Unit 1.

Teaching on Physical Environment

Earth and Life Science Education

Javier Vaquero Martínez

3rd Primary Education.

2024/2025

Javier Vaquero Martínez (3rd Primary Education.) Unit 1. Teaching on Physical Environment 2024/2025 1 / 56
Outline I

1 Science curriculum

2 Terrestrial materials

3 Structure of the Earth

4 Plate tectonics

5 History of Earth

6 The Earth, the oceans and the atmosphere

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 Section 1

Science curriculum

Javier Vaquero Martínez (3rd Primary Education.) Unit 1. Teaching on Physical Environment 2024/2025 3 / 56
Science curriculum

Let’s check the science curriculum and see what we have on the topic of Earth, rocks,
minerals, volcanoes, earthquakes, tectonic plates, and so on.

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 Section 2

Terrestrial materials

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Terrestrial materials

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Mineral properties

Objective: identify minerals based on their properties.

What characteristics are desirable in these properties?

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Mineral properties

Check
https://www.visionlearning.com/en/library/Earth-Science/6/Properties-of-Minerals/130 for a
good summary of properties. Pictures from this website.

Most common properties Other properties

Geometric shape Mechanical properties
Hardness Odor
Density Taste
Luster Magnetic properties
Cleavage & fracture Electric properties
Color and strike.

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Color and strike

Color Strike
Very easy to identify. When you use it “as a pencil”, it leaves
Bad diagnosis. a trace of a different color.
▶ Example: quartz Example: hematite

Figure 1: Hematite can have different colors, but its strike is consistenly red-brownish

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Crystal form

Internal structure
Not always easy to recognize, several
crystals can grow together.
Trick: the angles between faces are
always the same.

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Hardness

Scratch test.
Mohs scale: Mohs scale
▶ Non-linear.
1 Talc.
▶ There are more rigorous methods. 2 Gypsum.
3 Calcite.
4 Fluorite.
5 Apatite.
6 Feldspar.
7 Quartz.
8 Topaz.
9 Corundum.
10 Diamond.

By Hannes Grobe - Own work, CC BY 3.0,

https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=25055190

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Luster

It is the way it reflects light.

There are different varieties:

Images from https://genesisgrogreene.blogspot.com/2022/04/if-mineral-has-metallic-shine-and.html

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Density

Can I use the density to identify a mineral?

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Density

Can I use the density to identify a mineral?

Density is a specific property (does NOT depend on the mass!!)
Range of densities: water (1 g/cm3 ) and gold (19.3 g/cm3 )

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Cleavage and Fracture

Cleavage Fracture
When hit, a mineral tends to break by When hit, the mineral may tend to break in
pre-existing weaknesses. Example: slate other (non-linear) ways.

By Zureks -
Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2663600

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Mineral versus rock
What is the difference between mineral and rock? Are both concepts the same?

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Mineral versus rock
What is the difference between mineral and rock? Are both concepts the same?
A rock is a heterogeneous terrestrial material made of one or several minerals.
Example: granite

But…what is a mineral? (check what_is_a_mineral.pdf in virtual campus)

Javier Vaquero Martínez (3rd Primary Education.) Unit 1. Teaching on Physical Environment 2024/2025 15 / 56
What is a mineral activity

Groups of experts:
▶ Crystallinity
▶ Stable under ambient conditions
▶ Extraterrestrial substances
▶ Anthropogenic substances
▶ Geologically modified anthropogenic substances
▶ Biogenic substances

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Types of rocks

We find different types of rocks:

1 Endogenous: they are formed in the interior of the Earth. Temperature and pressure!
Igneous (Intrusive/Extrusive): solidification of magma.
Metamorphic: without melting.
2 Exogenous (sedimentary): they are formed in the surface of Earth through weathering.
Interesting video in virtual campus.
Let’s see them in detail.

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Types of rocks

Endogenous Igneous Endogenous Metamorphic

They change because of the high
temperatures and pressures in the interior of
the Earth.
Examples: gneiss, marble, slate, quartzite.

By The Editor's Apprentice - Own work, CC0,

By Woudloper - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=84933375
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5208648

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Types of rocks

Exogenous or sedimentary
They are transformed little by little by:
Weathering: Weathering is the deterioration of rocks through contact with water, air,
sunlight, and biological organisms without movement, on-site.
Erosion: erosion is the action of surface processes (such as water flow or wind) that
removes soil, rock, or dissolved material from one location on the Earth’s crust and then
transports it to another location where it is deposited.
Lithification: compactation and cementation.

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Summary table

Type of Rock External Characteristics Examples

Igneous (Extrusive) Fine-grained texture, often glassy or vesicular (contains holes from gas bubbles), formed from lava Basalt, Rhyolite, Andesite,
cooling quickly on the Earth’s surface. Obsidian, Pumice
Igneous (Intrusive) Coarse-grained texture, large crystals, formed from magma cooling slowly beneath the Earth’s Granite, Gabbro, Diorite
surface.
Metamorphic Foliated (layered or banded appearance) or non-foliated (uniform texture), formed from the Schist, Gneiss, Marble, Slate,
alteration of existing rock by heat and pressure. Quartzite, Phyllite
Sedimentary (Clastic) Composed of fragments of other rocks, often layered, may contain fossils, formed from the Sandstone, Shale,
compaction and cementation of sediments. Conglomerate, Breccia,
Siltstone
Sedimentary Formed from the precipitation of minerals from water, often crystalline in appearance. Limestone, Rock Salt,
(Chemical) Gypsum, Chert
Sedimentary Composed of organic material, such as plant debris or animal remains, often contains fossils. Coal, Chalk, Coquina
(Organic)

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Rock cycle
Rocks change in what we call the rock cycle

Recommended video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vp_S3BDiR-I&t=400

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 Section 3

Structure of the Earth

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Volcanic activity and Earthquakes

Do volcanoes and earthquakes occur randomly? Do some places have more probabilities than
others?

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Volcanic activity and Earthquakes

Do volcanoes and earthquakes occur randomly? Do some places have more probabilities than
others?

Eurasian Plate
North American
Plate
Juan de Fuca

Arabian Philippine
Caribbean
African Plate Indian
Cocos Plate
Pacific Plate Pacific Plate

South American Somali

Plate Plate
Nazca
Plate
Australian Plate

Scotia

Antarctic Plate

By M.Bitton - Own work based on: Hasterok, Derrick (8 June 2022). New
maps of global geological provinces and tectonic plates. American Institute of
Physics - Phys.org. Retrieved on 27 March 2023., CC BY-SA 3.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=130076176
By NASA, DTAM project team - http://denali.gsfc.nasa.gov/dtam/seismic/,
Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=35429

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How do we know this?
Seismic events (earthquakes*)
▶ Hypocenter
▶ Epicenter
Seismograph/seismometer

By AnsateSam Hocevar (original author; this is a derivative

work)User:TFerenczy create SVG version; cs translationUser:NikNaks es
translationUser:Lies Van Rompaey nl translationUser:Rostik252004 ru
translationUser:��� uk translation - Epicenter.png:, CC BY-SA 1.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=32716741

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What is an earthquake?
Sometimes the Earth shakes (later we will learn why) releasing a huge amount of energy in
form of waves. The waves produced by an earthquake are:
1 Primary waves: 2 Secondary waves:
They are longitudinal (like sound) Transversal (like waves in water).
Reflexion and refraction Absorbed by liquids (no propagation).
3 Love and Raileigh waves

By LukeTriton, Steven Earle, Mario Bačić, Lovorka Librić, Danijela Jurić Kaćun

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Seismic waves

Note: actually, we have S waves in the solid

core.

By Brews ohare - Speeds of seismic waves.PNG, CC BY-SA 3.0,

https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=128708187 By Karla Panchuk, Steven Earle -
https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/physicalgeologyh5p/chapter/3-2-
understanding-earth-through-seismology-2/, CC BY-SA 4.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=128337612

Javier Vaquero Martínez (3rd Primary Education.) Unit 1. Teaching on Physical Environment 2024/2025 26 / 56
So, how is the Earth inside?

We can use these waves to study the Earth internal structure!

Based on By Kelvinsong - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0,

https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=23966175 By derivative work: SrimadhavEarth cutaway schematic-en.png: USGS -
Earth cutaway schematic-en.png This file was derived from: Earth cutaway
schematic-en.png, Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=25808447

Javier Vaquero Martínez (3rd Primary Education.) Unit 1. Teaching on Physical Environment 2024/2025 27 / 56
Internal structure

Chemical composition Fluidity of the rocks:

Crust: Exosphere:
▶ Ocean crust: dense but thin ▶ Litosphere: crust + mantle
▶ Continental crust: less dense but ▶ Asthenosphere: mantle
thicker Mesosphere: rest of mantle
Mantle: solid except a small region at Endosphere: same as core
the top with some plasticity
Core:
▶ Outer core: fluid, iron, nickel.
▶ Inner core: solid, iron, nickel.
Activity: let’s try to do a scaled picture of the Earth parts.

Javier Vaquero Martínez (3rd Primary Education.) Unit 1. Teaching on Physical Environment 2024/2025 28 / 56
 Section 4

Plate tectonics

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Volcanic activity and Earthquakes

Do volcanoes and earthquakes occur randomly? Do some places have more probabilities than
others?

Javier Vaquero Martínez (3rd Primary Education.) Unit 1. Teaching on Physical Environment 2024/2025 30 / 56
Volcanic activity and Earthquakes

Do volcanoes and earthquakes occur randomly? Do some places have more probabilities than
others?

Eurasian Plate
North American
Plate
Juan de Fuca

Arabian Philippine
Caribbean
African Plate Indian
Cocos Plate
Pacific Plate Pacific Plate

South American Somali

Plate Plate
Nazca
Plate
Australian Plate

Scotia

Antarctic Plate

By M.Bitton - Own work based on: Hasterok, Derrick (8 June 2022). New
maps of global geological provinces and tectonic plates. American Institute of
Physics - Phys.org. Retrieved on 27 March 2023., CC BY-SA 3.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=130076176
By NASA, DRAM project team - http://denali.gsfc.nasa.gov/dtam/seismic/,
Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=35429

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Contiental drift theory
Alfred Wegener (1880-1930):
Meteorologist.
Continents look like a jigsaw puzzle.
Previous theory: bridge of landmass
connecting Europe and America.
Missing mechanism.
His theory was not popular for some
time.

By Osvaldocangaspadilla - Own work, Public Domain,

https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=11310183
By Unknown author - Bildindex der Kunst und Architektur: object
20550839 – image file fm426293a.jpg, Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=18166817

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Tectonic plates basis

Litosphere is divided into plates that can move.

Plates can separate, join, etc. This produces different geological phenomena in their
boundaries.
History of continental movements as known today:
https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/continental-drift/

Eurasian Plate
North American
Plate
Juan de Fuca

Arabian Philippine
Caribbean
African Plate Indian
Cocos Plate
Pacific Plate Pacific Plate

South American Somali

Plate Plate
Nazca
Plate
Australian Plate

Scotia

Antarctic Plate

By M.Bitton - Own work based on: Hasterok, Derrick (8 June 2022). New maps of global geological provinces and tectonic plates. American Institute of Physics -
Phys.org. Retrieved on 27 March 2023., CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=130076176

Javier Vaquero Martínez (3rd Primary Education.) Unit 1. Teaching on Physical Environment 2024/2025 32 / 56
Tectonic plates basis

Internal geological processes in the Earth Ridge

are based on continuous heat transfer: L" Lithosphere
Trench PUL Trench
Remnant heat AB
"SL
▶
▶ Natural radioactivity As
the
Convective motions in the mantle. nos
phe
Mantle re
Question:
Is the mantle solid or liquid? 700 km

Outer Core
Inner
Core
By Surachit - Own work SVG, based on the public domain USGS image found
here [1] and originally uploaded here, CC BY-SA 3.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2574349

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Faults

Normal faults
Reverse faults
Transform faults

By The original uploader was Cferrero at English Wikipedia. - Transferred

from en.wikipedia to Commons by Adrignola using CommonsHelper., CC
BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=10755367

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Boundaries: divergent

Rift phase: continental lithosphere is

stretching -> normal faults
Red sea phase: lithosphere starts being
produced.
Atlantic ocean phase: oceanic
lithosphere continues production. By 37ophiuchi BrucePL - Based on diagram File:Mittelozeanischer Ruecken -
Schema.png. I translated it from German to English and revised outlines of
rock units., CC BY-SA 4.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=79658206

By domdomegg - Own work,

CC BY 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=50772217

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Convergent boundaries:

Subduction of the lithosphere.

Seismic processes and volcanoes
(volcanoes from melting lithosphere)
forming an arc parallel to the boundary.
Different types:
▶ Continental vs oceanic
▶ Oceanic vs oceanic
▶ Continental vs continental

By domdomegg - Own work, CC BY 4.0,

https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=45874902

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Oceanic vs Oceanic crust
Example Japan

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Continental vs oceanic crust
Example: Canary Islands
Mountain range with volcanoes.

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Continental vs continental crust
Example: Tibetan plateau
Similar densities: one goes over the other one –> large mountains.

https://anonmouze.blogspot.com
Javier Vaquero Martínez (3rd Primary Education.) Unit 1. Teaching on Physical Environment 2024/2025 39 / 56
Transform boundaries
They are very active seismically
speaking.
We can have two cases:
▶ Separating two active parts of ocean
ridge (divergent boundaries).
▶ Plates moving in opposed directions.

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 Section 5

History of Earth

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Motivation

1 We now know that geological processed take a loooong time.

2 The continents were together in the past forming Pangaea.
3 Fossils show that animals were very different in the past.
4 The Earth has changed a lot in its history.
How is the history of Earth?

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Context

1 How old is the universe?

2 How long do you think the earth is?
3 The cosmic calendar: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bl-s4tqR8Bc
Recommended video: https://youtu.be/watch?v=XMjkO72KVjE

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Activity: earth calendar

Interesting sources:
1 A brief history of Earth
https://opengeology.org/historicalgeology/a-brief-history-of-earth/
2 Earth cataclisms: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eCs0u5bhyvk
3 History of Earth in 10 minutes: https://youtu.be/watch?v=kBs2-J6k8vM
4 About eons, eras, etc. and when they happened: https://stratigraphy.org/timescale/
Activity description: Similarly to the video in the previous slide, “The cosmic calendar”, you
can create an “Earth calendar with the history of Earth”. For that:
1 Collect all the information about the different eons, eras, periods, epochs, ages, and
events you consider necessary.
2 Design an infographic with the style of a calendar, so that the whole history of earth is
scaled to 1 year.
3 We will do the calculations in a spreadsheet.
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 Section 6

The Earth, the oceans and the atmosphere

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The Earth is not just rocks

The Earth is not made only of rocks!

Oceans and atmosphere –> fluids

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Hydrosphere

The hydrosphere is all the water (in any state) in the planet. Where can we find it?
Temperature.
Changes landscape
Difference:
▶ Oceans: very large salty water bodies
separating continents.
▶ Seas: smaller salty water bodies:
Littoral sea: Cantabrian.
Inland sea: Mediterranean.
Open sea: Northern sea.
Figure 2: Can you identify the three seas?

Screenshot of the marble app (https://marble.kde.org/).

Javier Vaquero Martínez (3rd Primary Education.) Unit 1. Teaching on Physical Environment 2024/2025 47 / 56
Sea water
Some important properties that can change from sea to see are:
1 Salinity.
2 Temperature: changes with depth.
Superficial layer.
Thermocline.
Deep layer (0-5 degrees).
3 Density –> currents.
4 Oxygen concentration.

By Praveenron - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0,

https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=31055923

By Plumbago - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0,

https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=23016243

Javier Vaquero Martínez (3rd Primary Education.) Unit 1. Teaching on Physical Environment 2024/2025 48 / 56
Sea movements
Tides (surface).
Ocean currents.

By Dr. Michael Pidwirny (see http://www.physicalgeography.net) - http://blue.utb.edu/paullgj/geog3333/lectures/physgeog.html, original image, Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=37108971

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Atmosphere
It is the gaseous part of the Earth.
Composition: 78% Nitrogen, 21%
Oxygen, 0.93% Argon, rest other gases.
Structure:
1 Troposphere.
2 Stratosphere.
3 Mesosphere.
4 Thermosphere

Picture sources:
(left) By Kelvinsong - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=24006541
(right) from pressbooks.bccampus.ca

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Atmospheric movements (Global circulation)
Polar cell
60° N

Mid-latitude cell

Westerlies

30° N HIGH

Hadley cell Northeasterly Trades

Intertropical
convergence
zone 0°

Hadley cell Southeasterly Trades

HIGH
30° S

Westerlies
Mid-latitude cell

60° S

Polar cell

By Kaidor - Own work based on File:NASA depiction of earth global atmospheric circulation.jpg, CC BY-SA 3.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=23902538

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Clouds
You can observe clouds very easily! https://cloudatlas.wmo.int/en/observing-clouds.html

By Valentin de Bruyn / CotonThis illustration has been created for Coton, the cloud identification guide for mobile. - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=17899555
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Some atmospheric effects

1 Why is the sky blue?

2 What is the rainbow?
3 What are Northern lights?

Javier Vaquero Martínez (3rd Primary Education.) Unit 1. Teaching on Physical Environment 2024/2025 53 / 56
Some atmospheric effects: blue sky

Nasa has lots of outreach information for kids https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/blue-sky/en/

Javier Vaquero Martínez (3rd Primary Education.) Unit 1. Teaching on Physical Environment 2024/2025 54 / 56
Some atmospheric effects: rainbow

National geographic: https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/rainbow/

Javier Vaquero Martínez (3rd Primary Education.) Unit 1. Teaching on Physical Environment 2024/2025 55 / 56
Some atmospheric effects: northern lights

NASA: https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/aurora/en/

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