Cloud Computing Unit I

Cloud Computing

Unit I - Introduction

1. Cloud - Definition Cloud computing is a model that enables ubiquitous, convenient, on-
demand network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks,
servers, storage, applications, and services). These resources can be rapidly provisioned and
released with minimal management effort or service provider interaction. It offers a shift from
traditional on-premise computing to a flexible service-based model where resources are
delivered over the internet, offering cost savings, scalability, and improved performance.

Cloud computing is possible because of a technology called virtualization. Virtualization

allows for the creation of a simulated, digital-only "virtual" computer that behaves as if it were
a physical computer with its own hardware. The technical term for such a computer is virtual
machine. When properly implemented, virtual machines on the same host machine are
sandboxed from one another, so they do not interact with each other at all, and the files and
applications from one virtual machine are not visible to the other virtual machines even though
they are on the same physical machine.

Virtual machines also make more efficient use of the hardware hosting them. By running many
virtual machines at once, one server can run many virtual "servers," and a data center becomes
like a whole host of data centers, able to serve many organizations.

Theivanai Ammal College for Women (Autonomous)

III B.Sc. Computer Science Page 1 of 31 2025-26 (ODD Semester)
Cloud Computing Unit I

2. Benefits of Cloud Computing Cloud computing provides numerous advantages:

1. Cost Efficiency

o Reduces or eliminates the capital expense of buying hardware and software.

o You only pay for what you use (Pay-as-you-go).

o No need for on-site data centers.

2. Scalability

o Instantly scale computing resources up or down based on demand.

o Ideal for businesses with fluctuating workloads (e.g., e-commerce sites during
sales).

3. Flexibility and Accessibility

o Access services and data from anywhere via the internet.

Theivanai Ammal College for Women (Autonomous)

III B.Sc. Computer Science Page 2 of 31 2025-26 (ODD Semester)
Cloud Computing Unit I

o Supports remote work and global collaboration.

4. Reliability

o Cloud providers offer high availability and disaster recovery options.

o Data is automatically backed up and mirrored across multiple servers/locations.

5. Performance

o Runs on a worldwide network of secure data centers.

o Offers low-latency networks and automatic hardware upgrades.

6. Automatic Software Updates

o Providers handle software upgrades, security patches, and feature releases.

o Ensures latest tools and compliance without manual intervention.

7. Security

o Advanced encryption, identity management, and access control.

o Compliance with major standards (e.g., GDPR, ISO, HIPAA).

8. Environmental Sustainability

o Optimized hardware use and shared resources reduce carbon footprint.

o Efficient energy consumption in large-scale data centers.

9. Improved Collaboration

o Tools like Google Docs, Microsoft Teams enhance real-time collaboration.

o Version control and simultaneous editing improve productivity.

10. Business Continuity

o Cloud ensures that your business data is always accessible—even during local
disasters (fire, flood, theft).

Theivanai Ammal College for Women (Autonomous)

III B.Sc. Computer Science Page 3 of 31 2025-26 (ODD Semester)
Cloud Computing Unit I

3. Usage Scenarios Cloud computing is used in various domains. The following are the few
real-world applications of cloud computing.

1. Online Data Storage: Cloud computing allows storing data like files, images, audios,
and videos, etc on the cloud storage. The organization need not set physical storage
systems to store a huge volume of business data which costs so high nowadays. As they
are growing technologically, data generation is also growing with respect to time and
storing that becoming problem. In that situation, Cloud storage is providing this service
to store and access data any time as per requirement.

2. Backup and Recovery: Cloud vendors provide security from their side by storing safe
to the data as well as providing a backup facility to the data. They offer various recovery
application for retrieving the lost data. In the traditional way backup of data is a very
complex problem, and it is very difficult sometimes impossible to recover the lost data.
But cloud computing has made backup and recovery applications very easy where there
is no fear of running out of backup media or loss of data.

3. Bigdata Analysis : We know the volume of big data is so high where storing that in
traditional data management system for an organization is impossible. But cloud
computing has resolved that problem by allowing the organizations to store their large
volume of data in cloud storage without worrying about physical storage. Next comes
analyzing the raw data and finding out insights or useful information from it is a big
challenge as it requires high-quality tools for data analytics. Cloud computing provides
the biggest facility to organizations in terms of storing and analyzing big data.

4. Testing and development: Setting up the platform for development and finally
performing different types of testing to check the readiness of the product before
delivery requires different types of IT resources and infrastructure. But Cloud
computing provides the easiest approach for development as well as testing even if
deployment by using their IT resources with minimal expenses. Organizations find it
more helpful as they got scalable and flexible cloud services for product development,
testing, and deployment.

5. Anti-Virus Applications: Previously, organizations were installing antivirus software

within their system even if we will see we personally also keep antivirus software in
our system for safety from outside cyber threats. But nowadays cloud computing
provides cloud antivirus software which means the software is stored in the cloud and

Theivanai Ammal College for Women (Autonomous)

III B.Sc. Computer Science Page 4 of 31 2025-26 (ODD Semester)
Cloud Computing Unit I

monitors your system/organization's system remotely. This antivirus software identifies

the security risks and fixes them. Sometimes also they give a feature to download the
software.

6. E-commerce Application: Cloud-based e-commerce allows responding quickly to the

opportunities which are emerging. Users respond quickly to the market opportunities
as well as the traditional e-commerce responds to the challenges quickly. Cloud-based
e-commerce gives a new approach to doing business with the minimum amount as well
as minimum time possible. Customer data, product data, and other operational systems
are managed in cloud environments.

7. Cloud computing in education: Cloud computing in the education sector brings an

unbelievable change in learning by providing e-learning, online distance learning
platforms, and student information portals to the students. It is a new trend in education
that provides an attractive environment for learning, teaching, experimenting, etc to
students, faculty members, and researchers. Everyone associated with the field can
connect to the cloud of their organization and access data and information from there.

8. E-Governance Application: Cloud computing can provide its services to multiple

activities conducted by the government. It can support the government to move from
the traditional ways of management and service providers to an advanced way of
everything by expanding the availability of the environment, making the environment
more scalable and customized. It can help the government to reduce the unnecessary
cost in managing, installing, and upgrading applications and doing all these with help
of could computing and utilizing that money public service.

9. Cloud Computing in Medical Fields: In the medical field also nowadays cloud
computing is used for storing and accessing the data as it allows to store data and access
it through the internet without worrying about any physical setup. It facilitates easier
access and distribution of information among the various medical professional and the
individual patients. Similarly, with help of cloud computing offsite buildings and
treatment facilities like labs, doctors making emergency house calls and ambulances
information, etc can be easily accessed and updated remotely instead of having to wait
until they can access a hospital computer.

10. Entertainment Applications: Many people get entertainment from the internet, in that
case, cloud computing is the perfect place for reaching to a varied consumer base.

Theivanai Ammal College for Women (Autonomous)

III B.Sc. Computer Science Page 5 of 31 2025-26 (ODD Semester)
Cloud Computing Unit I

Therefore, different types of entertainment industries reach near the target audience by
adopting a multi-cloud strategy. Cloud-based entertainment provides various
entertainment applications such as online music/video, online games and video
conferencing, streaming services, etc and it can reach any device be it TV, mobile, set-
top box, or any other form. It is a new form of entertainment called On-Demand
Entertainment (ODE).

With respect to this as a cloud, the market is growing rapidly, and it is providing various
services day by day. So other application of cloud computing includes social applications,
management application, business applications, art application, and many more. So, in the
future cloud computing is going to touch many more sectors by providing more applications
and services.

4. History of Cloud Computing Cloud computing evolved from the concepts of grid
computing and utility computing. In the 1960s, John McCarthy suggested computing could be
organized as a public utility. Salesforce introduced the first SaaS product in 1999. Amazon
launched AWS in 2006, marking a major milestone by offering IT infrastructure services.
Google, Microsoft, and IBM soon followed, shaping the modern cloud era. The development
of virtualization technologies further accelerated cloud adoption.

Theivanai Ammal College for Women (Autonomous)

III B.Sc. Computer Science Page 6 of 31 2025-26 (ODD Semester)
Cloud Computing Unit I

In 1963, DARPA (the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency) presented MIT with $2
million for Project MAC. The funding included a requirement for MIT to develop technology
allowing for a “computer to be used by two or more people, simultaneously.” In this case, one
of those gigantic, archaic computers using reels of magnetic tape for memory became the
precursor to what has now become collectively known as cloud computing. It acted as a
primitive cloud with two or three people accessing it. The word “virtualization” was used to
describe this situation, though the word’s meaning later expanded.

In 1969, J. C. R. Licklider helped develop the ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency
Network), a “very” primitive version of the Internet. JCR, or “Lick,” was both a psychologist
and a computer scientist, and promoted a vision called the “Intergalactic Computer Network,”
in which everyone on the planet would be interconnected by way of computers and able to
access information from anywhere. (What could such an unrealistic, impossible-to-pay-for
fantasy of the future look like?) The Intergalactic Computer Network, otherwise known as the
internet, is necessary for access to the cloud.

The meaning of virtualization began shifting in the 1970s and now describes the creation of a
virtual machine, which acts like a real computer with a fully functional operating system. The
concept of virtualization has evolved with the internet, as businesses began offering “virtual”
private networks as a rentable service. The use of virtual computers became popular in the
1990s, leading to the development of the modern cloud computing infrastructure.

Cloud Computing in the Late 1990s

The cloud gained popularity as companies gained a better understanding of its services and
usefulness. In 1999, Salesforce became a popular example of using cloud computing
successfully. They used it to pioneer the idea of using the Internet to deliver software programs
to the end users. The program (or application) could be accessed and downloaded by anyone
with Internet access. Businesses could purchase the software in an on-demand, cost-effective
manner without leaving the office.

Cloud Computing in the Early 2000s

In 2002, Amazon introduced its web-based retail services. It was the first major business to
think of using only 10% of its capacity (which was commonplace at the time) as a problem to
be solved. The cloud computing infrastructure model allowed them to use their computer’s
capacity more efficiently. Soon after, other large organizations followed their example.

Theivanai Ammal College for Women (Autonomous)

III B.Sc. Computer Science Page 7 of 31 2025-26 (ODD Semester)
Cloud Computing Unit I

In 2006, Amazon launched Amazon Web Services, which offers online services to other
websites or clients. One of Amazon Web Services’ sites, called Amazon Mechanical Turk,
provides a variety of cloud-based services, including storage, computation, and “human
intelligence.” Another of Amazon Web Services’ sites is the Elastic Compute Cloud (EC2),
allowing individuals to rent virtual computers and use their own programs and applications.

In the same year, Google launched Google Docs services. Google Docs was originally based
on two separate products, Google Spreadsheets and Writely. Google purchased Writely, which
allows renters to save documents, edit documents, and transfer them into blogging systems.
(These documents are compatible with Microsoft Word.) Google Spreadsheets (acquired from
2Web Technologies in 2005) is an Internet-based program allowing users to develop, update,
and edit spreadsheets and to share data online. An Ajax-based program is used, which is
compatible with Microsoft Excel. The spreadsheets can be saved in an HTML format.

In 2007, IBM, Google, and several universities joined forces to develop a server farm for
research projects needing both fast processors and huge data sets. The University of
Washington was the first to sign up and use resources provided by IBM and Google. Carnegie
Mellon University, MIT, Stanford University, the University of Maryland, and the University
of California at Berkeley, quickly followed suit. The universities immediately realized
computer experiments can be done faster and for less money, if IBM and Google were
supporting their research. Since much of the research was focused on problems IBM and
Google had interests in, they also benefitted from the arrangement. 2007 was also the year
when Netflix launched it’s streaming video service, using the cloud, and provided support for
the practice of “binge-watching.”

Eucalyptus offered the first AWS API compatible platform, which was used for distributing
private clouds, in 2008. In the same year, NASA’s OpenNebula provided the first open-source
software for deploying private and hybrid clouds. Many of its most innovative features focused
on the needs of major businesses.

2010 and Beyond

Although private clouds were initiated in 2008, they were still undeveloped, and not very
popular. Concerns about poor security in public clouds was a strong driving force promoting
the use of private clouds. In 2010, companies like AWS, Microsoft, and OpenStack had

Theivanai Ammal College for Women (Autonomous)

III B.Sc. Computer Science Page 8 of 31 2025-26 (ODD Semester)
Cloud Computing Unit I

developed private clouds that were fairly functional. (2010 was also when OpenStack made an
open-sourced, free, do-it-yourself cloud, which became very popular, available to the general
public.)

The concept of hybrid clouds was introduced in 2011. A fair amount of interoperability is
needed between a private and public cloud, and the ability to shift workloads back and forth
between the two clouds. At this time, very few businesses had systems capable of doing this,
though many wanted to, because of the tools and storage public clouds could offer.

In 2011, IBM introduced the IBM SmartCloud framework, in support of Smarter Planet (a
cultural thinking project). Then, Apple launched the ICloud, which focuses on storing more
personal information (photos, music, videos, etc.). Also, during this year, Microsoft began
advertising the cloud on television, making the general public aware of its ability to store
photos, or video, with easy access.

Oracle introduced the Oracle Cloud in 2012, offering the three basics for business, IaaS
(Infrastructure-as-a-Service), PaaS (Platform-as-a-Service), and SAAS (Software-as-a-
Service). These “basics” quickly became the norm, with some public clouds offering all of
these services, while other focused on offering only one. Software-as-a-service became quite
popular.

CloudBolt was founded in 2012. This company gets credit for developing a hybrid cloud
management platform that helped organizations build, deploy and manage both private and
public clouds. They resolved the interoperability problems between public and private clouds.

Multi-clouds began when organizations started using SaaS providers for certain services, such
as human resources, customer relations management, and supply chain management. This
started becoming popular in roughly 2013-2014. While this use of SaaS providers is still quite
popular, a philosophy of using multiple clouds for their specific services and advantages has
developed. This philosophy includes not becoming trapped into using a specific cloud because
of “interoperability problems.”

By 2014, cloud computing had developed its basic features, and security had become a major
concern. Cloud security has become a fast-growing service, because of its importance to
customers. Cloud security has advanced significantly in the last few years, and now provides
protection comparable to traditional IT security systems. This includes the protection of critical

Theivanai Ammal College for Women (Autonomous)

III B.Sc. Computer Science Page 9 of 31 2025-26 (ODD Semester)
Cloud Computing Unit I

information from accidental deletion, theft, and data leakage. Having said that, security is, and
may always be, the primary concern of most cloud users.

Currently, one of the primary users of cloud services are application developers. In 2016 the
cloud began to shift from developer-friendly to developer-driven. Application developers
began taking full advantage of the cloud for the tools it had available. Many services strive to
be developer-friendly to draw more customers. Realizing the need, and the potential for profit,
cloud vendors developed (and continue to develop) the tools apps developers want and need.

5. Cloud Architecture

Architecture of cloud computing is the combination of both SOA (Service Oriented

Architecture) and EDA (Event Driven Architecture). Client infrastructure, application, service,
runtime cloud, storage, infrastructure, management and security all these are the components
of cloud computing architecture.

The cloud architecture is divided into 3 parts, i.e.

1. Frontend
2. Backend
3. Cloud-Based Delivery and Network

The below figure represents an internal architectural view of cloud computing.

Architecture of Cloud Computing

Theivanai Ammal College for Women (Autonomous)

III B.Sc. Computer Science Page 10 of 31 2025-26 (ODD Semester)
Cloud Computing Unit I

1. Frontend

Frontend of the cloud architecture refers to the client side of cloud computing system. Means
it contains all the user interfaces and applications which are used by the client to access the
cloud computing services/resources. For example, use of a web browser to access the cloud
platform.

2. Backend

Backend refers to the cloud itself which is used by the service provider. It contains the resources
as well as manages the resources and provides security mechanisms. Along with this, it includes
huge storage, virtual applications, virtual machines, traffic control mechanisms, deployment
models, etc.

Components of Cloud Computing Architecture

Following are the components of Cloud Computing Architecture

1. Client Infrastructure: Client Infrastructure is a part of the frontend component. It

contains the applications and user interfaces which are required to access the cloud
platform. In other words, it provides a GUI( Graphical User Interface ) to interact with
the cloud.

2. Cloud-Based Delivery and Network: On-demand access to the computer and

resources is provided over the Internet, Intranet, and Intercloud. The Internet comes
with global accessibility; the Intranet helps in internal communications of the services
within the organization and the Intercloud enables interoperability across various cloud
services. This dynamic network connectivity ensures an essential component of cloud
computing architecture on guaranteeing easy access and data transfer.

Back-end cloud architecture components include the following:

• Applications: Back-end apps are the software or platforms that deliver the client
service requests on the front-end.

• Cloud computing service: The back-end service provides utility in cloud architecture
and manages the accessibility of cloud-based resources (such as, cloud-based storage
services, application development services, web services, security services, and more).

Theivanai Ammal College for Women (Autonomous)

III B.Sc. Computer Science Page 11 of 31 2025-26 (ODD Semester)
Cloud Computing Unit I

• Cloud runtime: Runtime provides the environment (operating system, hardware,

memory) for executing or running services. Virtualization plays a crucial role in
enabling multiple runtimes on the same server.

• Cloud storage: Cloud storage in the back-end refers to the flexible and scalable storage
service and management of data stored to carry out applications.

• Infrastructure: Infrastructure consists of all the back-end resources or hardware (such

as, servers, databases, CPU (central processing unit), network devices like routers and
switches, graphics processing unit (GPU), and so on.) and all the software used to run
and manage cloud-based services. In cloud-computing speak, the term infrastructure is
sometimes confused with cloud architecture, but there’s a distinct difference. Like a
blueprint for constructing a building, cloud architecture serves as the design plan for
building cloud infrastructure.

• Management software: Middleware coordinates communication between the front-

end and back-end in a cloud computing system. This component allows for the delivery
of services in real-time to ensure smooth front-end user experiences.

• Security tools: Security tools provide the back-end security (also referred to as service-
side security) for potential cyberattacks or system failures. Virtual firewalls protect web
applications, prevent data loss and ensure backup and disaster recovery. Back-end
components include encryption, access restriction and authentication protocols to
protect data from breaches.

6. Types of Clouds Cloud deployments are classified into:

• Public Cloud: Services offered over the public internet (e.g., AWS, Azure).

• Private Cloud: Exclusive to a single organization with increased control.

• Hybrid Cloud: Combines public and private clouds, allowing data portability.

• Community Cloud: Shared by several organizations with common concerns. Each

type provides unique benefits in terms of control, scalability, and compliance.

Theivanai Ammal College for Women (Autonomous)

III B.Sc. Computer Science Page 12 of 31 2025-26 (ODD Semester)
Cloud Computing Unit I

They vary in their levels of accessibility, security risks, costs, and other factors, and each one
carries its own advantages and disadvantages. Selecting the type that aligns with the business
interests is crucial for making sure the cloud operations are a success, so make sure to
understand the differences before jump in.

1. Public Cloud Computing

The most common type of cloud infrastructure, public cloud computing consists of a wide
number of users accessing a host of remote servers that are connected to form a single all-
encompassing network.

In the public cloud model, you’re allotted a portion of your CSP’s cloud infrastructure, with
your data and other digital assets being stored within the environment. Think of it as renting
someone else’s digital space and allowing them to take care of the maintenance.

Advantages of Public Cloud Computing

Public cloud computing offers several advantages, primarily due to its versatility and scale.
Large CSPs such as Microsoft and Amazon have the capacity to host a wide number of users
simultaneously, regardless of their clients’ bandwidth or demands.

The result is that public cloud computing models can likely provide the flexibility and scope
of services that individual users will need. The mass tenancy coupled with threat actors’
intensified interest in targeting public clouds does make security a concern, but top-level CSPs

Theivanai Ammal College for Women (Autonomous)

III B.Sc. Computer Science Page 13 of 31 2025-26 (ODD Semester)
Cloud Computing Unit I

should have the cybersecurity resources needed to ward off threats. And since threat actors are
likely to attack both public and private clouds, choosing an established CSP may be the best
security strategy available.

2. Private Cloud Computing

While public cloud infrastructure allows a wide number of users to access the same remote IT
environment, private clouds are reserved for individual users, departments, or organizations. A
public cloud becomes a private cloud once it’s secured behind a firewall or with some other
restrictive measure. Some CSPs have even begun installing bare-metal infrastructure
components on-site, further blurring the line between the public and private cloud models.

Benefits of Using a Private Cloud

The main benefit of the private cloud model is that organizations own their entire IT
environment, so all components are reserved just for them. This can potentially mean greater
security since there are fewer users accessing your cloud, but that holds true only if you
implement the cloud security practices needed to minimize your attack surface.

The other benefit of having all of your resources devoted solely to your operations is that your
cloud will have the stability it needs to meet your fluctuating usage and demands. You won’t
run the risk of bumping into latency or downtime issues, as you could when a large number of
users all flock to a public cloud at once, so private cloud users experience greater business
continuity since their stack is always devoted to them.

3. Hybrid Cloud Computing

In an effort to deliver the best of both worlds, hybrid clouds combine the devoted resources of
a private cloud with the managed infrastructure that a public cloud has to offer. CSPs offering
a hybrid cloud structure implement a “pay as you go” business model, through which
companies can keep their important data within their own on-prem infrastructure and send any
excess to their public cloud.

Advantages of a Hybrid Approach

The advantage of hybrid cloud environments is that they allow companies to maintain their
own baseline security and resources while giving them the chance to scale up whenever they
need to. If their bandwidth or data storage needs grow seasonally or scale over time, companies

Theivanai Ammal College for Women (Autonomous)

III B.Sc. Computer Science Page 14 of 31 2025-26 (ODD Semester)
Cloud Computing Unit I

may pay for additional services while preserving their own private environment — and they
can scale back down if their needs ever drop in the future.

Another advantage is that companies using the hybrid cloud model are charged only for the
services they use. Instead of being tied down to an arbitrary service level, organizations can
purchase all of the services they need and nothing they don’t — all while preserving their
privacy.

4. Community Cloud Computing

A subset of the hybrid cloud model, community clouds consist of a smaller number of users
who have agreed to share the responsibilities and resources corresponding to their cloud. These
users often have similar attributes, such as a shared industry or regulations, so they band
together to manage their own cloud environment instead of sharing their digital space with just
anyone.

Key Advantages of Community Clouds

Maintaining your own cloud can be a resource-intensive task. Community clouds lighten this
load by distributing the responsibility among users with common interests, simplifying
everyone’s cloud maintenance efforts in the process.

Another benefit is that community clouds let you share your cloud with a select number of
trusted users, so you enjoy better security than what public clouds can offer. These
organizations often share common industry standards, making them likely to implement similar
cloud security policies, which can make your own compliance efforts that much easier.

7. Business Models around Clouds Various business models have emerged:

• SaaS (Software as a Service): Software delivered over the internet (e.g., Gmail).

• PaaS (Platform as a Service): Platform for developing, testing, and deploying apps
(e.g., Google App Engine).

• IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service): Offers virtualized computing resources (e.g., AWS

EC2).

Theivanai Ammal College for Women (Autonomous)

III B.Sc. Computer Science Page 15 of 31 2025-26 (ODD Semester)
Cloud Computing Unit I

• FaaS (Function as a Service): Serverless computing model (e.g., AWS Lambda).

These models offer flexibility, reduce time to market, and minimize operational
overhead.

Software-as-a-Service (SaaS)

Definition: SaaS or Software-as-a-Service cloud service model provides users or

organizations with access to software applications that are hosted and maintained by
the cloud service provider.

Users or organizations can access the software using the internet and any browser. There
is no need to purchase costly software and install bulky software on your own system
in order to use it. SaaS is also known as “On-Demand Software.”

Advantages of SaaS

Here are some of the top advantages of using the SaaS cloud service model:

• Simple deployment: Using the SaaS cloud service model, users or organizations
can use bulky and costly software without purchasing or downloading it on their
systems.

• Saves money: Users and organizations don’t have to purchase or maintain the
software, saving them a ton of money.

Disadvantages of SaaS

Here are some of the top disadvantages of using the SaaS cloud service model:

• Fewer customization options: Software is purchased and maintained by a cloud

provider, limiting the customer’s ability to customize them per their requirement.

Theivanai Ammal College for Women (Autonomous)

III B.Sc. Computer Science Page 16 of 31 2025-26 (ODD Semester)
Cloud Computing Unit I

• Security: As cloud providers maintain software, customers must trust them to

securely store and manage their data.

In short, customers should choose this cloud service model when they want to access
software without purchasing or managing it on their own system. It is best suited for
customers who only want to use different software without any hassle.

Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS)

Definition: IaaS or Infrastructure-as-a-Service cloud service model provides users or

organizations with virtualized computing resources, such as VM, networking, storage,
etc.

Infrastructure-as-a-Service or IaaS allows customers or organizations to run their

applications and manage their data. This cloud service model helps customers reduce
the cost and complexity of purchasing or managing physical servers. IaaS is also known
as “Hardware-as-a-Service.”

Advantages of IaaS

Here are some of the top advantages of using the IaaS cloud service model:

• Highly flexible: Users or organizations using IaaS can quickly scale and provision
computing resources as per their requirements.

• Improved efficiency: Cloud provider has access to more resources in expertise in

managing infrastructure effectively. Thus you get improved and updated
infrastructure.

Disadvantages of IaaS

Here are some of the top disadvantages of using the IaaS cloud service model:

• Less control: Underlying infrastructure is managed and maintained by a cloud

provider, limiting the customer’s ability to customize them per their requirement.

• Security concerns: In a shared infrastructure, keeping your data and application

safe could be difficult and challenging. And above all, users are responsible for
securing their data and applications.

Theivanai Ammal College for Women (Autonomous)

III B.Sc. Computer Science Page 17 of 31 2025-26 (ODD Semester)
Cloud Computing Unit I

In short, customers should choose this cloud service model when they want more
flexibility and control over their computing infrastructure. It is best suited for customers
who don’t want to invest in or maintain their data centers.

Platform-as-a-Service (PaaS)

Definition: PaaS or Platform-as-a-Service cloud service model provides users or

organizations with access to a deployment platform to manage, build, or run their
applications without worrying about physical infrastructure.

Same as in the SaaS cloud service model, the cloud provider manages and maintains
the infrastructure without letting the customer worry about these things. Due to this,
users can use that time for more productive tasks.

Advantages of PaaS

Here are some of the top advantages of using the PaaS cloud service model:

• Simple deployment: Using the PaaS cloud service model, users or organizations
can focus on developing their applications without worrying about the underlying
structure.

• Saves money: Users and organizations don’t have to purchase or maintain the tools
or platforms, saving them a ton of money.

Disadvantages of PaaS

Here are some of the top disadvantages of using the PaaS cloud service model:

• Fewer customization options: Platform is managed and maintained by a cloud

provider, limiting the customer’s ability to customize them per their requirement.

• Less control: Platform is managed and maintained by a cloud provider, limiting the
customer’s control over it compared to using their own data centers or platform.

In short, customers should choose this cloud service model when they want to focus on
developing and deploying their own applications without having to worry about
managing the underlying platform. It is best suited for customers who want a simplified
and streamlined development environment while having better control and
customization options compared to SaaS.

Theivanai Ammal College for Women (Autonomous)

III B.Sc. Computer Science Page 18 of 31 2025-26 (ODD Semester)
Cloud Computing Unit I

Function-as-a-Service (FaaS) :

FaaS allows users to execute code in response to events without managing servers. It is
also called Serverless computing.

Benefits:

• Ideal for microservices and event-driven applications

• Cost savings as you pay only when functions execute

Advantages:

• No server management

• Automatically scales with demand

• Reduces time-to-market

8. Major Players in Cloud Computing Top cloud providers include:

• Amazon Web Services (AWS): Leading provider with extensive services.

• Microsoft Azure: Strong enterprise integration with Microsoft tools.

• Google Cloud Platform (GCP): Focus on analytics and AI.

• IBM Cloud: Known for hybrid cloud and AI services.

• Oracle Cloud: Enterprise-grade cloud services for databases and apps. These
companies dominate the global cloud market with continuous innovations.

1. Amazon Web Services (AWS)

Amazon Web Services, launched in 2006 by Amazon, is the pioneer and global leader in cloud
computing. AWS started with basic infrastructure services like EC2 and S3 and has since grown
into a full-fledged cloud ecosystem offering over 200 fully-featured services. It supports
compute, storage, networking, database, machine learning, analytics, and security services.
AWS's massive global infrastructure, with availability in multiple regions and zones, ensures
low latency and high fault tolerance. It has become the preferred platform for startups,
enterprises, and governments due to its reliability, scalability, and innovation. Advantages
include pay-as-you-go pricing, strong support for hybrid architecture, and an extensive

Theivanai Ammal College for Women (Autonomous)

III B.Sc. Computer Science Page 19 of 31 2025-26 (ODD Semester)
Cloud Computing Unit I

developer community. Enterprises choose AWS for its performance, compliance standards, and
continuous rollout of new features.

2. Microsoft Azure

Microsoft Azure was officially launched in 2010 as a cloud computing platform and
infrastructure created by Microsoft for building, deploying, and managing applications. Azure
integrates seamlessly with Microsoft software like Windows Server, Active Directory, and
Office 365, making it popular among enterprise users. Azure offers services across IaaS, PaaS,
and SaaS, supporting virtual machines, AI, analytics, IoT, and DevOps tools. Its hybrid cloud
model with tools like Azure Stack allows businesses to deploy services across public and
private environments. Azure’s global network of data centers ensures low latency and reliable
uptime. Its advantages include enterprise-grade security, support for open-source platforms,
built-in disaster recovery, and easy migration for Windows-based systems.

3. Google Cloud Platform (GCP)

Google Cloud Platform (GCP), introduced in 2008, is known for its strong data analytics,
machine learning, and AI capabilities. Google uses the same infrastructure for GCP that powers
its popular services like YouTube and Gmail. GCP provides tools like BigQuery for big data
analytics, TensorFlow for ML, and App Engine for PaaS-based application development. GCP
has gained popularity in academia, startups, and digital-first companies that require strong AI
and data capabilities. Its strengths lie in pricing models (sustained use discounts), high-speed
fiber networks, security layers, and container management with Kubernetes, which Google
invented. Advantages include innovation in AI/ML, sustainability with carbon-neutral data
centers, and ease of integration with open-source tools.

4. IBM Cloud

IBM Cloud combines platform as a service (PaaS) with infrastructure as a service (IaaS) and
offers a wide range of services including AI (via Watson), blockchain, IoT, and DevOps. IBM
has a strong presence in hybrid cloud solutions and enterprise-level services. Its acquisition of
Red Hat has further strengthened its open-source and Kubernetes offerings. IBM Cloud
supports multicloud environments and helps large organizations in regulated industries manage
complex workloads. The company also focuses on compliance, privacy, and trust. Advantages
include deep integration with legacy systems, AI-driven analytics, flexible deployment models,
and strong support for enterprise security and governance.

Theivanai Ammal College for Women (Autonomous)

III B.Sc. Computer Science Page 20 of 31 2025-26 (ODD Semester)
Cloud Computing Unit I

5. Oracle Cloud

Oracle Cloud is known for its robust database solutions and enterprise software integration.
Launched in the early 2010s, it offers services in IaaS, PaaS, SaaS, and DaaS (Data as a
Service). It is tailored for enterprise applications such as Oracle ERP, HCM, and CRM. Oracle
Cloud Infrastructure (OCI) provides high-performance computing, autonomous databases, and
AI-powered analytics. It supports hybrid and multicloud deployments with strong security and
compliance. Advantages include deep integration with Oracle software, advanced database
tuning features, high availability, and industry-specific cloud applications. Oracle Cloud is
often favored by financial services, healthcare, and government organizations for its
performance and enterprise readiness.

9. Issues in Clouds Despite benefits, cloud computing faces several issues:

Cloud computing has revolutionized IT infrastructure and software delivery, but it also brings
several challenges. Understanding these issues is essential for organizations to effectively plan,
manage, and secure their cloud environments.

• Data Security and Privacy - Storing data in the cloud raises concerns about
unauthorized access, data breaches, and loss of sensitive information. Cloud providers
store data on shared infrastructure, which increases the risk. For example, in 2019,
Capital One experienced a massive data breach when over 100 million customer records
stored in AWS were accessed due to a misconfigured firewall.
• Downtime and Availability - Cloud services can suffer from outages or service
interruptions, impacting business operations. This can result in data inaccessibility or loss
of productivity. For example, In 2020, Google Cloud experienced an outage that affected
services like Gmail, YouTube, and Google Docs globally.
• Vendor Lock-in - Migrating from one cloud provider to another can be complex due to
differences in platforms, APIs, and tools. This leads to dependency on a single provider.
For example, A company using Azure-specific functions may find it difficult and costly
to move to AWS or GCP due to code and configuration incompatibility.
• Compliance and Legal Issues - Different countries have different data protection laws
(e.g., GDPR in the EU). Ensuring cloud services comply with legal requirements is
essential but challenging, For instance, Companies storing EU citizens' data must comply

Theivanai Ammal College for Women (Autonomous)

III B.Sc. Computer Science Page 21 of 31 2025-26 (ODD Semester)
Cloud Computing Unit I

with GDPR. A US-based company using a non-compliant cloud provider may face legal
action and fines.
• Limited Control - In cloud environments, users do not have direct control over
infrastructure. This lack of visibility and control can affect performance tuning and
customization. For example, an organization relying on AWS Lambda (serverless) has
limited ability to control execution environment and performance parameters.
• Data Loss and Recovery - Although cloud providers often offer backup and recovery
services, accidental deletions, corrupted backups, or misconfigurations can still lead to
data loss. For example, Dropbox once accidentally deleted files due to a bug in its sync
mechanism. Though most files were recoverable, some were lost permanently.
• Cost Management - Cloud services follow a pay-as-you-go model, but without proper
monitoring, costs can spiral due to unnecessary resource usage or unexpected traffic
spikes. For example, a startup left unused virtual machines running in AWS, leading to a
large monthly bill despite low actual usage.
• Latency and Bandwidth Issues - Cloud applications rely on internet connectivity.
Network latency or low bandwidth can degrade the performance of time-sensitive
applications. For example, Gaming companies using cloud platforms to stream high-
performance games (like Google Stadia) struggle with latency issues in areas with poor
internet.
• Shared Technology Vulnerabilities - Cloud environments are multi-tenant. A
vulnerability in the shared hardware, hypervisor, or network could affect multiple
customers. For example the Spectre and Meltdown CPU vulnerabilities affected cloud
platforms globally in 2018, requiring major architectural changes.
• Insider Threats - Employees of the cloud provider or the client organization may misuse
access rights, leading to data theft or sabotage. For example, a rogue system
administrator at a cloud provider might access sensitive customer data without detection
if security protocols are weak.

• Eucalyptus is best suited for organizations wanting AWS-compatible private clouds.

• Nimbus caters to research and academic communities needing customized VM
environments.
• OpenNebula is a full-fledged enterprise-ready platform supporting hybrid/multi-cloud
setups.

Theivanai Ammal College for Women (Autonomous)

III B.Sc. Computer Science Page 22 of 31 2025-26 (ODD Semester)
Cloud Computing Unit I

• CloudSim is not a deployment tool, but a simulation toolkit for research and testing.

10. Eucalyptus

Eucalyptus, short for Elastic Utility Computing Architecture for Linking Your Programs to
Useful Systems, is an open-source software platform that enables the creation of private and
hybrid cloud environments. Developed at the University of California, Santa Barbara
(UCSB) in 2008, it was among the earliest platforms to offer cloud infrastructure services that
mimic the features of Amazon Web Services (AWS), making it a cost-effective and secure
solution for organizations seeking cloud-like benefits within their own data centers.

Eucalyptus is primarily designed to provide Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS). It allows

businesses and institutions to use their existing hardware infrastructure to deploy resources
dynamically—such as computing power, storage, and networking—just like public cloud
platforms do. Its API compatibility with AWS (particularly with EC2 and S3) is one of its key
strengths, as it enables seamless hybrid cloud deployments. This means users can move
workloads between their private cloud and AWS public cloud without needing to rewrite
applications.

The architecture of Eucalyptus is modular and scalable, which ensures flexibility in

deployment based on organizational needs. The Cloud Controller (CLC) is the central
management component responsible for handling user requests, authentication, and overall
resource coordination. It provides a front-end interface to users and administrators. The Cluster
Controller (CC) manages a collection of resources (or clusters), distributing VM instance
creation and managing internal networks.

At the hardware level, Node Controllers (NCs) are installed on physical servers and are
responsible for running the virtual machines. They interact with the underlying hypervisor
(such as KVM, Xen, or VMware) to manage VM lifecycle operations like start, stop, or
terminate. Walrus, another important component of Eucalyptus, provides object storage,
acting like AWS S3 by storing files, snapshots, and images. Additionally, the Storage
Controller (SC) offers block storage similar to AWS Elastic Block Store (EBS), used for
attaching persistent storage volumes to virtual machines.

One of the major benefits of Eucalyptus is that it provides fine-grained control over cloud
infrastructure, making it ideal for organizations that need to comply with strict security or data

Theivanai Ammal College for Women (Autonomous)

III B.Sc. Computer Science Page 23 of 31 2025-26 (ODD Semester)
Cloud Computing Unit I

residency regulations. Since the infrastructure resides on-premises, users can ensure
compliance while still enjoying the elasticity of cloud computing. It also supports multi-
tenancy, enabling multiple users or departments to use the same infrastructure independently.

Eucalyptus integrates with various identity management and security tools, and it offers both
command-line tools and web-based dashboards for cloud administration. Its open-source
nature allows for customization and integration with third-party systems, including monitoring
and orchestration tools.

Over the years, Eucalyptus gained popularity in research institutions, government

organizations, and enterprises that wanted to experiment with cloud computing or maintain
full control of their data and infrastructure. It played a foundational role in the evolution of
open-source cloud platforms and inspired the development of other tools like OpenStack.

However, with the rapid evolution of cloud technologies, Eucalyptus faced stiff competition
from platforms like OpenStack, CloudStack, and fully managed public clouds. Eventually,
Eucalyptus was acquired by Hewlett-Packard (HP) in 2014 to enhance its Helion cloud
product line. Although not as widely used today, Eucalyptus remains significant in cloud
computing history for its role in pioneering private cloud solutions.

In summary, Eucalyptus offers a reliable and AWS-compatible private cloud platform, allowing
organizations to manage their infrastructure efficiently while maintaining full data sovereignty.
Its modular architecture, API compatibility, and control mechanisms make it a strong choice
for hybrid cloud strategies and academic or research-oriented deployments.

11. Nimbus

Nimbus is an open-source toolkit designed to provide Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS)

capabilities, especially for the scientific and research community. It allows users to deploy and
manage virtual machines (VMs) on remote resources, making it possible to create on-demand,
self-configuring virtual clusters. Nimbus is particularly known for its support of high-
performance computing (HPC) and grid computing environments, where scientific
experiments or simulations require substantial computing power.

Nimbus was developed by the University of Chicago's Computation Institute, primarily to

serve academic and research institutions. Its architecture is designed to provide cloud services

Theivanai Ammal College for Women (Autonomous)

III B.Sc. Computer Science Page 24 of 31 2025-26 (ODD Semester)
Cloud Computing Unit I

while also enabling integration with existing grid infrastructures. It acts as a bridge between
cloud computing and grid computing, which is vital for researchers who rely on shared
scientific infrastructure.

One of the unique aspects of Nimbus is its focus on user control and customization. Unlike
commercial cloud platforms, Nimbus allows users to upload their own virtual machine images
(VMIs), which can be pre-configured with specific software environments. This feature is
highly useful in scientific computing, where reproducibility and environment control are
crucial. Researchers can deploy their own VMIs with specific libraries, tools, and
configurations, and run experiments with minimal dependency on the host system.

Nimbus supports standard interfaces such as the Amazon EC2 API, WSRF (Web Services
Resource Framework), and OGSA (Open Grid Services Architecture). This ensures
compatibility and interoperability with other cloud and grid systems. Additionally, it includes
a component called the Context Broker, which is used for dynamic contextualization—
configuring a VM after it is launched. This allows users to automate setup tasks like setting
passwords, configuring IP addresses, and initializing applications.

The core of Nimbus includes several important modules:

• Workspace Service: This is the main IaaS component responsible for managing the
life cycle of virtual machines (start, stop, terminate).

• Cloud Client: A command-line tool that users utilize to interact with the Nimbus
system.

• Context Broker: Handles configuration and contextualization of VMs.

• Repository Service: Stores and manages VM images.

Nimbus also places strong emphasis on security and access control, leveraging tools like
X.509 certificates, grid security infrastructure (GSI), and other authentication mechanisms
common in scientific computing environments. This ensures that only authorized users can
deploy and manage virtual machines, making it a secure option for multi-user systems.

While Nimbus is not as widely adopted in enterprise environments as platforms like OpenStack
or Eucalyptus, its value lies in its academic and research orientation. It helped pave the way
for academic institutions to experiment with cloud infrastructure, long before commercial
cloud offerings became dominant. Many of its concepts—like customizable VMs, context-

Theivanai Ammal College for Women (Autonomous)

III B.Sc. Computer Science Page 25 of 31 2025-26 (ODD Semester)
Cloud Computing Unit I

aware deployment, and integration with scientific grids—have influenced the design of more
modern research-oriented cloud solutions.

In recent years, the development and usage of Nimbus have declined due to the emergence of
more comprehensive platforms like OpenStack. However, Nimbus remains an important
milestone in the evolution of cloud computing for scientific research. It provided a lightweight,
flexible, and open alternative to proprietary cloud services, empowering researchers to create
their own virtual laboratories in the cloud.

12. OpenNebula

OpenNebula is an open-source cloud computing platform that enables the creation and
management of private, public, and hybrid clouds. It is widely recognized for its simplicity,
flexibility, and powerful features that allow organizations to manage virtualized data centers
and IaaS infrastructures efficiently. Developed initially by the OpenNebula.org community
and first released in 2008, it has been widely adopted in enterprise and research environments.

OpenNebula provides a complete cloud management platform that abstracts infrastructure

resources such as compute, storage, and networking into easily manageable virtual resources.
It supports a wide range of hypervisors including KVM, VMware, and LXD, and integrates
with Docker and Kubernetes for containerized workloads. It also supports hybrid cloud
capabilities by allowing workload extension to public cloud providers such as AWS, Microsoft
Azure, and Google Cloud.

The architecture of OpenNebula includes the following key components:

• Frontend (OpenNebula Core): Acts as the central management point, handling all
operations like VM deployment, monitoring, and storage.

• Hypervisor Hosts: Physical machines where virtual machines (VMs) run.

• Storage Subsystems: Integrated for persistent and ephemeral data storage.

• Sunstone: A web-based GUI that allows administrators and users to manage their cloud
resources visually.

• CLI and XML-RPC API: For automation and programmatic control.

Theivanai Ammal College for Women (Autonomous)

III B.Sc. Computer Science Page 26 of 31 2025-26 (ODD Semester)
Cloud Computing Unit I

One of OpenNebula’s key strengths is its simplicity. It has a low learning curve and can be
deployed quickly even in smaller organizations. It is also known for being lightweight, which
makes it ideal for edge computing environments where resources are constrained.

Additionally, OpenNebula supports multi-tenancy, resource quotas, user roles, and virtual
networks, making it highly suitable for academic institutions and enterprise IT departments. It
also emphasizes security and customization, allowing administrators to tightly control user
access and configure the system to meet specific organizational policies.

In summary, OpenNebula is a powerful and easy-to-use cloud management platform that

enables IT teams to transform existing virtualized infrastructures into full-featured private and
hybrid clouds. Its focus on modularity, compatibility, and user-friendly interfaces makes it
a preferred choice for many organizations, especially those looking for a cost-effective
alternative to commercial cloud services.

13. CloudSim

CloudSim is a simulation toolkit developed by the Cloud Computing and Distributed

Systems (CLOUDS) Laboratory at the University of Melbourne. It is designed for modeling,
simulation, and experimentation of cloud computing environments and application services.
Unlike platforms like OpenNebula or Eucalyptus, which are real-world cloud management
systems, CloudSim is used for research and academic purposes, especially for testing
algorithms, scheduling policies, and resource provisioning techniques.

CloudSim enables researchers to simulate cloud data centers, hosts, virtual machines (VMs),
network behavior, and cloud service brokers. It provides a layered architecture that separates
simulation from actual implementation, which allows experimentation without the need to use
costly cloud infrastructure or hardware.

Key features of CloudSim include:

• Modeling of large-scale cloud infrastructures

• Simulation of data centers, virtual machines, and cloudlets

• Support for energy-aware and network-aware simulations

• Custom scheduling and allocation policies

Theivanai Ammal College for Women (Autonomous)

III B.Sc. Computer Science Page 27 of 31 2025-26 (ODD Semester)
Cloud Computing Unit I

• Extendable and customizable classes for researchers

The architecture is based on several core components:

• Datacenter: Represents the physical cloud infrastructure.

• Host: A physical machine with CPU, memory, and bandwidth.

• VM (Virtual Machine): Simulated entities that run tasks (Cloudlets).

• Datacenter Broker: Manages the submission of user requests and schedules them to
VMs.

• Cloudlet: Represents a user task or application.

Researchers use CloudSim to evaluate cloud algorithms such as task scheduling, VM

placement, load balancing, and energy efficiency. It is especially useful for testing new ideas
in a controlled environment before deploying them on real-world cloud systems like AWS or
Google Cloud.

The major benefit of CloudSim is that it saves time, cost, and resources, as users do not need
actual infrastructure for testing. However, its main limitation is that it is a simulation
environment—meaning that it may not fully capture all the complexities and failures of real-
world systems.

In conclusion, CloudSim plays a critical role in cloud computing research by providing a

platform for design, prototyping, and testing of cloud computing mechanisms. It has been
extensively used in academic research and education for building efficient and innovative cloud
solutions before real-world implementation.

Theivanai Ammal College for Women (Autonomous)

III B.Sc. Computer Science Page 28 of 31 2025-26 (ODD Semester)
 Cloud Computing Unit I

Feature / Aspect Eucalyptus Nimbus OpenNebula CloudSim

Cloud Toolkit for Scientific Cloud Management
Type Cloud Management Platform Simulation Toolkit
Cloud Computing Platform

Primary Enable IaaS for scientific Manage Private, Public & Simulate & Analyze Cloud
Build Private & Hybrid Clouds
Purpose applications Hybrid Clouds Computing Environments

UCSB (University of OpenNebula.org / CLOUDS Lab, University

Initial Developer University of Chicago
California, Santa Barbara) OpenNebula Systems of Melbourne

First Released 2008 2006 2008 2009

Programming
Java Java C++, Ruby, JavaScript Java
Language

Modular (CLC, CC, NC, Modular (Workspace Service, Modular (Core, Sunstone, Simulation Layered
Architecture
Walrus, SC) Context Broker, etc.) CLI, APIs) Architecture

Hypervisor KVM, VMware, LXD,

KVM, Xen, VMware Xen (mainly) Simulated (not applicable)
Support Firecracker

Yes (customizable
VM Image Yes (supports custom machine Yes (user-defined VM images Yes (as cloudlets/tasks in
templates, Docker
Support images) for experiments) simulations)
support)

Theivanai Ammal College for Women (Autonomous)

III B.Sc. Computer Science Page 29 of 31 2025-26 (ODD Semester)
 Cloud Computing Unit I

Feature / Aspect Eucalyptus Nimbus OpenNebula CloudSim

EC2, OCCI, Open Cloud Java APIs for simulation
API Support AWS EC2, S3 compatible EC2, WSRF, OGSA
API setup

Enterprises, Government, Research & Scientific Enterprises, Research, Researchers, Developers,

Target Audience
Academic Institutions Computing Community Edge/Telecom Providers Students

Mainly Private Cloud for Private, Public & Hybrid Not a real cloud -
Cloud Model Private & Hybrid Cloud
Grid Integration Cloud simulation only

Moderate High (Enterprise and Depends on simulation

Scalability High (Enterprise-ready)
(Academic/Research focus) Telecom-grade) setup

Moderate (Requires setup High for Java users, Steep

Ease of Use Moderate High (GUI via Sunstone)
knowledge) for beginners

Limited (some versions have No (Java-based

Web Interface No (CLI/API based) Yes (Sunstone GUI)
admin console) programming environment)

Security X.509, GSI (Grid Security Role-based Access, Basic/None (as it is a

X.509, Role-based Access
Mechanisms Infrastructure) LDAP, SSH, TLS simulator)

Hybrid Cloud Yes (with AWS, Azure,

Yes (AWS integration) Limited Not applicable
Support GCP integration)

Theivanai Ammal College for Women (Autonomous)

III B.Sc. Computer Science Page 30 of 31 2025-26 (ODD Semester)
 Cloud Computing Unit I

Feature / Aspect Eucalyptus Nimbus OpenNebula CloudSim

Community Active in early years, now Active Community and Strong academic
Niche Academic Community
Support limited Commercial Backing community support

Cloud Scheduling, Energy-

Use Case Scientific Experiments, Grid- Edge Clouds, Smart City
GovClouds, Enterprise Labs aware Scheduling
Examples Cloud Research Infrastructure
Simulations

No (for research and

Commercial Use Yes Limited Yes
education only)

Initially GPL, later Open Source (Apache

License Open Source (Apache/GPL) Open Source (GPL)
Commercial/Proprietary v2)

Theivanai Ammal College for Women (Autonomous)

III B.Sc. Computer Science Page 31 of 31 2025-26 (ODD Semester)