Digital Manufacturing (OE66)

Unit-1: Introduction to Digital Manufacturing (DM)

Development Course of Manufacturing and Manufacturing Science:

Manufacturing is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary as the action or process of
manufacturing something; production, fabrication, and also the sector of the economy
engaged in industrial production. Original manufacturing was accomplished by hand,
but most modern manufacturing operations are highly mechanized and automated.

Manufacturing as Craft and Technique:

Manufacturing technologies in ancient countries not only produced a great glory for
historic dynasties but also made tremendous contributions to ancient human
civilization. In the seventeenth century, manufacturing gradually developed into a
technology from a skill. With the invention of the steam engine, weaving machine and
metal cutting machine, the social division of labor caused huge changes, and in time,
manufacturing was no longer owned or completed by handworkers.

Manufacturing Becoming a Science:

Modern manufacturing originated in the West. It gradually progressed into mechanical
manufacturing in the nineteenth century and progressed in the direction of
mechanization and electrification. From the 1980s, many new manufacturing methods
and manufacturing concepts emerged, which greatly propelled the development of
manufacturing. These new concepts guide us to analyze and anticipate the future of
manufacturing, and these concepts (e.g., Automated Manufacturing, Agile
Manufacturing, Concurrent Engineering (CE), Computer Integrated Manufacturing
(CIM) and Intelligent Manufacturing, etc.) mutually promote and develop, analysis and
looking ahead to future manufacturing. From this period on, manufacturing is no longer
a single skill or technology, but a science including engineering science, organization
science, information science and so on.

Engineering Science in Manufacturing:

Harrington, Merchant and Bjorke used computers in manufacturing early on, and they
proposed to turn all operations of the whole manufacturing system into automation,
optimization and integration with the concept of CIM. During the 1980s, CIM naturally
expanded to the field of robotics and artificial intelligence (AI).
The conception of CIM has functioned as a connection between manufacturing,
systematic science, and other related issues, and they are merging into the
manufacturing industry. The CIM age, which takes Harrington, Merchant and Bjorke
as representative, includes the physical process of each manufacturing technology
(such as machining, welding or semiconductor manufacturing), control issues (such
as servo-control on robots in various production machines), as well as the scheduling
of Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS).
Organizational Science in Manufacturing:

The combination of organizational sciences such as Total Quality Management

(TQM), Just in Time (JIT) manufacturing, Concurrent Engineering (CE), and Lean
Production (LP), with engineering science is represented by CIM. The ‘‘Toyota
production system’’ advocated by the vice president Taishi Ono of the original Toyota
Motor Corporation uses FMS to pull product production, in order to reduce work in
process, rather than pushing unnecessary parts into a crowded production line like
traditional manufacturing. JIT manufacturing is often used to describe this way of
operating. Lean manufacturing (LM) is another relevant expression emphasizing
reducing work in process and in inventory.
The new concept of open structural manufacturing and agile manufacturing runs
through the 1990s. Rapid reconfigurable enterprises should make reactions to new
consumers that have requirements on ‘‘due date, quality and product variety’’.
Multi-crossed Disciplines in Manufacturing:

With the rapid development of modern science and technology, especially the quick
development of microelectronics, computer technology, network technology and
information technology, the face and meaning of manufacturing theory, manufacturing
technology, manufacturing industry and manufacturing science lead to a fundamental
and revolutionary change.
Manufacturing also benefits from the development of the related theory of computer
science and mathematics. Multimedia computer systems and communication
networks realize parallelism, distribution, virtual cooperation, remote operation and
monitoring. Electronic commerce and computer network can realize remote sales,
production, maintenance and management.
Information theory has also promoted the development of the manufacturing field. In a larger
scope, all manufacturing activities involve human factors as well as information processing,
expression, transmission and so on. The optimal configuration and effective operations of
manufacturing resources are all related to information theory. This related research will be
resolved by manufacturing informatics based on information technology.
The analogy of the manufacturing process and biological process sheds light on new methods
of solving problems in manufacturing including adaptability, autonomy, intelligibility, etc. In
fact, Bionic Manufacturing is leading such an emerging research field.
Manufacturing must have high-quality management and operation. Human factors,
cooperation and competition across enterprises, collaboration and the integration of
manufacturing resources are not only technical problems. Technology Management is the
basis of those manufacturing issues.
Based on the characteristics above, manufacturing has developed as a multi-disciplinary
integrated system, and thus as a manufacturing science.

Concepts of Digital Manufacturing:

Digital Manufacturing is a manufacturing process which, with the support of technologies such
as virtual reality, computer networks, rapid prototyping and database, is based on customer
demand so as to analyze, organize and recombine the product information, process
information and resource information, implement the product design and function simulation
as well as rapid prototyping, and then to perform rapid production to meet customer demand
and quality standards.
The conception of DM originated from the technology of Numerical Control (NC) or Computer
Numerical Control (CNC) and the CNC machine tool. Digital design and digital management
have fully developed along with the advancement of CAD and the development of material
requirements planning (MRP). All the processes involved with the above digital activities are
related to DM. In the process, the control parameters and control flow to manufacturing
equipment are digital signals; all kinds of signal to manufacturing enterprises, including design
information, process information, manufacturing information, management information and
manufacturing knowledge and skill, are transmitted in the form of digital signals among
manufacturing enterprises through the digital network.

Fig. 1.1 Illustration of DM concept

It is clear that the concept of DM is the result of the merging process of digital technology,
network information technology, manufacturing technology and also the unavoidable result of
the digitizing process in manufacturing enterprises, manufacturing systems and production
systems. In manufacturing devices, for example, the control variables are digital signals. In
manufacturing enterprises, all sorts of information (graphic, data, knowledge, and technique)
are in digital form, transmitting in internal enterprises through digital networks. In global
manufacturing enterprises, users publish the information through digital networks; enterprises
(large, medium, and small) cooperatively produce the products quickly and agilely. In the DM
environment, individuals, enterprises, shop floors, devices, sales agents and markets form the
nodes in the network over the Internet. On the other hand, DM contains the Control-Centered
DM, Design Centered DM, Management-Centered DM and Manufacturing-Centered DM.
Currently, networked manufacturing is the implementation of the globalization of DM, virtual
manufacturing is the entity of the digital factory, and digital products and e-commence are the
dynamic federation of DM. The concept of DM is shown in Fig. 1.1.

Features and Development of Digital Manufacturing:

As a new manufacturing technology and a manufacturing mode, DM has become the

prevailing way of promoting the development of the manufacturing industry in the twenty-first
century. Its important features are: when it is described and expressed, its digital expression
has exclusive meaning and is reusable; when it analyzes manufacturability and evaluates the
performance of a product, it has the predictability of product development and product
performance; and in the network environment, manufacturing activities have independence in
distance, time and location.
At present, the basic theoretical research of DM focuses on computational geometry,
geometric reasoning, calculation of manufacturing, manufacturing informatics and so on.
Digital manufacturing is the application of computer systems to manufacturing services,
products and processes. It can improve productivity, quality, costs and flexibility1. Some
features of digital manufacturing are:

 Product life cycle: Data is stored throughout every step, from design to servicing.
 Smart factory: Machines, sensors, robots and humans are connected and communicate
in real time.
 Value chain management: Data is shared across the supply chain, from suppliers to
customers.

Operation Reference Mode of Digital Manufacturing System:

The basic process of digital manufacturing means that the design, simulation, and production
of a product are completed in a digital environment. After receiving orders, a conceptual design
and general design are first carried out, followed by a computer simulation or rapid prototyping
process, and process planning engineering, the process of CAM and CAQ, until finally the
product is formed. It is essential for production resources to be planned generally and
coordinated in the entire manufacturing process. It can be seen from processes above that
the digital manufacturing system is not just a simple manufacturing process; it also includes
many links such as the relevant market demand, manufacturing organization, marketing and
product maintenance. Based on these aspects, the operation reference mode of the digital
manufacturing system is derived as shown in Fig. 1.2.
The management and decision-making systems of manufacturing individual or alliance. This
is the core management and decision-making system of the entire manufacturing
organization, responsible for handling plans, operations, detection, control and maintenance
in the enterprise, and is the backbone of the entire system. The individual is the smallest
independent manufacturing unit, and may be a manufacturing department, workshop, digital
intelligent manufacturing equipment or an independent enterprise; the alliance is a
organization that is composed of a number of digital manufacturing individuals and can realize
the integral function of product.
 Fig. 1.2 The operation reference mode of digital manufacturing system
Market analysis and evaluation system. This is mainly responsible for collecting market
information, tracking existing market products analyzing new market demand and evaluating
the value and feasibility analysis. Product collaborative design and simulation system. Aiming
at demand for the new product, this system coordinates the design members in the
manufacturing alliance and uses their respective core competences and advantages to
achieve collaborative product design, realize the simulation and rapid prototyping
manufacturing of the designed product, and evaluate the design results, to achieve a low-cost,
high-quality and high-speed product design result that is also harmless environmentally.
Product collaborative manufacture and control system of manufacturing process. This
system takes charge of coordinating members in the manufacturing organization by using their
core manufacturing capabilities to implement rapid product production. It also ensures that all
equipment and devices in the manufacturing environment are carefully planned and built,
controlled collaboratively and run reliably.
Product quality management system. This is responsible for the quality detection and
management of products, which ensures that quality products reach the market.
Product marketing system. This system is responsible for the formulation and
implementation of the product marketing strategy and the commercialization of products in
order to gain the biggest sales return and achieve the goal of product manufacturing.
Customer Service System. This is responsible for the maintenance and service of products
to ensure the correct use of products, to gain market reputation, and promote the social
benefits of products. Customer demand can be used as the basis for market analysis of new
products.

Architecture of Digital Manufacturing System:

The digital manufacturing system should include the basic theories of digital manufacturing
science, the key technology of the digital manufacturing system, the network and application
fields of digital manufacturing, and so on. The architecture of the digital manufacturing
system is shown in Fig. 1.3.
 Fig. 1.3 Architecture of digital manufacturing system
The architecture of a digital manufacturing system should be constructed on the basis of the
basic theory of digital manufacturing science. The foundation of digital manufacturing science
includes modeling theory of the digital manufacturing system, a system architecture model
and discipline basic theories, and so on. Accordingly, the modeling theory of a digital
manufacturing system is a scientific method of systematic analysis and synthesis; the system
architecture model defines the basic research objects and contents of the digital
manufacturing system, and establishes the basic organization structure, function structure,
operation, and control structure of the digital manufacturing system. Further, it establishes the
basic architecture of the entire research subject; the basic discipline theories belong to the
discipline theories of digital manufacturing science and provide theories and methods for the
concrete realization of the entire system to ensure its successful implementation. These
factors constitute the basic theory of digital manufacturing science and are the cornerstone of
the development of all digital manufacturing science. Based on the basic theory, a reasonable
digital manufacturing application system can be constructed.
The key technologies of the digital manufacturing system include product description
technology, manufacturing process expression and control technology, manufacturing data
acquisition, storage and processing technology, networks and grid technology, engineering
database technology, virtual and simulation technology, and metadata technology.
Accordingly:
1. Product description technology refers to the use of digital technology to describe product
information, including description and expression norms, as STEP is a typical product
description technology and norm.
2. Manufacturing process expression and control technology includes how to express and
control various certain and uncertain manufacturing processes, and the examples of uncertain
manufacturing processes include the process of tool wear, market development and the
decision-making process.
3. Manufacturing data acquisition, storage and processing, include the acquisition, expression,
storage, processing and application of manufacturing knowledge.
4. Network and grid technology refer to the network support technology which guarantees the
collaborative design and production of the system in remote, heterogeneous environments.
Among them, the grid network technology, which applies and develops network technology,
guarantees the independence of network resources, and the sharing of applications in an
efficient and safe way.
5. Engineering database technology: there are many problems concerning data storage and
a management in a manufacturing system, but there is so far no suitable database technology
to meet the corresponding requirements.
6. Virtual and simulation technologies include virtual design, manufacturing process simulation
and digital prototyping.
7. Metadata is data about data, by which we can understand the name, purpose and usage of
data.
The digital manufacturing system is widely applied and includes the breakpoints in machinery,
electronics, the chemical industry, light industry, national defense and a variety of
manufacturing and application platforms, and digital manufacturing norms and the
implementation of tools.

Modeling theory of DM:

Modeling theory is an essential part of digital manufacturing. It allows us to create
virtual representations of physical objects and systems that can be used to simulate
and analyze their behavior. This information can then be used to improve the design,
operation, and maintenance of manufacturing systems.
The digital manufacturing model is an indispensable tool in the whole lifecycle of the
digital manufacturing system. This whole lifecycle includes data acquisition, data
processing, data transmission, implementation of control, affairs management and
decision support, and so on. It consists of a series of models in an orderly manner;
these models are generally the product design model, resource model, information
model, operation and control model, system organization and decision-making model
and so on. Here, the so-called ‘orderly manner’ usually means that these models are
created at different stages of the life-cycle in the digital manufacturing system.
The digital manufacturing model is an indispensable tool in the whole lifecycle of the
digital manufacturing system. This whole lifecycle includes data acquisition, data
processing, data transmission, implementation of control, affairs management and
decision support, and so on. It consists of a series of models in an orderly manner;
these models are generally the product design model, resource model, information
model, operation and control model, system organization and decision-making model
and so on. Here, the so-called ‘orderly manner’ usually means that these models are
created at different stages of the life-cycle in the digital manufacturing system.
There are many classifications in the digital manufacturing model. Classifying by form,
there is the global structure model (such as the architecture of manufacturing system),
the local structure model (such as the FMS model), the product structure model and
the scheduling model of production planning; classifying by modeling method, there is
the mathematical analytical model (such as the state-space model), the graphic
conceptual model (IDEF model) and the hybrid diagram—analysis model (such as the
Petri net model); classifying by function, there is the structure description model, the
system analysis model, the system design and implementation model, and the system
operation and management model. In digital manufacture, the objects that need to be
described by model include:
(1) Product. The life-cycle of a product needs a variety of product and process models
to be described;
(2) Resources. Various resources in the digital manufacturing system need the
corresponding models to be described, such as manufacturing equipment, funds,
various materials, persons, computing devices, and kinds of application software;
(3) Information. It is necessary to establish the appropriate information model for
information acquisition, processing and usage in the whole process of digital
manufacture;
(4) Organization and decision-making. This is an important approach for actualizing
the optimal decision-making for modeling organization and the decision-making
process in digital manufacture;
(5) Production process. This is the premise that the modeling production process will
realize the optimization of the production and scheduling process in the manufacturing
system;
(6) Network environment modeling. The various objects mentioned above are modeled
when the digital manufacturing system is in a network environment.

Benefits of DM:
1. Faster production and delivery of products
2. Lower costs and waste
3. More accurate and intricate designs
4. More resilient and agile supply chains
5. Improved customer experiences

Limitations of DM:
1. High initial investment and maintenance costs
2. Cyber security risks and data breaches
3. Resistance to change and cultural barriers
4. Technical complexity and skill gaps
5. Environmental impact and ethical issues
6. Lack of creativity due to automation

Challenges during implementation of DM:

1. The cost of initial investments can be a challenge for small to medium
manufacturers.
2. Cyber security issues
3. Lack of digital expertise
4. Inflexible legacy infrastructure
5. Employee pushback and resistance
6. Learning curve
7. Outdated system
8. Privacy concerns