the line is more. However it can
be approximated to be consisting of lumped parameters. The lumped parameters representation of
the line can be of two types (i) nominal π representation and (ii) nominal Т representation as shown
in Fig.-3.4 and Fig.-3.5. The A, B, C, D parameters of such circuit can be determined as follows.
 IS R L IR IS Z IR

VS C/2 C/2 VR VS Y/2 Y/2 VR

FIG.-3.4 NOMINAL  REPRESENTATION OF TRANSMISSION LINE

IS R/2 L/2 R/2 L/2 IR IS Z/2 Z/2 IR

VS C VR VS Y VR

FIG.-3.5 NOMINAL  REPRESENTATION OF TRANSMISSION LINE

NOMINAL  REPRESENTATION
Let us derive the A, B, C, D parameters of this circuit. Let us consider the current flowing
in the branches as follows.
' IcR ' - Current flowing in the shunt branch on receiving end side.

' IcS ' - Current flowing in the shunt branch on sending end side.

' Ise ' - Current flowing in the series branch.

Hence we can write the circuit equation by using KCL and KVL as follows.
Y
I =V (3.9a)
cR R
2
Y
Ise = IcR + IR = VR + I R (3.9b)
2
 Y 
V = I Z +V = V + I Z +V (3.9c)
S se R  R R R
 2 
 ZY 
V = 1+ V + ZI (3.9)
S  
2  R R

Similarly the current at sending end is derived as follows.
Y Y
I = I + I =V +V +I (3.10a)
S cS se S R R
2 2
  ZY  Y Y
I = 1+ V + ZI +V +I (3.10b)
S   R R R R
2  2
 2
 ZY   ZY 
I = Y 1+ V + 1+ I (3.10)
S   R   R
 4   2 
Hence comparing (3.1), (3.2), (3.9) and (3.10) we get for medium transmission line
(nominal  representation):
ZY
A = 1+ B=Z (3.11)
2
 ZY  ZY
C = Y 1+ D = 1+ (3.12)
 
 4  2

NOMINAL  REPRESENTATION
The A, B, C, D parameters of this circuit can be derived similar to above procedure. Let

' Ic ' - Current flowing in the shunt branch of the circuit.

'Vc ' - Voltage at the node of shunt branch of the circuit.

Hence by using KCL and KVL, we can write the circuit equation as follows.
Ic = VcY (3.13a)
IS = Ic + IR = VcY + IR (3.13b)
Z
Vc = VR + IR (3.13c)
2
 Z
I = I + I =V Y + I = V + I Y +I (3.13d)
S c R c R  R R  R
 2
Z  Z  Z 
VS = Vc +   IS =   IS +   I R + VR (3.14a)
2 2 2
Substituting for ' IS ' from (3.13d) in (3.14a) and solving the algebra
 ZY   ZY 
V = 1+ V + Z 1+ I (3.13)
S   R   R
 2   4 
From (3.13d) we can write
 ZY 
I = YV + 1+ I (3.14)

S R
 R
 2 
 Hence comparing (3.1), (3.2), (3.13) and (3.14) we get for medium transmission line
(nominal  representation):
ZY  ZY 
A =1+ B = Z 1+ (3.15)
 
2  4 
ZY
C =Y D = 1+ (3.16)
2

LONG LENGTH TRANSMISSION LINE

The parameters of transmission line cannot approximated as lumped parameters if the
length is long as because for such line series impedance and shunt admittance both effects the
performance significantly. Hence these parameters are considered to be distributed as shown in
Fig.-3.1. To derive the A, B, C, D parameters of the long transmission line, let us consider the
circuit as shown in Fig.-3.6. Let us consider an elemental length of the transmission line ' dx' at a
distance of ' x' from the receiving end. The series impedance and shunt admittance of this
elemental length is given by ' zdx'&' ydx' respectively, where ' z'&' y' are series impedance and
shunt admittance of transmission line per unit length. The voltage and current in this elemental
length is shown in the Fig.-3.6.

IS I+dI zdx I IR

VS V+dV ydx V VR

dx x

FIG.-3.6 LONG LINE REPRESENTATION OF TRANSMISSION LINE

For elemental section under consideration we can write the circuit equations as follows.
dV
dV = Izdx  = zI (3.17a)
dx
dI
dI = Vydx  = yV (3.17b)
dx
Differentiating (3.17a) with respect to ' x' and substituting (3.17b) we get
d 2V
= zyI (3.18)
dx2
 The general solution of (3.18) can be given by
V = K ex + K e−x (3.19)
1 2

Where  = zy . Using (3.19) and (3.17b)

I=
1
(K1ex − K 2e−x ) (3.20)
ZC

z
Where ZC = . Using boundary conditions of the transmission line
y

' x = 0 V = VR , I = IR , (3.19) and (3.20) becomes

VR = K1 + K2 (3.21)
1
IR = (K1 − K2 ) (3.22)
ZC

The constants ' K1 '&' K2 ' are evaluated using above equation.
K = (V + Z I )
1
(3.23)
1
2 R C R

1
K = (V − Z I ) (3.24)
2
2 R C R

Hence the voltage and current for the transmission line at a distance ' x' from the receiving
end is given by putting the values of ' K1'&' K2 ' in (3.19) and (3.20).

V = (V + Z I )ex + (V − Z I )e −x
1 1
(3.25)
2 R C R
2 R C R

I=
(VR + Z C I R ) ex − (VR − Z C I R ) e−x (3.26)
2ZC 2ZC
The (3.25) and (3.26) can rewritten as
 ex + e−x   x − x 
V = VR +  e + e Z CI R (3.27)
2 2
   
1  ex + e−x   ex + e−x 
I=Z  VR +  I R (3.28)
C    
2 2

The (3.27) and (3.28) can rewritten as

V = (Coshx )VR + (Z C Sinhx )I R (3.29)
  1 
I = Sinhx VR + (Coshx )I R (3.30)
 ZC 
For the full length of the transmission line ' x = l' hence the sending end voltage and current
is given as follows.
VS = (Coshl )VR + (Z C Sinhl )I R (3.31)
 1 
IS =  Sinhl VR + (Coshl )I R (3.32)
 C
Z 
Thus A, B, C, D parameters of the long transmission line is given by

A = Coshl B = ZC Sinhl (3.33)

1
C= Sinhl D = Coshl (3.34)
ZC
In the derivation of A, B, C, D parameters of the long transmission line we introduce two

new parameters ' '&' ZC ' .

' ' - is a complex quantity and known as the propagation constant and given as  =  + j

, where ' ' is the attenuation constant and '  ' is the phase constant.
' ZC ' - is the characteristics impedance. For a given transmission line is a constant.
Generally for overhead transmission line it is approximately equal to 400Ω.
The equation (3.25) can be rewritten by using the components of propagation constant.
V = (V + Z I )exe jx + (V − Z I −x − jx
1 1
C R )e e (3.35)
2 R C R
2 R
The first term increases in magnitude and advances in phase as distance ' x' from the
receiving end increases. We can say that this term decreases in magnitude and retarded in phase
as we move from the sending end towards the receiving end. This is the characteristic of a
travelling wave. Hence the first term is known as the incident voltage. The second term diminishes
in magnitude and retarded in phase from the receiving end towards the sending end. It is called as
reflected voltage. The voltage at any point on the transmission line is the sum of incident and
reflected voltage.
If the line is terminated in its characteristics impedance, the receiving end voltage
VR = ZC IR and there is no reflected wave. Thus the line is said to be flat line or infinite line.
 L
For a lossless transmission line the characteristics impedance is given by ZC = . Under
C
such condition the characteristics impedance is known as surge impedance and the loading under
such condition is known as surge impedance loading (SIL).
VL2
SIL = (3.36)
LC

FERRANTI EFFECT
In case of EHV very long transmission lines, the voltage at the receiving end is more that
the sending end voltage at light load or no-load condition. This is known as Ferranti effect. The
rise is voltage is due to the shunt capacitors of the transmission line, which draw charging current.
This charging current becomes dominant as compared to load current

POWER FLOW IN A TRANSMISSION LINE

The power flow in a transmission line can be calculated by considering the system shown
in Fig.-3.7. It consists of a single transmission line connected between two buses. These buses are
Sending end bus and Receiving end bus.

S R

FIG.-3.7 TRANSMISSION LINE POWER FLOW

The line is characterized by its line constants as follows

A = A , B = B 

So that the power received at the receiving end is given by

SR = PR + jQR = VR I R* (3.37)
As we know the line equation in terms of ABCD constant are
VS = AVR + BI R (3.38)
 I S = CVR + DIR (3.39)
From (3.38)
VS − AVR
IR = (3.40)
B
 V − AV 
*

I* =  S R
 (3.41)
R
 B 
(V  −  ) − ( A  −  )(V R 0)
I R* = S

(B  −  ) (3.42)

We have
(V  −  ) − ( A  −  )(VR 0)
PR + jQR = (VR 0)
S

(B  −  ) (3.43)

2
V V V A
PR + jQR = R S ( −  )− R (  −  ) (3.44)
B B

Equating the real and imaginary part

2
V A
PR = R S Cos( −  )− R
V V
Cos( −  ) (3.45)
B B
 2 
VR VS VR A Sin( −  )
QR = − Sin( −  )− (3.46)
 B B 

APPROXIMATION OF POWER FLOW EQUATION

For the transmission line series resistance is very less as compared to series reactance and
A  1.0,   0.0, B = Z  X ,   90∘

Hence (3.45) can be fairly approximated as (3.47)

VR VS Sin
PR = (3.47)
X
From (3.47) we conclude that the power transmitted over a transmission line is determined
by the voltage at both the ends, the reactance of the line and phase difference between the voltages
of both ends. Similarly the power flow between two buses can be given by (3.48)

P = V1 V2 Sin(1 −  2 ) (3.48)
X 12
LINE COMPENSATION
As stated above the power flow in a transmission line depends upon the voltage at both the
ends, the reactance of the line and phase difference between the voltages. If the power flow has to
be increased or decreased then we have to control these variables. It can be controlled by
• Voltage magnitude control
• Transmission line reactance control
• Phase angle control
Once the installation of the transmission line is over its A, B,C, D parameters are constant
because these depend upon the size and material of conductors and the configurations of the
conductors. And hence the value of reactance and resistance are also fixed. The value of reactance
X however can be controlled by providing compensation.
Since the series impedance of the transmission line consists of inductive reactance, the total
series reactance can be reduced by connecting a capacitor in series. The shunt admittance of the
transmission line consists of capacitive reactance, the effect of which can be compensated by
connecting a shunt reactor. These processes are known as providing line compensation. The line
compensation are of two types.
• Series compensation
• Shunt compensation
In series compensation as mentioned above, a suitable value of capacitor is connected in
series with the transmission line as shown in Fig.-3.8. The location of this capacitor is optional and
depend upon the requirement of transmission company.
S R

FIG.-3.8TRANSMISSION LINE WITH SERIES COMPENSATION

In shunt compensation a shunt reactor of suitable capacity is connected as a shunt element
at the required bus of the transmission line as shown in Fig.-3.9.
 S R

FIG.-3.9 TRANSMISSION LINE WITH SHUNT COMPENSATION

The value of series compensation and shunt compensation known as degree of
compensation depend upon operational policy. It is seen that the series compensation is very much
effective in controlling the power transfer over the transmission line where as the shunt
compensation is most proved way for voltage control at the bus at which the compensation has
been provided.
In power system most of the loads are inductive in nature resulting in reducing the voltage
at which it is connected, it is well known to connect the capacitor at that voltage. It improves the
power factor at that bus by supplying reactive power at the said bus. Thus Fig.-3.9 can be modified
to Fig.-3.10.
S R

FIG.-3.10 TRANSMISSION LINE WITH SHUNT COMPENSATION

If the magnitude of voltage at the bus is less than the required magnitude then the shunt
capacitor is connected. If the magnitude of voltage at the bus is more than the required magnitude
then the shunt reactor is connected. Other way we can say, the shunt capacitor is used to improve
the voltage and the shunt reactor is used to avoid the overvoltage.
The ' A, B,C, D' parameters of a compensated transmission line is calculated by using the
following procedure.
 If a line is compensated by a series capacitor connected at the end of receiving end of the
line.
 A B  A B  A B 
C D = C D C D (3.49)
 Equivalent  Line   SeriesCapacitor

If a line is compensated by a shunt capacitor/reactor connected at the end of receiving end

of the line.
 A B  A B  A B 
C D = C D C D (3.50)
 Equivalent  Line   ShuntCapaictor/ Reactor

If a line is compensated by a series capacitor connected at the mid point of the line.
 A B  A B  A B  A B
C D = C D C D C D (3.51)
 Equivalent  HalfLine  SeriesCapacitor  HalfLine

The ' A, B,C, D' parameters of series capacitor is given by

A B 1 Z SeriesCapacitor  (3.52)
  =  
C D  SeriesCapacitor 0 1 

The ' A, B,C, D' parameters of shunt capacitor/reactor is given by

A B  1 0
C D = Y 1 (3.53)
  ShuntCapaictor/ Reactor  ShuntCapaictor/ Reactor 
With the insertion of compensation the circuit parameters changes and thus the operation
of the power system. The line compensation provides:
• Improvement in power flow
• Power flow control
• Share of power between the transmission lines
• Voltage control
• Improved stability
• Improved security
Modern power system uses flexible AC transmission system (FACTS) devices to achieve
required degree of compensation and thus control over the system operation.
PER UNIT SYSTEM
In per unit system, the power system variables such as voltage, current and impedances etc.
are represented on a common base. For this purpose we need to define base quantity of the system.
Generally two base quantities ‘Base KVA or Base MVA’ and ‘Base KV’ are defined and others can
be calculated.
Let
Base Current = IBase

Base Impednace = ZBase

If the voltage and power are given for single phase:
Base KVA1φ (3.54)
I Base =
Base KVLN
Base KV 2 X 103
Z Base = LN (3.55)
Base KVA1φ
Or (3.55) can be written as
Base KV 2
Z Base = LN (3.56)
Base MVA1
If the voltage and power are given for three phase:
Base KVA3
I Base = (3.57)
3 X Base KVLL
2
 Base KV 
 LL
 X 10
3


=   Base KVA
3
ZBase  (3.58)
 3

 3 
(Base KVLL )2
X 10 3 (3.59)
Z Base =
Base KVA3

(Base KV LL )2 (3.60)
Z Base =
Base MVA3

The per unit value of any variable is given by (3.61)

Actual Value of the Variable
p.u.Value of the Variable = (3.61)
Base Value of the Variable
 Say for voltage (3.62)
VActual
V p.u. = (3.62)
VBase
Similarly for current, impedance and power it is given by (3.63) to (3.65)
I Actual
I p.u.
= (3.63)
I Base
ZActual
Z p.u. = (3.64)
ZBase

MVA
MVA p.u. = MVAActual (3.65)
Base

Many a times the per unit quantities need to be calculated to a new base. It can be done by
calculating the actual value at first and then converted to per unit on a new base.
Let the old base is given by BaseKVOld , BaseMVAOld and new base is given by

BaseKVNew , BaseMVANew .

The old and new per unit value of impedance is given by Z p.u..(Old ) & Z p.u..(New) respectively.
From (3.64) we get at the old base:

Z =Z XZ =Z X
(Base KV LL(Old) )
2
(3.66)
Actual p.u..(Old) Base(Old) p.u..(Old)
Base MVA3 (Old )
But the actual impedance on a new base can be given by
(Base KV )2
ZActual = Z p.u..(New) X ZBase(New) = Z p.u..(New) X
LL(New)
(3.67)
Base MVA3 ( New)

Equating (3.66) and (3.67)

(Base KV )2 Base MVA
Z p.u..(New) = Z p.u..(old) X
LL(Old) 3 ( New)
(3.68)
Base MVA3 (Old ) X
(Base KV LL(New) )2
Base MVA3 ( New) Base KV LL(Old) ( ) 2

= Z p.u..(old) X Base MVA

Z p.u..(New)
3 (Old )
X
Base KV ( LL(New)
) 2 (3.69)

2
Base MVA  Base KV 
Z p.u..(New) = Z p.u..(old) X
3 ( New)
X  LL(Old)
 (3.70)
Base MVA3 (Old )  Base KV
 LL(New) 

By (3.70) the per unit impedance can be calculated on the new base.
 CORONA

INTRODUCTION
When an alternating current is made to flow across two conductors of the transmission line
whose spacing is large compared to their diameters, then air surrounding the conductors
(composed of ions) is subjected to di-electric stress. At low values of supply end voltage, nothing
really occurs as the stress is too less to ionize the air outside. But when the potential difference is
made to increase, then the field strength at the surface of conductor increases and then the air
surrounding it experiences stress high enough to be dissociated into ions making the atmosphere
conducting if the stress increases beyond threshold value of 30 kV (peak) known as the break down
voltage of air at normal temperature and pressure. This results in electric discharge around the
conductors due to the flow of these ions, giving rise to a faint luminescent glow, along with the
hissing sound accompanied by the liberation of ozone, which is readily identified due to its
characteristic odor. This phenomena of electrical discharge occurring in transmission line for high
values of voltage is known as the corona effect in power system. If the voltage across the lines is
still increased the glow becomes more and more intense along with hissing noise, inducing very
high power loss into the system.

FACTORS AFFECTING CORONA

Atmospheric Conditions: It has been physically proven that the voltage gradient for di-
electric breakdown of air is directly proportional to the density of air. Hence in a stormy day, due
to continuous air flow the number of ions present surrounding the conductor is far more than
normal, and hence it is more likely to have electrical discharge in transmission lines on such a day,
compared to a day with fairly clear weather.
Condition of Conductors: It has an inverse proportionality relationship with the diameter
of the conductors. i.e. with the increase in diameter, the effect of corona in power system reduces
considerably. Also the presence of dirt or roughness of the conductor reduces the critical
breakdown voltage, making the conductors more prone to corona losses. Hence in most cities and
industrial areas having high pollution, this factor is of reasonable importance to counter the ill
effects it has on the system.
 Spacing between Conductors: As already mentioned, for corona to occur effectively the
spacing between the lines should be much higher compared to its diameter, but if the length is
increased beyond a certain limit, the di-electric stress on the air reduces and consequently the effect
of corona reduces as well. If the spacing is made too large then corona for that region of the
transmission line might not occur at all.

METHODS TO REDUCE THE EFFECTS OF CORONA

➢ The use of bundle conductors reduce corona loss
➢ Spacing between conductors is selected so that corona is tolerable
➢ Since the shape of conductors affect corona loss, cylindrical shape conductors have
uniform field that reduces corona loss than any other shape
➢ The voltage stress and electric field gradient should be minimized which can be
accomplished by following good high voltage design practices.
➢ Using conductors with large radii reduce corona loss
➢ Void free solid conductors and insulators should be used
➢ The terminals on high voltage equipment are designed with smooth round diameter
rounded shapes like balls
➢ Addition of corona rings to insulators of high voltage transmission lines

CRITICAL DISRUPTIVE VOLTAGE

Let us refer to Fig.-4.1 wherein two conductors having charges and radii as shown are
spaced apart by a distance ‘D’.
Conductor-a Conductor-b
qa qb

o o

FIG.-4.1 A TWO CONDUCTOR LINE

 Let qa = qb = q and ra = rb = r , since both conductors form one transmission line. The
electric field intensity at any pint ‘P’ at distance ‘x’ from the center of the conductor-a due to both
the charges shall be

E = 2  +
q 1 1  (4.1)

k  x D− x
The potential difference between two conductors is given by
r r 1 
V = −  Edx =  q  1
+ dx (4.2)
2 
D−r D−r kx D−x
q D
V= ln (4.3)
k r
Substituting for ‘q’ from (4.3) in (4.1) we get
kV 1 D (4.4)
E=
ln 2k x(D − x)
D
r
V D
E= (4.5)
x(D − x)ln
D
r
V
Where V  = and for three phase line V  =
VLine
2 3
The electric stress is maximum at x = r and given by
V D V 
gmax =  (4.6)
r(D − r )ln
D D
r ln
r r
From (4.6) we can determine the expression for disruptive critical voltage
D
V = g r ln (kV) (4.7)
d 0
r
Where,
3.92b
= is the air density factor, in which ‘b’ is the atmospheric pressure in cm of Hg
t + 273
and ‘t’ is the atmospheric temperature in degree Celsius.
g0 is the dielectric strength of the air at normal temperature and pressure in kV and equal
to 30kV/cm (peak), thus equals to 21.2 kV/cm (rms)
Taking into the surface condition of conductors we introduce surface irregularity factor ‘m’
 D
V = 21.2mr ln (kV) (4.8)
d
r
For three phase line
D
V = 21.2mr ln (kV)(line to neutral) (4.9)
d
r
For smooth polished conductor- m = 1,
For rough surfaces conductor- m = 0.92  m  0.98
For stranded conductor- m = 0.82  m  0.88
At this value of critical disruptive voltage, the corona starts but nor visible because the
charges ions do not get sufficient energy to cause further ionization by collisions. To make the
corona visible the potential difference between the conductors should be more. The expression for
critical disruptive voltage for visual corona is given by modifying (4.9) as shown below.
 0.3  D
V = 21.2m + ln (kV)(line to neutral) (4.10)
v r1 
 r  r

For smooth polished conductor- mv = 1 ,

For rough surfaces conductor- mv = 0.82

For stranded conductor- mv = 0.72

POWER LOSS DUE TO CORONA

The corona also results in power loss. The power loss due to corona can be calculated by
Peeks formula as given in (4.11).

P =
241
( f + 25) r (V −V )2 X10 −5 (kW/Phase/km) (4.11)
c
 D
D

Or by Peterson formula
21X10−6 XfV 2F
Pc =
( )
(kW/Phase/km) (4.12)
log D 2 
 10 r 
Where ' f ' is the supply frequency and ' F ' is the corona factor determined by test.
The corona loss can be reduced by employing the methods explained above.
 Module-IV
OVERHEAD LINE INSULATOR
INTRODUCTION
The overhead line conductors are supported over the tower structures by means of line
insulators. The line insulators provide sufficient mechanical strength as well as insulation between
the live conductors and tower structures.
In general, the insulators should have the following desirable properties.
• High mechanical strength in order to withstand conductor load, wind load etc.
• High electrical resistance of insulator material in order to avoid leakage currents to
earth.
• High relative permittivity of insulator material in order that dielectric strength is
high.
• The insulator material should be non-porous, free from impurities and cracks
otherwise the permittivity will be lowered.
• High ratio of puncture strength to flashover.
The most commonly used material for insulators of overhead line is porcelain but glass,
steatite and special composition materials are also used to a limited extent. Porcelain is produced
by firing at a high temperature a mixture of kaolin, feldspar and quartz. It is stronger mechanically
than glass, gives less trouble from leakage and is less affected by changes of temperature. The
successful operation of an overhead line depends to a considerable extent upon the proper selection
of insulators.

There are three types of insulators used in connection with overhead lines. They are:
• Pin-type.
• Suspension-type.
• Strain-type.

PIN-TYPE INSULATORS
As the name suggests, the pin-type insulator shown in Fig.-5.1 is attached to a steel bolt or
pin, which is secured to a cross-arm on the transmission pole.
 FIG.-5.1 PIN TYPE INSULATORS
The Standards Specification requires that the porcelain shall not engage directly with a
hard metal screw. It recognizes two methods:
• The provision of a taper thread cut on the head of the pin, which screws into a
threaded soft metal thimble cemented into the insulator.
• The provisions of a cast lead thread on the steel spindle, which screws directly into
a thread formed in the porcelain; on the continent the pin, which has a plain top, is
still sometimes wrapped in hemp and the threaded porcelain screwed on.
For operating voltages up to about 11 kV with ordinary designs of insulator a one-piece
construction can be adopted. Recent progress in design and manufacture has enabled much thicker
sections to be adopted, with the result that for working voltages up to 33 kV a single-piece
construction is possible, and not more than two parts even in the largest sizes. Actually, the
tendency is to use pin-type insulators for voltages up to 33 kV only, since they become
uneconomical for higher voltages. This is because their cost increases much more rapidly than the
voltage.
There should be sufficient thickness of porcelain between the line conductor and the
insulator pin (or other metal work) to give a factor of safety of up to 10 against puncture, but the
insulator should be designed so that it will spark-over before it will puncture. The ratio of the
spark-over voltage to the working voltage is called the safety factor, and for pin-type insulators
this factor is much higher for low voltages than it is for high. The present tendency is to use pin-
type insulators for low voltages only, say up to 11 kV, for which the factors of safety are 8.3 dry
and 5 wet. With a wet insulator, the surfaces of the various pieces, or 'sheds' as they are sometimes
called, have no insulating value, so that the total arcing distance is the sum of the shortest distances
from the edge of one shed to the nearest point on the next lower shed, plus the distance from the
edge of the next lowest shed to the pin.
The insulator and its pin, or other support, should be sufficiently strong mechanically to
withstand the resultant force due to the combined effects of wind pressure and weight of span (and
ice load, if any). At terminal poles there is, in addition, the almost horizontal pull due to the tension
of the conductor. This, in particular, causes such a great bending moment at the bottom of the pin,
with pin-type insulators, this being transmitted to the cross-arm, that for a line insulated with pin-
type insulators, it is desirable to use some type of strain insulator at all terminal or dead-ending
poles. In connection with the mechanical strength, it is to be noted that the insulator is stronger
than the pin.

SUSPENSION INSULATORS
We have seen that the cost of a pin-type insulator increases very rapidly as the working
voltage is increased. For high voltages this type is therefore uneconomical, and there is the further
disadvantage that replacements are expensive. For these reasons, high-voltage lines are insulated
by means of suspension insulators in which, as their name indicates, the line conductor is
suspended below the point of support by means of the insulator or insulators. Several important
advantages follow from this system.
• Each insulator is designed for a comparatively low working voltage, usually about
11 kV, and the insulation for any required line voltage can be obtained by using a
'string' of a suitable number of such insulators.
• In the event of a failure of an insulator, one unit - instead of the whole string - has
to be replaced.
• The mechanical stresses are reduced, since the line is suspended flexibly; with pin-
type insulators, the rigid nature of the attachment results in fatigue and ultimate
brittleness of the wire, due to the alternating nature of the stress. Also, since the
string is free to swing, there is an equalization of the tensions in the conductors of
successive spans.
 • In the event of an increase in the operating voltage of the line, this can be met by
adding the requisite number of units to each string, instead of replacing all
insulators, as would be necessary with pin-type.
• Owing to the free suspension, the amplitude of swing of the conductors may be
large compared with that on a pin-type insulated line, and the spacing should
therefore be increased.
There are several types of suspension insulator that illustrated in Fig.-5.2 being most
frequently used in this country, having been adopted for the insulation of the Grid lines. It will be
seen that it consists of a single disc-shaped piece of porcelain, grooved on the under-surface to
increase the surface leakage path, and to a metal cap at the top, and to a metal pin underneath. The
cap is recessed so as to take the pin of another unit, and in this way a string of any required number
of units can be built up. The cap is secured to the insulator by means of cement. Various means of
securing the pin have been tried, but all have been abandoned in favor of cementing. Mechanical
methods of fixing have proved unsatisfactory since they caused concentrations of mechanical
stress, which led to failure in service. On the other hand, cement acts as a good distributor of
mechanical stress, and cemented insulators of good mechanical design have an excellent service
record.

FIG.-5.2 SUSPENSION TYPE INSULATORS

The usual diameter of this type of insulator is ten inches, since it has been found that this
size gives a suitable ratio of spark-over to puncture voltage. Increasing the diameter raises the
spark-over voltage, of course, but it also lowers the above ratio, and this is undesirable.
STRAIN INSULATORS
These insulators are used to take the tension of the conductors at line terminals and at points
where the line is dead-ended, as for example some road-crossings, junctions of overhead lines with
cables, river crossings, at angle towers where there is a change in direction of the line, and so on.
For light low-voltage lines, say up to 11 kV, the shackle insulator is suitable, but for higher voltages
a string of suspension-type insulators is necessary. Where the tension is exceedingly high, as at
long river spans, two, three, or even four strings of insulators in parallel have been used.

VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION IN A STRING OF INSULATOR

Let us consider a string consists of four insulators as shown in Fig.-5.3 operating at voltage
'V ' (Line to Ground). Each insulator is represented by its capacitor.
'C'-The capacitance of each insulator
' KC' -The capacitance of insulator pin to ground

C V1
KC Ic1
J

I1
C V2
KC
Ic2
K
V
I2
C
V3
Ic3
KC
M

I3
C V4
Ic4
 FIG.-5.3 STRING OF FOUR INSULATORS
At node ' J ' using KCL we can write
I c2 = Ic1 + I1 (5.1a)

CV2 = CV1 + KCV1 (5.1b)

Which can be simplified to (5.2)
V2 = (1+ K )V1 (5.2)
At node ' K ' using KCL we can write
Ic3 = I c2 + I 2 (5.3a)

CV3 = CV2 + KC (V1 + V2 ) (5.3b)

Which can be simplified to (5.4) by using (5.2)
V3 = (1+ 3K + K 2 )V1 (5.4)
At node ' M ' using KCL we can write
I c4 = Ic3 + I3 (5.5a)

CV4 = CV3 + KC (V1 + V2 + V3 ) (5.5b)

Which can be simplified to (5.6) by using (5.2) and (5.4)
V 4 = (1+ 6K + 5K 2 + K 3 )V1 (5.6)
For the whole string we have
V = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 (5.7)
Using the above equations we can determine the voltage across each insulator and it can
be seen that they are not equal i.e. voltage distribution in the string is not uniform. At this point let
us define string efficiency as follows:
Votlage across string
string = (5.8)
No.of Insulators X Voltage across the Insulator adjacent to theconductor
This efficiency is very low because of unequal voltage distribution. It can be increased by
the following methods which is also known as grading of the insulators.

LENGTH OF THE CROSS ARM

As we can see the voltage distribution depends largely on the value of ' K ' . Hence if the
value of ' K ' is reduced the distribution can be made equal and string efficiency can be improved.
It can be done by increasing the length of the cross arm. However there is limitation to it because
of mechanical strength of the supporting tower.

GRADING OF INSULATORS UNITS

It is observed from the above derivation that the insulators having same capacitors have
been used in the string. To make voltage distribution equal we can use insulators having different
capacitance as shown in Fig.-5.4 such that we will result in the following equations.

C1 V
KC Ic1
J

I1
C2 V
KC
Ic2
K
V
I2
C3
V
Ic3
KC
M

I3
C4 V
Ic4

FIG.-5.4 GRADING OF STRING OF FOUR INSULATORS

I c2 = Ic1 + I1 (5.9a)

C2V = C1V + KC1V (5.9b)

Which can be simplified to (5.10)
C2 = (1+ K )C1 (5.10)
 Similarly we can use for the other nodes and can determine the capacitor of each insulators
of the string. However this method is not practically feasible because of large no. of insulators in
the string for very high voltage transmission line.

STATIC SHIELDING
The voltage distribution can also be equalized by using static shielding. The basic objective
is provide the charging current flowing through the capacitance between insulator pin and the
ground by another alternate path. So that the current flowing in each insulator shall be equal and
hence the voltage across each insulator shall be equal as shown in Fig.-5.5.

C V
KC Ic1
J

I1
C V
KC Cx(n-1)
Ic2
K
V
I2 I2
C
V
Ic3
KC Cx(n)
M

I3 I3
C V
Ic4

FIG.-5.5 STATIC SHIELDING OF STRING OF FOUR INSULATORS

TESTING OF INSULATORS
The testing of insulators are made into three categories: flash-over tests, sample tests, and
routine tests. In each category, there is a group of individual tests. Flash-over tests are a design test
taken to three insulators only to prove the correction of the design; sample tests are to prove the
quality of manufacture, and are taken on 1/2 per cent. of the insulators supplied; routine tests are
carried out on all insulators.
Flashover Tests
• 50 per cent. dry impulse flash-over test.
• Dry flash-over and dry one-minute test.
• Wet flash-over and one-minute rain test.
Sample Tests
• Temperature-cycle test.
• Mechanical test.
• Electro-mechanical test.
• Puncture test.
• Porosity test.
Routine Tests
• Electrical routine test.
• Mechanical routine test.
The details methodology of these tests can be referred from Bureau of Indian Standard.

CAUSES OF INSULATOR FAILURE

Insulators are required to withstand both mechanical and electrical stresses. The latter type
is primarily due to line voltage and may cause the breakdown of the insulator. The electrical
breakdown of the insulator can occur either by flash-over or puncture. In flashover, an arc occurs
between the line conductor and insulator pin (i.e., earth) and the discharge jumps across the air
gaps, following shortest distance. In case of flash-over, the insulator will continue to act in its
proper capacity unless extreme heat produced by the arc destroys the insulator.
In case of puncture, the discharge occurs from conductor to pin through the body of the
insulator. When such breakdown is involved, the insulator is permanently destroyed due to
excessive heat. In practice, sufficient thickness of porcelain is provided in the insulator to avoid
puncture by the line voltage. The ratio of puncture strength to flashover voltage is known as safety
factor.
 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF OVERHEAD
TRANSMISSION LINE
INTRODUCTION
We know that the overhead line conductors are supported on the tower structure by means
of line insulators. These conductors, which are made of copper or aluminum or its alloys have its
own weight, especially in extra high voltage transmission line these conductors re very heavy. Due
to its weight it exerts pressure on the insulators and the towers thus stress at the point of supports
as well as the conductors are also subjected to high tension. It is very important that conductors
are under safe tension. If the conductors are too much stretched between supports in a bid to save
conductor material, the stress in the conductor may reach unsafe value and in certain cases the
conductor may break due to excessive tension. In order to permit safe tension in the conductors,
they are not fully stretched but are allowed to have a dip or sag.
The difference in level between points of supports and the lowest point on the conductor is
called sag. The conductor sag should be kept to a minimum in order to reduce the conductor
material required and to avoid extra pole height for sufficient clearance above ground level. It is
also desirable that tension in the conductor should be low to avoid the mechanical failure of
conductor and to permit the use of less strong supports. However, low conductor tension and
minimum sag are not possible. It is because low sag means a tight wire and high tension, whereas
a low tension means a loose wire and increased sag. Therefore, in actual practice, a compromise
in made between the sag and tension.

CALCULATION OF SAG
A conductor is suspended between two supports ‘A’ and ‘B’ as shown in Fig.-6.1. The
lowest point on the conductor is ‘O’ and the sag is ‘d’. When the conductor is suspended between
two supports at the same level, it takes the shape of catenary. However, if the sag is very small
compared with the span, then sag-span curve is like a parabola. The tension at any point on the
conductor acts tangentially. Thus tension ‘T’ at the lowest point ‘O’ acts horizontally as shown.
The horizontal component of tension is constant throughout the length of the wire. The tension at
supports is approximately equal to the horizontal tension acting at any point on the wire.
 Y
A B

T
Sag ‘d’ Ty

ψ
Tx
P

O X

ws
FIG.-6.1 SPAN OF TRANSMISSION LINE SHOWING THE CONDUCTOR SAG AND TENSION
(SUPPORTS AT SAME LEVEL)
Let us consider an elemental length of the conductor ‘ds’ at point ‘P’ on the conductor at
the length of ‘s’ from the center point ‘O’ (minimum point of the conductor). We can write the
vertical component and horizontal component of tension acting on the elemental length as follows.
Tx = H and Ty = ws where ‘w’ is the weight of the conductor per unit length of the

conductor. At point ‘P’

dy Ty ws
tan = = = (6.1)
dx Tx H
For the elemental length of the conductor we can write
ds 2 2
= 1+   = 1+  
dy ws
ds = dx + dy 
2 2
(6.2)
dx  dx  H 
Integrating and solving for constant we get
H wx
s = Sinh (6.3)
w H
Thus from(6.1) and (6.3) we get after solving for constant
H wx 
y= Cosh −1 (6.4)




w H 
(6.4) is the equation of catenary. At point ‘P’ the tension ‘T’ is given by
 T = Tx2 + T y2 = H 2 + (ws )
2
(6.5)

Using (6.3) in (6.5) we get

wx
T = HCosh (6.6)
H
If the span length is ‘2l’ then half span is ‘l’, hence the length of the conductor in half span,
sag and tension can be given by (6.7)
H wl
S = Sinh (6.7a)
w H
H wl 
Sag'd '= y − y = Cosh −1 (6.7b)
A B  


w H 
wl
T = TA = TB = HCosh (6.7c)
H
(6.7) can be approximated to
2 3
s =l+ w 𝑙 (6.8a)
6T 2
w𝑙 2
y= =d (6.8b)
2T
T 2
= 1+ (w𝑙) 2 (6.8c)
H 2H
L
Substituting for l = in (6.8)
2
L 2 3
s= + wL (6.8a)
2 48T 2
wL2
d=y= (6.8b)
8T
 w 2 L2 
T = H 1 +  (6.8c)
 8H 2 

In hilly areas, we generally come across conductors suspended between supports at unequal
levels as shown in Fig.-6.2. Where ‘h’ is the difference between the two supports.
 A
Y
h B

D1
D2

O X
X1 X2
L

FIG.-6.2 SPAN OF TRANSMISSION LINE SHOWING THE CONDUCTOR SAG AND TENSION
(SUPPORTS AT DIFFERENT LEVEL)
For such case the sag calculated from two supports are given by
wx2
D1 =
1
(6.9a)
2T
wx22
D2 = (6.9b)
2T
h=D −D =
1 2
w 2
(
x − x2 ) (6.9c)
2T 1 2

(x1 + x2 ) = L
wL
h= (x − x ) (6.10)
2T 1 2

Where
L Th and x L Th
x1 = + 2
= −
2 wL 2 wL

EFFECT OF WIND AND ICE

The above formulae for sag are true only in still air and at normal temperature when the
conductor is acted by its weight only. However, in actual practice, a conductor may have ice
coating and simultaneously subjected to wind pressure. The weight of ice acts vertically
downwards i.e. in the same direction as the weight of conductor. The force due to the wind is
assumed to act horizontally i.e. at right angle to the projected surface of the conductor. Hence, the
total force on the conductor is the vector sum of horizontal and vertical forces as given below.
w= (wc + w i )2 + ww2 , where ' w ', ' w '&' w ' are the weight of the conductor, weight of
c i w

the ice coating on the surface of the conductor and wind pressure acting on the surface of the
conductor respectively.
The transmission line may not have equal span throughout its length. In such case the
effective span length can be calculated by using (6.11) or (6.12).

L31 + L32 + L33 + ........ + L3n

Leq = (6.11)
L1 + L2 + L3 + ....... + Ln

L = L + (L − L )
2
(6.12)
eq avg
3 max avg

STRINGING CHARTS
There are two factors which vary the sag and tension. These are elasticity and temperature.
For use in the field work of stringing the conductors, temperature-sag and temperature-tension
charts are plotted for the given conductor and loading conditions. Such curves are called stringing
charts. These charts are very helpful while stringing overhead lines.

The conductor length and sag at temperature '1' is given by s1 = 𝑙 + w 22𝑙 3 2 and
6A f 1
w𝑙 2
. Where ' f1' is the stress tension per cross section area of the conductor.
d1 =
2 Af 1
If temperature is increased from 1 →2 then the sag and tension changes as follows:
s = s − f1 − f2  + ( −  )𝑙
2 1   2 1
 E 
w 2𝑙3
s2 = 𝑙 +
2

6 f 22 A2
' ' -temperature coefficient of thermal expansion

IMPORTANT CONSIDERATION IN MECHANICAL DESIGN

Mechanical factors of safety to be used in transmission line design should depend to some
extent on the importance of continuity of operation in the line under consideration. In general, the
strength of the line should be such as to provide against the worst probable weather conditions.
We now discuss some important points in the mechanical design of overhead transmission lines.
Tower height: Tower height depends upon the length of span. With long spans, relatively
few towers are required but they must be tall and correspondingly costly. It is not usually possible
to determine the tower height and span length on the basis of direct construction costs because the
lightning hazards increase greatly as the height of the conductors above ground is increased. This
is one reason that horizontal spacing is favored in spite of the wider right of way required.
Conductor clearance to ground: The conductor clearance to ground at the time of greatest
sag should not be less than some specified distance (usually between 6 and 12 m), depending on
the voltage, on the nature of the country and on the local laws. The greatest sag may occur on the
hottest day of summer on account of the expansion of the wire or it may occur in winter owing to
the formation of a heavy coating of ice on the wires. Special provisions must be made for melting
ice from the power lines.
Sag and tension: When laying overhead transmission lines, it is necessary to allow a
reasonable factor of safety in respect of the tension to which the conductor is subjected. The tension
is governed by the effects of wind, ice loading and temperature variations. The relationship
between tension and sag is dependent on the loading conditions and temperature variations. For
example, the tension increases when the temperature decreases and there is a corresponding
decrease in the sag. Icing-up of the line and wind loading will cause stretching of the conductor by
an amount dependent on the line tension.
In planning the sag, tension and clearance to ground of a given span, a maximum stress is
selected. It is then aimed to have this stress developed at the worst probable weather conditions
(i.e. minimum expected temperature, maximum ice loading and maximum wind). Wind loading
increases the sag in the direction of resultant loading but decreases the vertical component.
Therefore, in clearance calculations, the effect of wind should not be included unless horizontal
clearance is important.
Conductor spacing: Spacing of conductors should be such so as to provide safety against
flash-over when the wires are swinging in the wind. The proper spacing is a function of span
length, voltage and weather conditions. The use of horizontal spacing eliminates the danger caused
by unequal ice loading. Small wires or wires of light material are subjected to more swinging by
the wind than heavy conductors. Therefore, light wires should be given greater spacing.
 Conductor vibration: Wind exerts pressure on the exposed surface of the conductor. If the
wind velocity is small, the swinging of conductors is harmless provided the clearance is
sufficiently large so that conductors do not approach within the sparking distance of each other. A
completely different type of vibration, called dancing, is caused by the action of fairly strong wind
on a wire covered with ice, when the ice coating happens to take a form which makes a good air-
foil section. Then the whole span may sail up like a kite until it reaches the limit of its slack, stops
with a jerk and falls or sails back. The harmful effects of these vibrations occur at the clamps or
supports where the conductor suffers fatigue and breaks eventually. In order to protect the
conductors, Vibration Dampers are used.
 UNDERGROUND CABLES
INTRODUCTION
In high populated cities, bulk amount of power transfer through overhead transmission
lines is impractical due to safety hazards. Further it is impossible to construct transmission towers
in some places. In such places insulated conductors are laid underground known as underground
cables. Underground cables have different technical requirements than overhead lines and have
different environmental impacts. Due to their different physical, environmental, and construction
needs, underground transmission generally costs more and may be more complicated to construct
than overhead lines. The design and construction of underground transmission lines differ from
overhead lines because of two significant technical challenges that need to be overcome. These
are:
• Providing sufficient insulation so that cables can be within inches of grounded
material; and
• Dissipating the heat produced during the operation of the electrical cables.
The basic construction of underground cables is as shown in Fig.-7.1. It consists of current
carrying conductor surrounded by a suitable layer of insulation and finally a protective coating
known as sheath made of lead.

Sheath

Insulator

Conductor

FIG.-7.1 BASIC CONSTRUCTION OF UNDERGROUND CABLES

Based on its application and construction there are various types of underground cables.
They are described here briefly. The details of these cables can be referred from the Bureau of
Indian Standard as BIS has set the guidelines for the manufacturing of cables as per applications
and criteria for safety.

XLPE CABLES
Extra-high voltage cables over 66-kV rating may be categorized into OF (Oil Filled), POF
(Pipe Oil Filled) and CV (Cross-Linked Polyethylene Insulated PVC Sheathed, i.e., XLPE) cables,
XLPE cable has made a remarkable progress since its first application 50 years ago, with respect
to the material, structure, manufacturing technology and quality control technology. Because
XLPE cable is characterized by its ease of maintenance, the cable rapidly proliferated domestically
in the 1960s when its application began, currently constituting the majority of domestic power
cables having voltage ratings of 66-kV and higher. Moreover, since the late 1990s when 500-kV
XLPE cables have been put into actual use, studies have been made focusing on simplifying the
installation process for joints as well as reducing their sizes, and new joints that utilize new
structures and materials have been developed for practical application.

UNDERGROUND DISTRIBUTION CABLE

Underground distribution cables range from 6.6 kV to 33 kV in voltage rating, and XLPE
cables that employ crosslinked polyethylene as insulator are generally used. It may be said that the
history of XLPE cable is the history of countermeasures against water tree, a process of insulation
deterioration due to water absorption. Water tree is a phenomenon in which water penetrates into
insulation under the influence of electric fields forming a dendritic (tree-like) array of voids filled
with water, thereby degrading the insulation performance. Moreover, water-impervious XLPE
cables were developed and applied in the late 1980s centering on the 22- kV and 33-kV XLPE
cables, with the aim of improving the reliability further by completely preventing entry of water
into the cables. The water-impervious tape consisted of a laminated lead tape which is laminated
with a lead foil and plastics to improve the extensibility, making it possible for the tape to follow
the thermal expansion and contraction of the cable. This laminated lead layer was bonded on the
inside of the cable sheath, constituting a waterimpervious cable.

HIGH-PRESSURE, FLUID-FILLED PIPE-TYPE CABLE

A high-pressure, fluid-filled (HPFF) pipe-type of underground transmission line, consists
of a steel pipe that contains three high-voltage conductors. Each conductor is made of copper or
aluminum; insulated with high-quality, oil-impregnated kraft paper insulation; and covered with
metal shielding (usually lead) and skid wires (for protection during construction). Inside steel
pipes, three conductors are surrounded by a dielectric oil which is maintained at 200 pounds per
square inch (psi). This fluid acts as an insulator and does not conduct electricity. The pressurized
dielectric fluid prevents electrical discharges in the conductors’ insulation. An electrical discharge
can cause the line to fail. The fluid also transfers heat away from the conductors. The fluid is
usually static and removes heat by conduction. In some situations the fluid is pumped through the
pipe and cooled through the use of a heat exchanger. Cables with pumped fluids require
aboveground pumping stations, usually located within substations. The pumping stations monitor
the pressure and temperature of the fluid. There is a radiator-type device that moves the heat from
the underground cables to the atmosphere. The oil is also monitored for any degradation or trouble
with the cable materials.

HIGH-PRESSURE, GAS-FILLED PIPE-TYPE CABLE

The high-pressure, gas-filled (HPGF) pipe-type of underground transmission line is a
variation of the HPFF pipe-type, described above. Instead of a dielectric oil, pressurized nitrogen
gas is used to insulate the conductors. Nitrogen gas is less effective than dielectric fluids at
suppressing electrical discharges and cooling. To compensate for this, the conductors’ insulation
is about 20 percent thicker than the insulation in fluid-filled pipes. Thicker insulation and a warmer
pipe reduce the amount of current the line can safely and efficiently carry. In case of a leak or
break in the cable system, the nitrogen gas is easier to deal with than the dielectric oil in the
surrounding environment.
Cables have a much lower inductance than overhead lines due to the lower spacing between
conductor and earth, but have a correspondingly higher capacitance, and hence a much higher
charging current. High voltage cables are generally single cored, and hence have their separate
insulation and mechanical protection by sheaths. In the older paper insulated cables, the sheath
was of extruded lead. The presence of the sheath introduces certain difficulties as currents are
induced in the sheath as well. This is due to fact that the sheaths of the conductors cross the
magnetic fields set up by the conductor currents. At all points along the cable, the magnetic field
is not the same, Hence different voltages are induced at different points on the sheath. This causes
eddy currents to flow in the sheaths. These eddy currents depend mainly on (a) the frequency of
operation, (b) the distance between cables, (c) the mean radius of the sheath, and (d) the resistivity
of the sheath material.
 Dielectrics used for cable insulation must have the following properties.
• High Insulation resistance
• High dielectric strength
• Good mechanical strength
• Immune to attack by acids and alkali
• Should not be too costly
• Should not be hygroscopic (tending to absorb water), or if hygroscopic should be
enclosed in a water tight covering.

CAPACITANCE IN A SINGLE-CORE CABLE

Let us consider a single core cable as shown in Fig.-7.2.

Sheath

Insulator

r x
dx
R
Conductor

FIG.-7.2 CAPACITANCE CALCULATION OF SINGLE PHASE CABLE

Where,
r = radius of core (m)
R = inner radius of earthed sheath (m)
q = charge/unit length of cable (C/m)
D = electric flux density = charge density (C/m2)
k = permittivity of free space
Let us consider an elemental cylinder of radius x and thickness dx, and of length unity along
the cable.
q
g= (V/m) (7.1)
2kx
 R
R q (7.2)
V =  gdx = ln 
2k  r 


Hence from (7.1) and (7.2) we obtain

V
g= (7.3a)
R
x ln r 
 
The electrical stress shall be maximum at the surface of the conductor i.e. at x = r and
minimum at the inner surface of the sheath i.e. x = R . So that we can write:
V
g max = (7.3b)
R
r ln  r 
 
V
g = (7.3c)
min R
R ln  r 
 
The maximum stress should be minimum so that the cable can work satisfactorily without
rupturing the insulation. To achieve this we can differentiate (7.3b) w.r.t. r and make it equal to
zero.
 
 
dgmax d  V =0 (7.3d)
dr = dr   R
 r ln  
r
  
Solving (7.3b) we get
R
= e = 2.718 (7.3e)
r
Thus if the overall diameter of the cable is kept fixed, then R/r = e is the condition for
minimum gmax . This value of radius of conductor will generally be larger than would be required
for current carrying capacity. Since the radius of the conductor that would be given from the above
expression is larger than is necessary for current carrying capacity, this value of radius may be
achieved by using aluminum or hollow conductors.
The stress can be written as
q 18 X109 q
g= = q
= (V/m) (7.4)
2kx 2k0 kr x kr x
 The capacitance of the cable is then given by
q kr
C= = (F/m) (7.5)
V 9 R
18 X 10 ln  r 
 
0.024kr
C= (μF/km) (7.6)
 R 
ln r
 

CAPACITANCE OF THREE-CORE BELTED TYPE CABLES

In the case of a 3-core cable as shown in Fig.7.3, the 3-cores are individually insulated with
paper insulation. The filler spaces between the core insulation is also filled up with insulation, but
depriving these of voids is much more difficult. Belt insulation is used on top of all three core
insulations, and the lead sheath is extruded over this. Over the lead sheath, there is generally
bitumen to prevent damage. In buried cables, additional protection is necessary to prevent damage.
There are two types of armouring used for these cables.
• Steel tape armouring - the steel tape is usually wound in two layers with opposite
directions of lay
• Steel wire armouring - the steel wires are laid in one or two layers.
The capacitance between the conductors to neutral of 3-core belted cables cannot be
obtained by a simple derivation as for the single core cable. Simon's expression can be used to
obtain this value. The capacitance per unit length to neutral is given by
0.03kr
C=  (μF/km) (7.7)
t 2
t  T + t  
log10  0.52  −1.7  + 3.84  + 1

    
 d  

 T T

Where,
t = thickness of belt insulation
T = thickness of conductor insulation
d = diameter of conductor
 Sheath

Conductor

Filler

Insulator

FIG.-7.3 THREE-CORE BELTED TYPE CABLES

MEASUREMENT OF CAPACITANCE OF 3-CORE CABLES

In three-core cables, capacitance does not have a single value, but can be lumped as shown
in Fig.-7.4.

Cs Sheath

Conductor

Cc

FIG.-7.4 CAPACITANCE OF 3-CORE CABLES

Where, Cs - Capacitance between each core and sheath and Cc - Capacitance between cores
These can be calculated as mentioned below:
 Step-I: Strap the 3 cores together and measure the capacitance between this bundle and the
sheath as shown in Fig.-7.5. Let this value to be Cx., So that
Cx = 3Cs (7.8)

Cs Sheath

Conductor

Cc

Cx

FIG.-7.5 MEASUREMENT OF CAPACITANCE OF 3-CORE CABLES (STEP-I)

Step-II: Connect 2 of the cores to the sheath and measure between the remaining core and
the sheath as shown in Fig.-7.6. Let this value to be Cy., So that
Cy = Cs + 2Cc (7.9)

Cs Sheath

Conductor

Cc

Cy

FIG.-7.6 MEASUREMENT OF CAPACITANCE OF 3-CORE CABLES (STEP-II)

 Using (7.8) and (7.9) we derive the capacitance between the conductors and the conductor
and Sheath.
1
C = C (7.10)
s x
3
3Cy − Cx
Cc = (7.11)
6
From these the effective capacitance to neutral can be given by
C = Cs + 3Cc (7.12)

9Cy − Cx
C= (7.13)
6

GRADING OF CABLES
As can be seen the dielectric is not equally stressed at all radii, in a cable of homogeneous
insulation. The insulation is fully stressed only at the conductor, and further away near the sheath
the insulation is unnecessarily strong and thus needlessly expensive.
The electric stress in the dielectric may be more equally distributed by one of the two
following methods.
• Capacitance grading
• Intersheath grading

CAPACITANCE GRADING
In this method of grading, the insulation material consists of various layers having different
permittivities. Consider a cable graded by means of 3 layers of insulation, as shown in Fig.-7.7
having permittivities k1 , k2 , k3 , respectively.

Let the outer radii of these layers by r1 , r2 & r3 = R respectively, and the conductor radius
r . In order to secure the same value of maximum stress in each layer, the maximum stresses in
the layers are equated.
 Sheath
k3
k2
k1 Insulator

r r1

Conductor
r2
r3=R

FIG.-7.7 CAPACITANCE GRADING OF CABLES

Let the voltage across the inner-most layer of insulation be V .
Case-1: Dielectric strength have same factor of safety
Let dielectric strength of three materials be G1 , G2 and G3 respectively with factor

of safety f .
q G1
Gradient at x = r is =
2k1r f
q G2
Gradient at x = r is =
1
2k 2 r1 f

q G
Gradient at x = r2 is = 3
2k3r2 f
From the above relations,
G G G
q = 2k r 1 = 2k r 2 = 2k r 3 which gives k rG = k r G = k r G
1 2 1 3 2 1 1 2 1 2 3 2 3
f f f
Since r  r1  r2 it means k1G1  k2G2  k3G3
This shows that material of highest product of dielectric strength and permittivity should
be placed nearest to conductor and other layers be in descending order of product of dielectric
strength and permittivity.
Case-2: All materials are subjected to same maximum stress.
Then,
 q q q
gmax = 2k r = 2k r = 2k r
1 2 1 3 2

k1r = k2 r1 = k3r2

Hence k1  k2  k3 , thus total operating voltage of the cable becomes

r1 r2 R
V =g (r ln + r ln + r ln )
max 1 2
r r1 r2
Hence by grading the insulation, without increasing the overall diameter of the cable, the
operating voltage can be raised. A difficulty with this method is that we cannot obtain a wide range
of permittivities in practice, as paper insulation has permittivities limited to the range 2.8 to 4.0.
In the above analysis, it has been assumed that the maximum permissible stress is the same
for all three dielectrics used. If the maximum stress in the three sections are different, then the
maximum stresses should be reached at the same time for the most economical operation of the
insulation.

INTERSHEATH GRADING
In this type grading method, a single insulating material is used but separated into two or
more layers by thin metallic intersheaths maintained at appropriate potentials by being connected
to tappings on the winding of an auxiliary transformer supplying the cable as shown in Fig.-7.8.
Inter-Sheath

V
Sheath
k
k
V1 k Insulator

V2 r r1

Conductor
r2
r3=R
0

FIG.-7.8 INTERSHEATH GRADING

 The intersheaths are relatively flimsy, and are meant to carry only the charging current.
Since there is a definite potential difference between the inner and outer radii of each sheath, we
can treat each section separately as a single core cable.
As can be seen from the diagram there are three layers of insulation separated by two
intersheaths maintained at voltage V1 &V2 , the conductor is at voltage V . Thus we can write at
the surface of different intersheaths
V1 V2
g max 1 =  r1  , gmax 2 = r 
r ln  r ln 2 
r
1
 r1 
V1 V2
Hence for grading purpose we need to have gmax 1 = g max 2 or ==
 r1  r 
r ln  r ln 2 
1
r  r1 
Since the cable insulation now consists of a number of capacitors in series, formed by the
respective intersheaths, all potential differences V1 &V2 are in phase.

V = V1 + V2
In practice if there are n layers having same thickness then for uniform stress the voltage
across mth layer is given by
V r + mt
V = r + (m −1)tln
r + (m −1)t
m
M

POWER LOSS IN THE CABLE

Power loss in the cable can occur due to a variety of reasons. They may be caused by the
conductor current passing through the resistance of the conductor - conductor loss (also sometimes
called the copper loss on account of the fact that conductors were mainly made out of copper),
dielectric losses caused by the voltage across the insulation, sheath losses caused by the induced
currents in the sheath, and inter-sheath losses caused by circulating currents in loops formed
between sheaths of different phases. The dielectric loss is voltage dependent, while the rest is
current dependent.
DIELECTRIC LOSS
For a perfect dielectric, the power factor is zero. Since the cable is not a perfect dielectric,
the power factor is not zero. The current leads the voltage by an angle of less than 90o, and hence
there is a power loss. Refer to Fig.-

φ
V
As because I = VC , the dielectric loss is given by
P = VICos = VISin = V 2CSin
Where If C is the capacitance of the cable, and V is the applied voltage.

CONDUCTOR LOSS
The conductor loss is given by
PC = I 2 R c
Where Rc is the resistance of the conductor and I is the current in the cable.

SHEATH LOSS
The losses occurring in the sheath of a cable is usually obtained by the empirical formula
of Arnold. Arnold's formula for the sheath loss is given by
2
−3
I 2  rm 
P = 7.7 X 10   (W)
sh
Rsh  d 
Where rm = mean radius of sheath, d = distance between cables (centre to centre), Rsh =
resistance of full length of cable, I = current in cable
The sheath loss is usually about 2 to 5 % of the conductor loss.

INTERSHEATH LOSS
The Intersheath losses are caused by the induced emf between the sheaths causing a
circulating current. This loss is thus present only when the sheaths of adjacent cables are connected
together. The sheaths need to be connected together in practice, as otherwise sparking could occur
causing damage to the sheaths. The intersheath loss can be calculated as follows.
Pish = Iish
2 Rsh = I 2 2 M sh2 Rsh
Rsh2 +  2M sh
Where The mutual inductance between a core of one cable and the sheath of an adjacent
d 
cable M sh = 2 ln  
r
 
The voltage induced Eish = IMsh and
The induced current
Eish IMsh
Iish = =
R 2
sh
+  2M 2

sh
R 2
sh
+  2M 2

sh

I 2 2 M sh2
Generally, the sheath resistance Rsh M sh so that Pish =
Rsh

The intersheath loss is larger than the sheath loss and may range from 10% to 50% of the
copper loss. Thus the total power loss (exclusive of the dielectric loss) is given as
PLoss(total) = PC + Psh + Pish (7.14)

We may express the total loss in terms of an effective resistance as

PLoss(total) = I 2R eff

Since the sheath loss is usually very small, the effective conductor resistance can be written
as
 Module-V
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Electrical distribution systems are an essential part of the electrical power system. In order
to transfer electrical power from an alternating-current or a direct-current source to the place where
it will be used, some type of distribution network must be utilized. The method used to distribute
power from where it is produced to where it is used can be quite simple. More complex power
distribution systems are used, to transfer electrical power from the power plant to industries,
homes, and commercial buildings. Distribution systems usually employ such equipment as
transformers, circuit breakers, and protective devices. The original electrical distribution system
developed by Thomas Edison was an underground direct current (DC) system.
In general, the distribution system is the electrical system between the sub-station fed by
the transmission system and the consumer end. It generally consists of feeders, distributors. The
single line diagram of a typical distribution system is shown in Fig.-8.1. Basically we can say, that
part of power system which distributes electric power for local use is known as distribution system.
Feeders: A feeder is a conductor which connects the sub-station (or localised generating
station) to the area where power is to be distributed. Generally, no tappings are taken from the
feeder so that current in it remains the same throughout. The main consideration in the design of a
feeder is the current carrying capacity.
Distributor: A distributor is a conductor from which tappings are taken for supply to the
consumers. The current through a distributor is not constant because tappings are taken at various
places along its length.
Service mains: A service mains is generally a small cable which connects the distributor to
the consumers’ terminals.
A distribution system may be classified according to;
According to nature of current, distribution system may be classified as
• d.c. distribution system
• a.c. distribution system.
Now-a-days, a.c. system is universally adopted for distribution of electric power as it is
simpler and more economical than direct current method.
 Bulk Power Source

Secondary Transmission
System

Distribution Sub-Station

Load
Primary Distribution
System

Main Laterals
Distribution Transformer
Service Main

Consumer End

FIG.-8.1 A TYPICAL ELECTRIC POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

According to scheme of connection, the distribution system may be classified as
• Radial system
• Ring main system
• Inter-connected system.
Each scheme has its own advantages and disadvantages.

A.C. DISTRIBUTION
Now-a-days electrical energy is generated, transmitted and distributed in the form of
alternating current. One important reason for the widespread use of alternating current in
preference to direct current is the fact that alternating voltage can be conveniently changed in
magnitude by means of a transformer. Transformer has made it possible to transmit a.c. power at
high voltage and utilize it at a safe potential. High transmission and distribution voltages have
greatly reduced the current in the conductors and the resulting line losses.
There is no definite line between transmission and distribution according to voltage or bulk
capacity. However, in general, the a.c. distribution system is the electrical system between the
step-down substation fed by the transmission system and the consumers’ meters. The a.c.
distribution system is classified into ( i) primary distribution system and ( ii) secondary distribution
system.
Primary distribution system: It is that part of a.c. distribution system which operates at
voltages somewhat higher than general utilization and handles large blocks of electrical energy
than the average low-voltage consumer uses. The voltage used for primary distribution depends
upon the amount of power to be conveyed and the distance of the substation required to be fed.
The most commonly used primary distribution voltages are 11 kV, 66 kV and 33 kV. Due to
economic considerations, primary distribution is carried out by 3-phase, 3-wire system.
Electric power from the generating station is transmitted at high voltage to the substation
located in or near the city. At this substation, voltage is stepped down to 11 kV with the help of
step-down transformer. Power is supplied to various substations for distribution or to big
consumers at this voltage. This forms the high voltage distribution or primary distribution.
Secondary distribution system: It is that part of a.c. distribution system which includes the
range of voltages at which the ultimate consumer utilises the electrical energy delivered to him.
The secondary distribution employs 400/230 V, 3-phase, 4-wire system.
The primary distribution circuit delivers power to various substations, called distribution
sub-stations. The substations are situated near the consumers’ localities and contain step-down
transformers. At each distribution substation, the voltage is stepped down to 400 V and power is
delivered by 3-phase,4-wire a.c. system. The voltage between any two phases is 400 V and
between any phase and neutral is 230 V. The single phase domestic loads are connected between
any one phase and the neutral, whereas 3-phase 400 V motor, power transformer loads are
connected across 3-phase lines directly.

D.C. DISTRIBUTION
It is a common knowledge that electric power is almost exclusively generated, transmitted
and distributed as a.c. However, for certain applications, d.c. supply is absolutely necessary. For
instance, d.c. supply is required for the operation of variable speed machinery (i.e., d.c. motors),
for electro-chemical work and for congested areas where storage battery reserves are necessary.
For this purpose, a.c. power is converted into d.c. power at the substation by using converting
machinery e.g., mercury arc rectifiers, rotary converters and motor-generator sets. The d.c. supply
from the substation may be obtained in the form of (i) 2-wire or (ii) 3-wire for distribution.
 2- wire d.c. system: As the name implies, this system of distribution consists of two wires.
One is the outgoing or positive wire and the other is the return or negative wire. The loads such as
lamps, motors etc. are connected in parallel between the two wires. This system is never used for
transmission purposes due to low efficiency but may be employed for distribution of d.c. power.
3- wire d.c. system: It consists of two outers and a middle or neutral wire which is earthed
at the substation. The voltage between the outers is twice the voltage between either outer and
neutral wire. The principal advantage of this system is that it makes available two voltages at the
consumer terminals viz., V between any outer and the neutral and 2V between the outers. Loads
requiring high voltage (e.g., motors) are connected across the outers, whereas lamps and heating
circuits requiring less voltage are connected between either outer and the neutral.
Radial System: In this system, separate feeders radiate from a single substation and feed
the distributors at one end only. A single line diagram of a radial distribution system is shown in
Fig.-8.2. The radial system is employed at low voltage and the substation is located at the center
of the load.
Source
Main Feeder
Laterals

Load Load

Load Load
FIG.-8.2 RADIAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
 This is the simplest distribution circuit and has the lowest initial cost. However, it suffers
from the following drawbacks.
• The end of the distributor nearest to the feeding point will be heavily loaded.
• The consumers are dependent on a single feeder and single distributor. Therefore,
any fault on the feeder or distributor cuts off supply to the consumers who are on
the side of the fault away from the substation.
• The consumers at the distant end of the distributor would be subjected to serious
voltage fluctuations when the load on the distributor changes.
Due to these limitations, this system is used for short distances only. The radial system can
be extended by introducing more laterals and sub-laterals.
Ring main system: In this system, the primaries of distribution transformers form a loop.
The loop circuit starts from the substation bus-bars, makes a loop through the area to be served,
and returns to the substation. The single line diagram of ring main system is shown in Fig.-8.3.
Load

Main Feeder

Source

Load
FIG.-8.3 RING MAIN SYSTEM
 The ring main system has the following advantages.
• There are less voltage fluctuations at consumer’s terminals.
• The system is very reliable as each distributor is fed via two feeders. In the event
of fault on any section of the feeder, the continuity of supply is maintained.
For example, suppose that fault occurs at any section of the feeder. Then the faulted section
the feeder can be isolated for repairs and at the same time continuity of supply is maintained to all
the consumers via the other feeder.
Interconnected system: When the feeder ring is energized by two or more than two source,
it is called inter-connected system. The single line diagram of interconnected system is shown in
Fig.-8.4.
Load

Load
Main Feeder

Source-1 Source-2
Load
Load

Laterals
FIG.-8.4 INTERCONNECTED SYSTEM
The interconnected system has the following advantages.
• It increases the service reliability.
 • Any area fed from one generating station during peak load hours can be fed from
the other generating station. This reduces reserve power capacity and increases
efficiency of the system.

VOLTAGE DROP CALCULATION

The voltage drop in distribution system is calculated by following Ohm,s Law. Let us
consider a simple dc radial distribution system as shown in Fig.-8.5.
O A B C D E
Roa Rab Rbc Rcd Rde

Ia Ib Ic Id Ie
FIG.-8.5 A RADIAL DC DISTRIBUTOR SYSTEM HAVING CONCENTRATED LOAD

The system have concentrated load Ia , Ib , Ic , Id & Ie at load point A, B,C, D & E
respectively. The resistance of different section has been shown in the Fig.-8.5. The feeder is fed
at point O. Let the voltages at different nodes are Va ,Vb ,Vc ,Vd &Ve and the feeder is fed at the

voltage Vo .
Hence the voltage drop is given by
VDTotal = VDOA + VDAB + VDBC + VDCD + VDDE (8.1)
The current flowing in the section ‘OA’ is
Ioa = Ia + Ib + Ic + Id + Ie (8.2a)
The current flowing in the section ‘AB’ is
Iab = Ib + Ic + Id + Ie (8.2b)
The current flowing in the section ‘BC’ is
Ibc = Ic + Id + Ie (8.2c)
The current flowing in the section ‘CD’ is
Icd = Id + Ie (8.2d)
The current flowing in the section ‘DE’ is
Ide = Ie (8.2e)
The total voltage drop therefore, is given by
 VDTotal = IoaRoa + IabRab + IbcRbc + Icd Rcd + IdeRde (8.3)
Similarly we can determine the voltage drop for ac distribution system. In many cases the
load in the system is not concentrated, it may be either uniform loading or a combination of
uniform and concentrated loading. If the load is uniform then the voltage drop is calculated for a
very small length of the feeder such as dx and then integrate it over the whole length.

REQUIREMENTS OF A DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

A considerable amount of effort is necessary to maintain an electric power supply within
the requirements of various types of consumers. Some of the requirements of a good distribution
system are proper voltage, availability of power on demand and reliability.
Proper voltage: One important requirement of a distribution system is that voltage
variations at consumer’s terminals should be as low as possible. The changes in voltage are
generally caused due to the variation of load on the system. Low voltage causes loss of revenue,
inefficient lighting and possible burning out of motors. High voltage causes lamps to burn out
permanently and may cause failure of other appliances. Therefore, a good distribution system
should ensure that the voltage variations at consumer’s terminals are within permissible limits.
The statutory limit of voltage variations is ± 5% of the rated value at the consumer’s terminals.
Thus, if the declared voltage is 230 V, then the highest voltage of the consumer should not exceed
242 V while the lowest voltage of the consumer should not be less than 218 V.
Availability of power on demand: Power must be available to the consumers in any amount
that they may require from time to time. For example, motors may be started or shut down, lights
may be turned on or off, without advance warning to the electric supply company. As electrical
energy cannot be stored, therefore, the distribution system must be capable of supplying load
demands of the consumers. This necessitates that operating staff must continuously study load
patterns to predict in advance those major load changes that follow the known schedules.
Reliability: Modern industry is almost dependent on electric power for its operation.
Homes and office buildings are lighted, heated, cooled and ventilated by electric power. This calls
for reliable service. Unfortunately, electric power, like everything else that is man-made, can never
be absolutely reliable. However, the reliability can be improved to a considerable extent by
• Interconnected system
• Reliable automatic control system
• Providing additional reserve facilities.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Good voltage regulation of a distribution network is probably the most important factor
responsible for delivering good service to the consumers. For this purpose, design of feeders and
distributors requires careful consideration.
Feeders: A feeder is designed from the point of view of its current carrying capacity while
the voltage drop consideration is relatively unimportant. It is because voltage drop in a feeder can
be compensated by means of voltage regulating equipment at the substation.
Distributors: A distributor is designed from the point of view of the voltage drop in it. It is
because a distributor supplies power to the consumers and there is a statutory limit of voltage
variations at the consumer’s terminals (± 6% of rated value). The size and length of the distributor
should be such that voltage at the consumer’s terminals is within the permissible limits.
 NEUTRAL GROUNDING

INTRODUCTION

System grounding is the intentional connection of the neutral points of transformers,

generators and rotating machinery to earth. It offers many advantages over an ungrounded system
such as:
• Reduced magnitude of transient over-voltages
• Simplified ground fault location
• Improved system and equipment fault protection
• Reduced maintenance time and expense
• Greater safety for personnel
• Improved lightning protection
• Reduction in frequency of faults
• Note that solidly grounded systems offer only partial protection
The term “grounding” describes and encompasses both systems grounding and equipment
grounding. The basic difference between system and equipment grounding is that system
grounding involves grounding circuit conductors that are current carrying under normal operation,
where equipment grounding involves grounding of all non-current carrying metallic parts that
enclose the circuit conductors. A grounding electrode or several grounding electrodes tied together
as a system provides the reference ground and the means for connection to earth.
The best way to obtain the system neutral for grounding purposes in three phase systems
is to use source transformers or generators with Wye-connected windings. The neutral is the
readily available. When the system neutral may not available, earthing transformer may be used
to obtain the neutral.

ISOLATED NEUTRAL SYSTEMS

A power system not having any intentional connection to ground is referred to as an
ungrounded system as shown in Fig.-9.1. A three phase system with its voltage phasor diagram is
shown. However, because of the capacitive coupling between the phase conductors and ground,
an ungrounded system is in reality grounded through the distributed capacitance of the system
conductors to ground as shown in Fig.-9.2. When the neutral of a system is not grounded, a ground
fault on one line causes full line to line voltage throughout the system, between ground and the
two unfaulted phases. This voltage is 73% higher than normal as shown in Fig.-9.2. Usually the
insulation between each line and ground is adequate to withstand full line to line voltage. However,
if the insulation has deteriorated and the overvoltage is sustained sufficiently long, a second ground
fault may occur due to insulation failure. In spite of these considerations, ungrounded systems may
be used to gain an additional degree of service continuity.
R
VR
VR
VBR

Y N
VY VRY
B VB VY
VB VYB
FIG.-9.1 THREE PHASE SYSTEM (UNGROUNDED) WITH ITS VOLTAGE PHASOR DIAGRAM
R
VR

Y
VY

B
VB

FIG.-9.2 THREE PHASE SYSTEM (UNGROUNDED) WITH ONE PHASE FAULTED WITH EARTH
 The method of system grounding used has a significant effect on the continuity of power
to critical loads underground fault conditions. There are three typical grounding methods.

SOLID GROUNDED NEUTRAL SYSTEMS

In a solid grounded system, the neutral points have been intentionally connected to ground
with a conductor having no intentional impedance as shown in Fig.-9.3a. This reduces the problem
of transient over-voltages found on the ungrounded system and aids in the location of faults.
R
VR

Y
VY

B
VB
FIG.-9.3a SOLID GROUNDED THREE PHASE SYSTEM
R
VR

Y
VY

B
VB

FIG.-9.3b SOLID GROUNDED THREE PHASE SYSTEM WITH ONE PHASE FAULTED WITH EARTH
The single-phase earth fault current in a solidly earthed system may exceed the three phase
fault current. The magnitude of the current depends on the fault location and the fault resistance.
One way to reduce the earth fault current is to leave some of the transformer neutrals unearthed.
The main advantage of solidly earthed systems is low over voltages, which makes the earthing
design common at high voltage levels (HV). However, solidly grounded systems lack the current
limiting ability of resistance grounding and the extra protection this provides against equipment
damage and arcing ground faults.
Solid grounding facilitates the automatic clearing of ground faults by circuit protective
equipment (fuses and circuit breakers) because solid grounding results in the highest magnitude of
ground fault current. The higher the fault current, the higher the probability that fuses and circuit
breakers will operate in the “instantaneous” range.

RESISTANCE GROUNDED NEUTRAL SYSTEMS

Resistance grounding provides protection of a transformer/generator by solving the
problem of transient over-voltages thereby reducing equipment damage. It accomplishes this by
allowing the magnitude of fault current to be predetermined/limited by a simple Ohms law
calculation. In addition, limiting fault current to predetermined maximum values permits the
designer to selectively co-ordinate the operation of protective devices, which minimizes system
disruption and allows quick location of the fault. The systems with a very weak capacitive
connection to earth are normally resistance earthed as shown in Fig.-9.4.
R
VR

Y
VY

B
VB
FIG.-9.4 RESISTANCE GROUNDED THREE PHASE SYSTEM
Neutral grounding resistors will have advantage by reducing magnitude of transient over-
voltages, thereby reducing equipment damage, simplifying ground fault location, improving
system and equipment fault protection, reducing maintenance time and expense, creating improved
safety for personnel, improving lightning protection and reducing fault frequency.
 There are two broad categories of resistance grounding.
• Low-resistance
• High-resistance
In both types of grounding, the resistor is connected between the generator/transformer
neutral and earth ground. Low-resistance grounding of the neutral limits the ground fault current
to a relatively high level (typically 50 amps or more), in order to operate protective fault-clearing
relays and current transformers. These devices are then able to quickly clear the fault, usually
within a few seconds. This fast response time is important, since it limits damage to equipment,
prevents additional faults from occurring, provides safety for personnel and localizes the fault. The
limited fault current and fast response time also prevent overheating and mechanical stress on
conductors. It must be noted that the circuit must be shut down after the first ground fault occurs.
Low-resistance grounding, typically 400 Amps for 10 seconds are commonly found on medium
and high voltage systems.
High-resistance grounding of the neutral limits the ground fault current to a very low level
(typically under 25 Amps with a continuous duty). It is typically used on low voltage systems of
600 volts or less. By limiting the ground fault current to a very low level, the fault can be tolerated
on the system until it can be located and then isolated or removed at a convenient time. This permits
continued production, provided a second ground fault does not occur.
Advantages of high resistance earthed systems:
• Enables high impedance fault detection in systems with weak capacitive connection
to earth
• Some phase-to-earth faults is self-cleared.
• The neutral point resistance can be chosen to limit the possible over voltage
transients to 2.5 times the fundamental frequency maximum voltage
• Transients are further discussed in section below.
Disadvantages:
• Generates extensive earth fault currents when combined with strong or moderate
capacitive connection to earth.
• Cost involved
REACTANCE GROUNDED NEUTRAL SYSTEMS
The neutral is connected to earth through reactor. The ground fault that may flow is a
function of the neutral reactance, the level of the fault current is often used as a criteria for
describing the degree of grounding. In this method the ground fault current should be at least 60%
of the three phase fault current to prevent serious transient over voltages. This is considerably
higher than the level of fault current desirable in the system using resistor, and therefore reactance
grounding is usually not considered as an alternative to the system using resistor.
This system is used when the system neutral transformer is not available (Delta connected
system). In such case the reactor is used as transformer grounding to obtain the neutral .

GROUNDING THROUGH ARC-SUPPRESSION COIL (PETERSEN COIL)

An earthing reactor connected between the neutral of a system and earth and having a
specially selected, relatively high value of reactance in such that the reactive current to earth under
fault conditions balances the capacitance current to earth flowing from lines so that the earth
current at the fault is limited to practically zero. It is also known as resonant grounding. This
method of grounding is used primarily on 110 kV systems, consisting largely of overhead
transmission or distribution lines. Resonance earthing makes it possible to more or less eliminate
the reactive earth fault current.
Advantages of resonant earthed systems:
• Small reactive earth fault current independent of the phase to earth capacitance of
the system.
• Enables high impedance fault detection.
Disadvantages
• Risk of extensive active earth fault losses
• Complicated relay protection
• High costs associated.

The IEEE Green Book, Standard 142, contains useful reference information on system
grounding factors in selecting a system grounding method and equipment grounding and methods.
The IEEE Orange Book, Standard 446, contains a chapter of recommended practice that is specific
to grounding of emergency and standby generator systems.
 SUB-STATION
Substations are key parts of electrical generation, transmission, and distribution systems.
Substations transform voltage from high to low or from low to high as necessary. Substations also
dispatch electric power from generating stations to consumption centers. Electric power may flow
through several substations between the generating plant and the consumer, and the voltage may
be changed in several steps. Substations can be generally divided into three major types:
1. Transmission substations integrate the transmission lines into a network with multiple
parallel interconnections so that power can flow freely over long distances from any generator to
any consumer. This transmission grid is often called the bulk power system. Typically,
transmission lines operate at voltages above 132 kV. Transmission substations often include
transformation from one transmission voltage level to another.
2. Sub-transmission substations typically operate at 33 kV through 132 kV voltage levels,
and transform the high voltages used for efficient long distance transmission through the grid to
the sub-transmission voltage levels for more cost-effective transmission of power through supply
lines to the distribution substations in the surrounding regions. These supply lines are radial
feeders, each connecting the substation to a small number of distribution substations.
3. Distribution substations typically operate at 11 kV/0.4 kV voltage levels, and deliver
electric energy directly to industrial and residential consumers. Distribution feeders transport
power from the distribution substations to the end consumers’ premises. These feeders serve a
large number of premises and usually contain many branches. At the consumers’ premises,
distribution transformers transform the distribution voltage to the service level voltage directly
used in households and industrial plants, usually from 230 V or 400 V.
A typical sub-station connection diagram is shown in Fig.-10.1. The sub-station may
include the following equipment.
• Power transformer or distribution transformer as the case may be of sub-station
• Circuit breakers
• Disconnecting switches
• Isolators
• Station bus
 Source

Lightening Arrestor

Circuit Breaker

Isolator

Current Transformer

Potential Transformer

Main Transformer

Fuse

Load
FIG.-10.1 A TYPICAL LAY-OUT OF SUB-STATION

• Current transformer
• Potential transformer
• Lightening arrestor
• Protective relays
• Station batteries
• Earthing system
TRANSFORMERS.
Transformers are an essential part of any electrical system. They come in various sizes and
voltage ratings. Transformers are used for transforming power from one voltage level to another.
In sub-station either power transformer or distribution transformers are used depending upon the
sub-station location i.e. transmission sub-station or distribution sub-station.

CIRCUIT BREAKERS
Circuit breakers which control high voltages are also located at electrical substations. Many
outdoor substations use oil-filled circuit breakers. In-this type of circuit breaker, the contacts are
immersed in an insulating oil contained in a metal enclosure. Another type of high-voltage circuit
breaker is the magnetic air breaker in which the contacts separate, in the air, when the power line
is overloaded. Magnetic blowout coils are used to develop a magnetic field which causes the arc,
that is produced when the contacts break, to be concentrated into are chutes where it is
extinguished. A modification of this type is the compressed- air circuit breaker. In this type, a
stream of compressed air is concentrated on the contacts when the power line is opened. The
compressed air aids in extinguishing the arc, which is developed when the contacts open. It should
be pointed out that large arcs are present whenever a high-voltage circuit is interrupted. This
problem is not encountered to any great extent in low-voltage protective equipment.

DISCONNECTING SWITCHES
The disconnecting switches are used to disconnect electrical equipment from the power
lines which supply the equipment. Ordinarily, disconnect switches are not operated when current
is flowing through them. A high-voltage arcing problem would occur if disconnect switches were
opened while current was flowing through them. They are opened mainly to isolate equipment
from power lines for safety purposes. Most disconnect switches are the “air-break” type which is
similar in construction to knife switches. These switches are available for indoor or outdoor use in
both manual and motor-operated designs.

LIGHTNING ARRESTERS
The purpose of using lightning arresters on power lines is to cause the conduction to ground
of excessively high voltages that are caused by lightning strikes or other system-problems. Without
lightning arresters, power lines and associated equipment could become inoperable when struck
by lightning. Arresters are designed to operate rapidly and repeatedly if necessary. Their response
time must be more rapid than the other protective equipment used on power lines.
Lightning arresters must have a rigid connection to ground on one side. The other side of
the arrester is connected to a power line. Sometimes, they are connected to transformers or the
insides of switchgear. Lightning is a major cause of power-system failures and equipment damage,
so lightning arresters have a very important function.

INSULATORS AND CONDUCTORS

All power transmission lines must be isolated so as not to become safety hazards. Large
strings of insulators are used at substations and at other points along the power distribution system
to isolate the current carrying conductors from their steel supports or any other ground mounted
equipment. Insulators may be made of porcelain, rubber, or a thermoplastic material.

PROTECTIVE RELAYS
Protective relays provide an accurate and sensitive method of protecting electrical
distribution equipment short circuits and other abnormal conditions. Overcurrent relays are used
to cause the rapid opening of electrical power lines when the current exceeds a predetermined
value. The response time of the relays is very important in protecting the equipment from damage.
Some common types of faults which may be protected by relays are line-to-ground short circuits,
line-to-line short circuits, double line-to-ground short circuits, and three-phase line short circuits.
Each of these conditions is caused by faulty circuit conditions which draw abnormally high current
(fault currents) from the power lines.

FUSES
Since electrical power lines are frequently short circuited, various protective equipment is
used to prevent damage to both the power lines and the equipment. This protective equipment must
be designed to handle high voltages and currents. Either fuses or circuit breakers may be used to
protect high-voltage power lines. High-voltage fuses (those used for over 600 volts) are made in
several ways. An expulsion-type fuse has an element which will melt and vaporize when it is
overloaded, causing the power line it is connected in series with to open. Liquid fuses have a
liquid-filled metal enclosure, which contains the fuse element. The liquid acts as an arc suppressing
medium. When the fuse element melts due to an excessive current in a power line, the element is
immersed in the liquid to extinguish the arc. This type of fuse reduces the problem of high-voltage
arcing. A solid material fuse is similar to a liquid fuse except that the arc is extinguished in a
chamber filled with solid material. Ordinarily, high-voltage fuses at substations are mounted
adjacent to air-break disconnect switches. These switches provide a means of switching power
lines and disconnecting them for repair. The fuse and switch enclosure is usually mounted near the
overhead power lines at a substation.

SUBSTATION LOCATION
Distribution substations should be located as close to the load to be served as possible. In
addition, future load requirement should be planned accurate. The level of distribution voltage is
also a consideration. Generally, the higher the distribution voltage, the farther apart substations
may be located. However, they become larger in capacity and in number of customers served as
distance apart increases. The decision of substation location must be based upon system reliability
and economic factors. Among these factors are the availability of land, estimated operating costs,
taxes, local zoning laws, environmental factors and potential public opinion. Also considered is
the fact that conductor size increases as the size of the load supplied increases. The primary voltage
level affects not only the size of conductors, but also the size of regulation equipment, insulation
and other equipment ratings.

SUBSTATION BUS SCHEMES

The electrical and physical connection of sub-station buses are typically governed by
safety, reliability, economy, maintainability and ease of operations etc. The connection schemes
for the buses are described herein. Each scheme has its own advantages and disadvantages. The
students are advised to discuss these in the class room.
Line Side

Circuit Breaker

Bus
Disconnecting
Switch

Line Side
FIG.-10.2 SINGLE BUS SCHEME
Line Side Line Side

Bus-1

Bus-2

Line Side Line Side

FIG.-10.3 DOUBLE BUS DOUBLE BREAKER SCHEME

Incoming Line Side

Main Bus

Bus
Tie
Breaker

Transfer Bus

Outgoing Line Side

FIG.-10.4 MAIN AND TRANSFER BUS SCHEME
 Bus-1

Bus
Tie
Breaker

Bus-2

Line Side
FIG.-10.5 DOUBLE BUS SINGLE BREAKER SCHEME

Incoming Line Side

Outgoing Line Side

FIG.-10.6 RING BUS SCHEME
 Line Side Line Side Line Side

Bus-1

Bus
Tie
Breaker

Line Side Line Side Line Side

FIG.-10.7 ONE AND HALF BREAKER SCHEME