MACHINING SCIENCE & METROLOGY BME402

MODULE-1: INTRODUCTION TO METAL CUTTING

Metal removal process is a machining process in which excess amount of material is removed
in the form of chips in order to shape the material to the required dimension and size.

Machining is not just one process; it is a group of processes. The common feature is the use of
a cutting tool to form a chip that is removed from the work-part. To perform the operation,
relative motion is required between the tool and work. This relative motion is achieved in most
machining operations by means of a primary motion, called the cutting speed, and a secondary
motion, called the feed. The shape of the tool and its penetration into the work surface,
combined with these motions, produces the desired geometry of the resulting work surface.

Theory of chip formation:

Figure 4.1: Formation of chip in metal cutting

The above figure illustrates the basic geometry of a to dimensional chip formation. When the
cutting tool is forced to move against the workpiece, the tool exerts a compressive force on the
workpiece. The material of the workpiece is stressed beyond its yield point causing it to deform
plastically and shear off. The plastic flow take place in the localized region called Shear plane.
The sheared portion of the metal begins to flow along cutting tool face in the form a small pieces
called chips.

Mechanics of chip formation:

As the cutting tool pressed against the workpiece, the tool removes the material in the form a
chip at shear zone. Three different types of chips are formed during the process. They are:

1. Continuous chips
2. Discontinues Chips
3. Continuous with built up edges.
Department of Mechanical Engineering, BIET, DVG 1
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18ME/445A51B
17ME35B

Continuous chip: When ductile work materials are cut at high speeds and relatively small
feeds and depths, long continuous chips are formed. A good surface finish typically results
when this chip type is formed. A sharp cutting edge on the tool and low tool–chip friction
encourage the formation of continuous chips. Long, continuous chips (as in turning) can cause
problems with regard to chip disposal and/or tangling about the tool. To solve these problems,
turning tools are often equipped with chip breakers.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4.2: (a) Continuous (b) Discontinuous (c) Continuous with built up edges

Discontinuous chip: When relatively brittle materials (e.g., cast irons) are machined at low
cutting speeds, the chips often form into separate segments (sometimes the segments are loosely
attached). This tends to impart an irregular texture to the machined surface. High tool– chip
friction and large feed and depth of cut promote the formation of this chip type.

Continuous chip with built-up edge: When machining ductile materials at low-to medium
cutting speeds, friction between tool and chip tends to cause portions of the work material to
adhere to the rake face of the tool near the cutting edge. This formation is called a built-up edge
(BUE). The formation of a BUE is cyclical; it forms and grows, then becomes unstable and
breaks off. Much of the detached BUE is carried away with the chip, sometimes taking portions
of the tool rake face with it, which reduces the life of the cutting tool. Portions of the detached
BUE that are not carried off with the chip become imbedded in the newly created work surface,
causing the surface to become rough.

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Orthogonal and Oblique cutting

Orthogonal Cutting Model:

In orthogonal cutting, the cutting edge inclination is zero and chip is expected to flow along
the orthogonal plane. The cutting tool is passes such a way that the cutting edge is normal to
the tool feed direction. In orthogonal cutting, the radial force is zero, and it involves only two
component of force.

Figure 4.3: Orthogonal and oblique cutting

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Oblique Cutting Model:

In oblique cutting, chip flow deviates from the orthogonal plane. Tool passes to workpiece at
an acute angel to the tool feed motion. The analysis of cutting includes three mutually
perpendicular component of force.

Comparison between Orthogonal and oblique cutting

Sl. No Orthogonal metal cutting Oblique metal cutting

Cutting edge of the tool is The cutting edge is inclined at an angle
1 perpendicular to the direction of tool less than 90o to the direction of tool
travel. travel.
The direction of chip flow is The chip flows on the tool face making
2
perpendicular to the cutting edge. an angle.

3 The chip coils in a tight flat spiral The chip flows sideways in a long curl.

For same feed and depth of cut the

force which shears the metal acts on a The cutting force acts on larger area
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smaller area. So the life of the tool is and so tool life is more.
less.
Produces a chamfer at the end of the
5 Produces sharp corners.
cut
For the same depth of cut greater
Smaller length of cutting edge is in
6 length of cutting edge is in contact
contact with the work.
with the work.
Generally parting off in lathe,
This method of cutting is used in
7 broaching and slotting operations are
almost all machining operations.
done in this method.

Earnest Merchant’s Tool equation:

 Merchant circle diagram is used to analyse the forces acting in metal cutting.
 The analysis of three forces system, which balance each other for cutting to occur. Each
system is a triangle of forces.

Assumptions made in drawing Merchant’s circle:

 Shear surface is a plane extending upwards from the cutting edge.

 The tool is perfectly sharp and there is no contact along the clearance force.
 The cutting edge is a straight line extending perpendicular to the direction of motion
and generates a plane surface as the work moves past it.

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 The chip doesn’t flow to either side that is chip width is constant.
 The depth of cut remains constant.
 Width of the too, is greater than that of the work.
 Work moves with uniform velocity relative tool tip.
 No built up edge is formed.

Figure 4.4. Merchant Tool Diagram

Shear plane angel = φ

Tool rake angel = α
Friction angel = β
Fn = normal force
Fs= Shear force
Fns= Force normal to shear force
Fc= horizontal cutting force
Ft= Thrust force
FR= Resultant Force
From the figure,
∟𝐵𝑂𝐴 = 90 − 𝛽
∟𝐶𝑂𝐵 = 𝛽 − 𝛼
∟𝐷𝑂𝐵 = 𝜑 + 𝛽 − 𝛼

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To find Fc and Ft:

From triangle BOC, cos(β-α) = Fc/Fr
Fc= Fr cos(β-α)

From triangle BOC, sin(β-α) = Ft/Fr

Ft = Fr sin(β-α)
To find Fs and Fns:
From triangle OBD, cos(φ+𝛽 − 𝛼)=Fs/Fr
Fs=Fr cos(φ+𝜷 − 𝜶)

From triangle OBD, Sin(φ+𝛽 − 𝛼)= Fns/Fr

Fns= Fr Sin(φ+β−α)

To find Ff and Fn, Ff and Fn are expressed in terms of Fc and Ft

Figure 4.5: Merchants Tool diagram

From the diagram, Ff = OA= MN

Ff= MN= MC+CN
But from MC=? And CN=?
From triangle MCO, Sinα= MC/OC= MC/ Fc
To find CN=?

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From triangle CNB cosα= CN/CB= CN/Ft

CN= Ft cosα
Therefore, Ff= Fc Sinα+Ft Cosα

Fn = AB = OR
Fn =OR = OM – MR OM =? And
MR =?
From triangle OMC cosα= OM/ OC = OM/ Fc
OM= Fc cosα
MR= NB
From triangle CNB, Sinα= NB/BC= NB/Ft
NB= Ft Sinα
Therefore, Fn= Fc Cosα+Ft Sinα

To calculate Co-efficient of friction,

Ff= μFn μ = Ff/ Fn

𝑭𝒄 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜶 + 𝑭𝒕 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝜶
𝝁=
𝑭𝒄 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝜶 − 𝑭𝒕 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜶

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INTRODUCTION TO BASIC METAL CUTTING MACHINE TOOLS:

LATHE MACHINE TOOL
The lathe is a machine tool which holds the work piece between two rigid and strong supports
called centers or in a chuck or face plate which revolves. The cutting tool is rigidly held and
supported in a tool post which is fed against the revolving work. The normal cutting operations
are performed with the cutting tool fed either parallel or at right angles to the axis of the work.
The cutting tool may also be fed at an angle relative to the axis of work for machining tapers
and angles.

Fig: Principle of working of a lathe

Construction of Centre Lathe: The main parts of the lathe are the bed, headstock, quick changing
gear box, carriage and tailstock.

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 Bed: Usually made of cast iron. Provides a heavy rigid frame on which all the main
components are mounted. It is the foundation part of a lathe and supports the remaining
parts. The top of the bed is formed by precision-machined guide ways.
 Guide Ways: Inner and outer guide rails that are precision machined parallel to assure
accuracy of movement.
 Headstock: mounted in a fixed position on the inner ways, usually at the left end. Using
a chuck, it rotates the work. The housing comprising of the feed gearbox and the cone
pulley called headstock of the lathe. The main spindle projects out from the headstock. The
motor drives the cone pulley drives the main spindle through belting. Spindle speeds can be
further varied using beck gear mechanism. 
 Gearbox: inside the headstock, providing multiple speeds with a geometric ratio by
moving levers.
 Spindle: Hole through the headstock to which bar stock can be fed, which allows shafts
that are up to 2 times the length between lathe centers to be worked on one end at a
time.
 Chuck: allows the mounting of difficult work pieces that are not round, square or
triangular. 3-jaw (self-centering) or 4-jaw (independent) to clamp part being machined.
 Tailstock: Fits on the inner ways of the bed and can slide towards any position the
headstock to fit the length of the work piece. Tail stock is the movable part of the lathe
that carries the dead center in it. The main function of the tailstock is to support the free
end of the long work pieces. It is mounted loosely on the bed ways and can be moved
in desired direction an optional taper turning attachment would be mounted to it.
 Carriage Assembly: Moves on the outer ways. Used for mounting and moving most the cutting
tools. The carriage assembly consists of.
 Saddle: is a H-shaped casting slides over the outer set of guide ways and serves as the
base for the cross slide.
 Cross slide: is mounted on the saddle and enables the movement of the cutting tool
laterally across the lathe bed by means of cross-feed hand wheel.
 Compound Rest: is mounted on the top of the cross slide and is swiveled to any angle
in the horizontal plane to facilitate taper turning and thread cutting operations.
 Apron: is mounted in front of the saddle beneath it and houses the carriage and cross
slide mechanisms.
 Tool Post: is mounted in the T-Slot of the compound rest and properly clamps the
cutting tool.

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 Feed Rod: Has a keyway, with two reversing pinion gears, either of which can be
meshed with the mating bevel gear to forward or reverse the carriage using a clutch. is
a stationary rod mounted in front of lathe bed and facilitates longitudinal movement of
the carriage.
 Lead Screw: is the screw rod that runs longitudinally in front of the lathe bed. The gyration of
the lead screw moves the carriage to and fro longitudinally during thread cutting operations.

Specification of Lathe:
The size of the lathe is specified in order to know the work holding capacity of the
lathe. The specification of the lathe is shown in fig below.

Fig: Specification of Lathe

1. Distance between Centers: The maximum length of the work pieces that can be held
between the centers.
2. Overall length of bed: It is the total length of the lathe.
3. Swing over lathe bed: The Maximum diameter of the work piece that can be revolved
over the lathe bed.
4. Swing over the gap in bed: The maximum diameter and width of the work piece that can
be revolved over the lathe when the lathe has gap bed.

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Kinematics of lathe:
The tool-work motions are :
• Formative motions : - cutting motion- feed motion
• Auxiliary motions : - indexing motion- relieving motion etc
Inlatheso Cutting motion is attained by rotating the jobo Feed motion by linear travel of the too
l- either axially for longitudinal feed
- or radially for cross feed

It is noted, in general, from Fig. 4.1.1

• The job gets rotation (and power) from the motor through the belt-pulley, clutch and then the
speed gear box which splits the input speed into a number (here 12) of speeds by operating the
cluster gears.
• The cutting tool derives its automatic feed motion(s) from the rotation ofthe spindle via the
gear quadrant, feed gear box and then the apron mechanism where the rotation of the feed rod is
transmitted- either to the pinion which being rolled along the rack provides the longitudinal
feed-or to the screw of the cross slide for cross or transverse feed.
• While cutting screw threads the half nuts are engaged with the rotatingleadscrew to positively
cause travel of the carriage and hence the tool parallel to the lathe bed i.e., job axis.
• The feed-rate for both turning and threading is varied as needed byoperating the Norton gear
and the Meander drive systems existing in the feed gear box (FGR). The range of feeds can be
augmented by changing the gear ratio in the gear quadrant connecting the FGB with the spindle
• As and when required, the tailstock is shifted along the lathe bed byoperating the clamping
bolt and the tailstock quil is moved forward or backward or is kept locked in the desired location.
• The versatility or working range of the centre lathes is augmented byusing several
attachments like
- Taper turning attachment
- Thread milling attachment
- Copying attachment.
CAPSTAN AND TURRET LATHES

Comparison among Centre lathe, Capstan Lathe and Turret Lathe:

Feature Centre Lathe Turret Lathe Capstan Lathe

Headstock Cons pulley or all gear Heavy construction, Same as Turret Lathe
driven. Can Provide wider range of spindle
lesser speed than the speeds from morepowerful
other two. motor than centre lathes

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Tool post Usually a single Tool post
Its cross slide carries a Same as Turret Lathe
(with a single tool). square turret type Tool
Sometimes, a square
post carrying 4 tools.
turret type Tool post is
Additionally, it has a Tool
provided which can hold
post at its rear to hold 1 or
4 tools. 2 tools.
Tailstock Usually used for
Carries a hexagonal turret Carries a square, round
supporting the WP.
head instead of tailstock, or hexagonal turret
Sometimes, some cutting
which may hold a tool or called Capstan head in
tools (drills, reamers etc)
tool head on each of its place of tailstock. This
installed to perform
face. They are provides the same
operations at the end face
automatically indexed in facility of mounting and
of WP. sequence to bring eachtool indexing 4-6 tools as in
in proper position for case of turret lathe.
performing operations
sequentially.
Leadscrew Always provided on Thread cutting generally Same as Turret Lathe
centre lathe to enable performed by taps and die
thread cutting by a single heads fitted to the turret
point tool. head.
Method of Not applicable Turret head directly Capstan head is
mounting the mounted on a saddle and mounted on a ram or
Turret or for feeding the tool on the slide, which travels on
Capstan Head WP the entire saddle has the fixed saddle. The
to be moved. tools are fed on the WP
by moving the slide.
No. of tools Usually 1 for single tool 4 tools on the front tool Same as Turret Lathe
mounted post. If a square turret type post, 1 or 2 on the reartool
Tool post is provided then post and 4-6 tools on the
4 tools can bemounted. square or hexagonal turret
head. No. of tools can be
increased by using
multiple tool holders on
the turret.
Skill required Very high Very nominal after setting Same as Turret Lathe
for operator of tools
Tool setting High. Tool has to be Initial tool setting time Same as Turret Lathe
time changed every time a required. During
new operation is to be operation all the tool are
done. available in the turret.
Degree of Very nominal (manual) Semi-automatic Semi-automatic
automation
Application More versatile. Made in Used in mass productionof Used for relatively
various sizes and identical components. Can lighter and smaller jobs
capabilities to handle handle heavier jobs than than turret lathes, but
jobs of various sizes and capstan lathes. with more precision.
level of machining.
Rate of Lower Higher Higher
production
Overhead Less than the other two Higher than centre lathes Same as Turret Lathe
charges because of higher initial
investments, more power
consumption and higher
maintenance.

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Labour cost Higher (require skill Lower, because after Same as Turret Lathe
labour) initial tool setting
unskilled/semi-skilled
labour is required.

Difference between a Turret and Capstan Lathe:

S. No Turret Lathe Capstan Lathe

1. Its turret head is directly mounted on the Its turret head is mounted on an auxiliary
saddle slide which moves on the guideways of the
saddle.
2. For feeding the tool on the WP, the entire For feeding the tool on the WP, the slide
saddle is moved moves over the guideways of fixed saddle
3. The above arrangement enables better As the ram or slide is overhung, hence less
rigidity as all the cutting forces are rigidity due to vibration, bending and
transferred to the lathe bed deflection.
4. Due to the above, this lathe can Due to the above, its use is confined to
accommodate heavier WP, involve heavier relatively lighter and smaller jobs.
cutting forces and severe cutting
conditions.
5. Operations my be performed on bars size Up to 60 mm diameter only.
up to 200 mm in diameter
6. Since the turret saddle (along with all the Tool feeding done by movement of slide
tools) moves over the guideways of the lathe over the saddle. Hence, movement is limited
bed, hence it can move almost the
entire length of the bed.
7. Heavier designs of turret lathes are No such arrangements provided
provided with pneumatic or hydraulic
chucks to hold the heavier jobs firmly.
8. Some versions of this lathe may provide for No such arrangements provided
cross feeding of the hexagonal turret.

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