SOLUTIONS
SOLUTIONS
Gaseous Solutions
Solut Solve
Example
e nt
Mixture of oxygen and
Gas Gas
nitrogen gases
Liqui Chloroform mixed with
Gas
d nitrogen gas
Solid Gas Camphor in nitrogen gas
Liquid Solutions
Solut Solve
Example
e nt
Oxygen dissolved in
Gas Liquid
water
Liqui Ethanol dissolved in
Liquid
d water
Glucose dissolved in
Solid Liquid
water
Solid Solutions
Solut Solve
Example
e nt
Solution of hydrogen in
Gas Solid
palladium
Liqui Amalgam of mercury with
Solid
d sodium
Gaseous Solutions
Solut Solve
Example
e nt
Mixture of oxygen and
Gas Gas
nitrogen gases
Liqui Chloroform mixed with
Gas
d nitrogen gas
Solid Gas Camphor in nitrogen gas
Liquid Solutions
Solut Solve
Example
e nt
Oxygen dissolved in
Gas Liquid
water
Liqui Ethanol dissolved in
Liquid
d water
Glucose dissolved in
Solid Liquid
water
Solid Solutions
Solut Solve
Example
e nt
Solution of hydrogen in
Gas Solid
palladium
Liqui Amalgam of mercury with
Solid
d sodium
Solid Solid Copper dissolved in gold
Expressing Concentration of a Solution
Concentration Terms:
1. Mass Percentage (w/w%)
Definition:
Mass percentage of a component in a solution is calculated as:
Mass%= Mass of component x 100
Total mass of solution
Usage:
Commonly used in industrial chemical applications.
Example:
A commercial bleaching solution contains 3.62% (w/w) of sodium hypochlorite in water.
2. Volume Percentage (v/v%)
Formula:
Volume %=
Use: Used when both solute and solvent are liquids.
Example:
A 35% v/v solution of ethylene glycol in water is used as antifreeze in car engines.
At this concentration, it lowers the freezing point of water to 255.4 K (or –17.6°C).
3. Mass by Volume Percentage (w/v%)
Formula:
Mass by Volume %=
Use: Commonly used in medicines and pharmacy.
4. Parts Per Million (ppm)
Formula:
Ppm
Conversion:
ppm=Mass %× 10^4
Use: Suitable for trace quantities, e.g., pollutants in water or air.
Units Example:
Concentrations can be expressed as µg/mL or ppm in environmental chemistry.
5. Mole Fraction (χ)
Symbol: χ\chiχ, with subscript denoting the component (e.g., χA\chi_AχA, χB\chi_BχB).
Formula:
Use:
Relates to physical properties like vapor pressure.
Useful in describing gas mixtures.
6. Molarity (M)
Definition:
Molarity is the number of moles of solute dissolved in one litre (1 L or 1 dm³) of
solution.
Formula:
M=
Unit:
Moles per litre (mol/L or mol·dm⁻³), denoted as M (capital M)
Example Usage:
If 1 mole of NaCl is dissolved in 1 litre of solution, the molarity is 1 M.
7. Molality (m)
Definition:
Molality is defined as the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.
Formula:
m=
Unit:
Moles per kilogram (mol/kg)
Key Point:
Unlike molarity, molality is independent of temperature, since it does not involve
volume (which can expand or contract with temperature).
8. Normality (N)
Definition:
Normality is defined as the number of gram equivalents of solute dissolved in one
litre (1 L) of solution.
Formula:
N=
Wb = mass of solute (in grams)
E = equivalent weight of solute (in g/equiv)
V = volume of solution (in mL)
Unit:
Equivalents per litre (eq/L), denoted as N
Key Notes:
Normality depends on the reaction — it varies based on the type of chemical reaction
(acid-base, redox, precipitation, etc.)
Gram Equivalent =
o For acids: mass that gives 1 mole of H⁺
o For bases: mass that gives 1 mole of OH⁻
o For redox: mass that gains or loses 1 mole of electrons
Example:
For H₂SO₄ (sulfuric acid):
Molar mass = 98 g/mol, basicity = 2
Equivalent weight = 982=49\frac{98}{2} = 49298=49
If 49 g of H₂SO₄ is dissolved in 1 L of solution, Normality = 1 N
Let me know if you'd like a complete summary table of all 8 concentration terms or
help with practice problems!
4o
Merits and Demerits of Concentration Terms
✅ Temperature-Independent Terms
These concentration terms do not change with temperature because they depend on
mass or number of moles, not volume:
Mass Percentage (w/w%)
Parts Per Million (ppm)
Mole Fraction (χ)
Molality (m)
Reason:
Mass and number of moles are unaffected by temperature changes.
❌ Temperature-Dependent Terms
These concentration terms change with temperature because they depend on volume,
which expands or contracts with temperature:
Molarity (M)
Volume Percentage (v/v%)
Mass by Volume Percentage (w/v%)
Reason:
Volume varies with temperature, so any concentration term involving volume will also
vary.
🔁 Summary Note
Use molality or mole fraction in experiments involving temperature variations.
Use molarity or volume % when dealing with solutions prepared at constant
temperature or when volume measurement is easier.
Solubility
Definition:
Solubility of a substance is the maximum amount of that substance that can be dissolved
in a specific amount of solvent at a specific temperature.
Depends on:
o Nature of the solute and solvent
o Temperature and pressure (especially for gases)
Case 1: Solubility of a Solid in a Liquid
Factors Affecting Solubility
1. Nature of the Solute and Solvent
A solute dissolves in a solvent if the intermolecular interactions between them
are similar.
o This follows the rule: “Like dissolves like.”
o Polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents.
o Nonpolar solutes dissolve in nonpolar solvents.
o Examples:
Sugar and sodium chloride dissolve in water (both polar).
Naphthalene and anthracene dissolve in benzene (both nonpolar).
Process of Dissolution and Dynamic Equilibrium
1. Dissolution:
When a solid solute is added to a solvent, solute particles dissolve and enter the solution,
increasing its concentration.
2. Crystallization:
Some dissolved solute particles collide with the solute surface and reattach, separating
from the solution.
3. Dynamic Equilibrium:
o Eventually, the rate of dissolution equals the rate of crystallization.
o At this stage, the number of solute particles dissolving equals those precipitating.
o The system is said to be in dynamic equilibrium.
Solute+ Solvent⇌ Solution\
4. At equilibrium, the concentration of solute remains constant (under constant
temperature and pressure). Key Point:
5. The concentration of solute in a saturated solution at a given temperature is defined as
the solubility of the solute.
Types of Solutions Based on Solubility
Saturated Solution:
o Contains the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved at a given
temperature and pressure.
o Is in dynamic equilibrium with the undissolved solute.
Unsaturated Solution:
Can still dissolve more solute at the same temperature and pressure.
Key Point:
The concentration of solute in a saturated solution at a given temperature is defined as
the solubility of the solute.
Effect of Temperature
Solubility of solids and liquids is significantly affected by temperature.
According to Le Chatelier’s Principle:
o If the dissolution process is endothermic (ΔH>0\Delta H > 0ΔH>0),
→ Solubility increases with an increase in temperature.
o If the dissolution process is exothermic (ΔH<0\Delta H < 0ΔH<0),
→ Solubility decreases with an increase in temperature.
Effect of Pressure
Pressure has no significant effect on the solubility of solids and liquids.
Reason:
Solids and liquids are highly incompressible and their volumes remain practically
unchanged under pressure variations.
