Chapter 3

Classification of Elements and

Periodicity in Properties

Dobereiner’s Triads

Dobereiner’s Triads were proposed by the

German chemist Johann Wolfgang
Dobereiner.
He attempted to classify elements with
similar properties into groups of three
elements each, called “triads.”
The key idea behind these triads was that the
atomic mass of the element in the middle of
the triad would be approximately equal to the
average of the atomic masses of the other
two elements.
Limitations of Dobereiner’s Triads
Not all elements known at that time could be
classified into triads.
Only four triads were identified by
Dobereiner, leaving many elements
unaccounted for.
Newland’s Octaves

John Newlands, arranged the 56 known

elements in increasing order of atomic mass.
Newlands observed a pattern where every
eighth element exhibited properties similar to
the first. This observation led to the
formulation of Newland’s Law of Octaves.
According to this law, when elements are
arranged in increasing order of atomic mass,
the properties of two elements with an
interval of seven elements between them
would be similar.
Limitations of Newland’s octaves

1.The classification of elements based on

octaves was only successful up to calcium.
2. The discovery of noble gases posed a
challenge to Newland’s arrangement, as they
did not fit into the periodic pattern without
disrupting it completely.

Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

Mendeleev’s Periodic Law, also known as

Mendeleev’s Law, states that the chemical
properties of elements are a periodic function
of their atomic weights.
Advantages of Mendeleev’s Periodic table:
1. It accommodated newly discovered
elements without disturbing the table’s
structure, including germanium, gallium,
and scandium.
 2. Mendeleev’s table helped correct
inaccurate atomic weights that were
prevalent at the time.

Limitations of Mendeleev’s Periodic table:

1. Hydrogen’s position in the group of
alkali metals contradicted its halogen-like
qualities.
2. Isotopes were not considered, leading
to inconsistencies in the placement of
elements like protium, deuterium, and
tritium.
3. Some elements were anomalously
positioned, such as cobalt (atomic mass
58.9) appearing before nickel (atomic
mass 58.7).
In 1913, English physicist Henry Moseley conducted groundbreaking
research on the characteristic x-rays emitted by different metals. He
discovered a direct correlation between the square root of the frequency
of these x-rays and the atomic number of the elements. Based on his
findings, Moseley formulated the modern periodic law, which states:

“The physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic

functions of their atomic numbers.”

Classification of elements in modern

periodic table
The modern periodic table comprises 18 vertical columns known as
groups (1-18) and 7 horizontal rows known as periods. Each period and
group represent distinct characteristics of the elements.

● The first period consists of only two elements: Hydrogen and

Helium.
● The second period includes eight elements, starting from Lithium
and ending with Neon.
● The third period also contains eight elements, from Sodium to
Argon.
● The fourth period encompasses eighteen elements, extending from
Potassium to Krypton.
● The fifth period also holds eighteen elements, ranging from
Rubidium to Xenon.
● The sixth period consists of thirty-two elements.
● The seventh period is incomplete.
Elements in the periodic table are classified into four blocks based on their
electronic configuration: s-block, p-block, d-block, and f-block.

● The elements in the 1st and 2nd groups are termed s-block
elements, with a general electronic configuration of ns1-2.
● Elements in groups 13th to 18th are known as p-block elements,
having a general electronic configuration of ns2 np1-6.
 ● The elements from the 3rd to 12th groups belong to the d-block,
with a general electronic configuration of (n-1)d1-10 ns1-2.
● Lanthanides and actinides, placed separately at the bottom of the
periodic table, are known as f-block elements, with a general
electronic configuration of (n-2)f1-14 (n-1)d0-1 ns2.
This systematic classification helps in understanding the properties and
behavior of different elements within the periodic table.

Periodic properties and their trends

The periodic properties of elements are closely related to their electronic
configuration and exhibit a gradual change as we move down a group or
across a period.

Key physical properties such as melting points, boiling points, density, and
enthalpy of fusion and vaporization are influenced by electronic
configuration. However, our focus lies primarily on properties like atomic
and ionic radii, ionization enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy, and
electronegativity.

Atomic and Ionic Radii:

Atomic Radii: The distance from the nucleus to the outermost electron
shell defines atomic radii, which can be covalent, van der Waals, or
metallic.

Covalent radii: Half the distance between nuclei of adjacent atoms in a

single covalent bond.

Van der Waals radii: Half the internuclear distance between atoms of
neighboring molecules .

Metallic radii: Half the distance between nuclei of adjacent atoms in a

metallic crystal.

Atomic radii decrease across periods due to increased effective nuclear

charge and increase down groups owing to additional electron shells and
shielding effect.

Ionic Radii: The effective distance from the nucleus to the electron cloud
for ions formed from neutral atoms.

Ionic radii follow the same trend as atomic radii, decreasing across periods
and increasing down groups.
Properties of an Element
Atomic radius is a fundamental concept in chemistry that refers to the size
of an atom. However, due to the electron’s probability distribution, it’s
challenging to measure the exact size of an isolated atom. Therefore,
different forms of atomic radius are utilized depending on the atom’s
surroundings. These include covalent radius, van der Waals’ radius, and
metallic radius.

Covalent radius is defined as half the distance between the nuclei of two
identical atoms bonded by a single covalent bond. If the bond is formed
between different elements, the covalent radius is calculated based on
their electronegativities.

Van der Waals’ radius is half the internuclear distance between adjacent
atoms of neighboring molecules in the solid state.

Metallic radius, also known as crystal radius, is half the distance between
the nuclei of neighboring metal atoms in a metallic crystal lattice.

In general, the order of atomic radii is: covalent radius < metallic radius <
van der Waals’ radius.

The variation of atomic radii in the periodic table follows certain trends.
Along a period, as we move from left to right, the covalent and van der
Waals’ radii generally decrease due to increasing effective nuclear charge.
Along a group, the atomic radius increases with the increasing number of
atoms in the group, as the valence electrons move farther away from the
nucleus with increasing principal quantum number (n).

Ionic radius, which refers to the size of ions, follows similar trends as
atomic radii. Cations (positive ions) are smaller than their parent atoms
due to the removal of electrons, while anions (negative ions) are larger
due to the addition of electrons. Isoelectronic species, which have the
same number of electrons, exhibit variations in radius depending on their
nuclear charges.

Ionization Enthalpy
The energy required to remove an electron from the outermost orbit of an
isolated gaseous atom.
Increases across periods due to increased nuclear charge and decreases
down groups.

Electron Gain Enthalpy

The change in enthalpy when a gaseous atom gains an electron to form a
monovalent anion.
Increases across periods and decreases down groups, with exceptions for
half-filled or fully filled orbitals.

Electronegativity
● The ability of an atom to attract shared electrons in a covalent
bond.
● Fluorine is the most electronegative, while cesium is the least.
● Electronegativity increases across periods and decreases down
groups.
Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties
Valence electrons are crucial in determining the chemical behavior of
atoms, as they reside in the outermost shell and are involved in bonding.
The valence, or valency, of an atom corresponds to the number of these
electrons. For s- and p-block elements, the valence is typically equal to
the number of valence electrons. Transition and inner transition elements,
however, exhibit variable valences due to the presence of d- or f-
electrons, although common valences are often 2 and 3.

Understanding valence periodicity helps comprehend how valence states

change across periods and within groups in the periodic table.

Along a period, the number of valence electrons increases from 1 to 8 as we

move from left to right. However, when considering the valence in compounds
relative to hydrogen or oxygen, it peaks at 4 before declining to 0. For instance,
in Na2O, oxygen, being more electronegative, gains two electrons from each
sodium atom, leading to an oxidation state of -2, while sodium loses one
electron, resulting in an oxidation state of +1.
Within a group, the number of valence electrons remains constant, resulting in
elements within the group sharing the same valence. For instance, all alkali
metals in group 1 have a valence of one, while alkaline earth metals in group 2
have a valence of two. Noble gases in group 18 have zero valence, as they are
chemically inert and do not form bonds.

Anomalous Properties of Second Period

Elements
Diagonal relationships in the periodic table occur when elements from the
second period share similarities with elements from the third period when
placed diagonally across each other, despite being in different groups. For
instance, lithium in group 1 resembles magnesium in group 2, while
beryllium in group 2 resembles aluminium in group 13, and so forth. This
phenomenon arises due to their comparable attributes, such as size,
charge-to-radius ratio, and electronegativity.

The unique behavior of these elements is attributed to several factors.

Firstly, the first member of each group has only four valence orbitals
available for bonding (2s and 2p), whereas the second member of the
group has nine valence orbitals (3s, 3p, 3d).

Anomalous Properties of Second Period

Elements
Diagonal relationships in the periodic table occur when elements from the
second period share similarities with elements from the third period when
placed diagonally across each other, despite being in different groups. For
instance, lithium in group 1 resembles magnesium in group 2, while
beryllium in group 2 resembles aluminium in group 13, and so forth. This
phenomenon arises due to their comparable attributes, such as size,
charge-to-radius ratio, and electronegativity.

The unique behavior of these elements is attributed to several factors.

Firstly, the first member of each group has only four valence orbitals
available for bonding (2s and 2p), whereas the second member of the
group has nine valence orbitals (3s, 3p, 3d).
Consequently, the maximum covalency of the first member is limited to 4,
while the subsequent members can expand their valence shell to
accommodate more than four pairs of electrons. For example, boron can
only form compounds like [BF4]−, whereas aluminium can form
complexes like [AlF6]3−.

Additionally, the first member of p-block elements exhibits a greater tendency to

form p-p multiple bonds within itself (e.g., C=C, C≡C, N=N, N≡N) and with other
second-period elements (e.g., C=O, C=N, C≡N, N=O) compared to later
members of the same groups. This propensity for multiple bonding contributes to
their unique chemical behavior and diagonal relationship with elements in
different periods and groups.
What are the different blocks in the periodic table based on electronic
configuration?
Elements are classified into four blocks based on their electronic configuration: s-
block, p-block, d-block, and f-block. Each block corresponds to a specific range of
electron configurations.
Write General electronic configuration for
Each block

How does atomic radius vary across a period and down a group?
Across a period, atomic radius generally decreases due to increasing effective
nuclear charge. Down a group, atomic radius increases due to the addition of new
energy levels and increased shielding effect.

Explain electron gain enthalpy and its periodic trends.

Electron gain enthalpy is the energy released when an atom gains an electron. It
generally becomes more negative across a period (except for noble gases) and
decreases down a group.

What is electronegativity? How does it vary in the periodic table?

Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to attract shared electrons in a chemical
bond. It generally increases across a period and decreases down a group.