UD11T6201 – Marine Meteorology

DNS SEMESTER 2
INDIAN MARITIME UNIVERSITY,
Unit- 3
3.1 Identify of main ocean currents on the world map;

Ocean currents are large-scale flows of seawater that move continuously through the world’s
oceans. They play a crucial role in regulating climate, transporting heat, and supporting marine
ecosystems. Here is a description of some of the main ocean currents on the world map:

1. The Gulf Stream

 Location: North Atlantic Ocean

 Description: The Gulf Stream is a warm ocean current that originates in the Gulf of
Mexico, flows up the U.S. east coast, and then moves across the Atlantic Ocean toward
Europe. It is one of the strongest and fastest ocean currents and plays a major role in
warming the climates of Western Europe.

2. The Labrador Current

 Location: North Atlantic Ocean

 Description: This cold current originates in the Arctic Ocean and flows southward along
the eastern coast of Canada. It brings cold water down from the polar regions, mixing
with the warmer waters of the Gulf Stream.

3. The Kuroshio Current (Japan Current)

 Location: Western Pacific Ocean

 Description: The Kuroshio Current is a warm ocean current that flows northward along
the east coast of Japan. It is an extension of the North Pacific Current and plays a
significant role in the climate of the Pacific Rim.
4. The California Current

 Location: Eastern Pacific Ocean

 Description: The California Current is a cold ocean current that flows southward along
the coast of California, bringing cooler water to the western United States coast. It is an
important current for marine life, especially for fisheries along the coast.

5. The Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC)

 Location: Southern Ocean

 Description: The Antarctic Circumpolar Current is the world's largest and strongest
ocean current, which flows around Antarctica from west to east. It connects the Atlantic,
Pacific, and Indian Oceans and helps distribute heat around the Southern Hemisphere.

6. The Equatorial Currents

 Location: Near the equator in both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
 Description: These are warm currents that flow westward along the equator. They are
driven by the trade winds and are significant in transporting warm water from the eastern
to the western parts of the oceans. In the Pacific Ocean, the current splits into the North
Equatorial Current and South Equatorial Current.

7. The Brazil Current

 Location: South Atlantic Ocean

 Description: The Brazil Current is a warm current flowing southward along the eastern
coast of South America. It originates near the equator and flows down the Brazilian coast
before turning eastward.

8. The West Wind Drift (Antarctic Circumpolar Current)

 Location: Southern Ocean

 Description: This current flows eastward around Antarctica, driven by the prevailing
westerly winds. It helps isolate Antarctica from the rest of the world's oceans.

9. The Somali Current

 Location: Western Indian Ocean

 Description: The Somali Current is a seasonal current that flows northward along the
coast of Somalia in the Indian Ocean. It is influenced by the monsoon winds and plays an
important role in the upwelling of nutrient-rich waters, supporting marine life.

10. The Canary Current

 Location: North Atlantic Ocean

  Description: The Canary Current is a cold ocean current that flows southward along the
northwest coast of Africa, bringing cool waters from the North Atlantic towards the
Canary Islands and the coast of Morocco.

11. The Agulhas Current

 Location: Southwestern Indian Ocean

 Description: The Agulhas Current is a warm current that flows southward along the
eastern coast of Africa. It is one of the strongest ocean currents in the Southern
Hemisphere and plays a crucial role in the global circulation of ocean water.

12. The Indian Ocean Gyre

 Location: Indian Ocean

 Description: The Indian Ocean Gyre is a large system of circular ocean currents that
move clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Northern
Hemisphere. It is driven by the monsoon winds and the Coriolis effect.

These currents, along with others, interact to create a complex system that regulates the Earth's
climate and supports marine ecosystems. They can be seen in ocean circulation models and maps
to understand how water moves across different regions of the globe.

3.2 Describe causes of ocean currents; Characteristics of ocean

currents; General circulation of currents; Effect of ocean
currents
on the climate; Seasonal changes; Formation, source region and
movement of water masses.
Causes of Ocean Currents

Ocean currents are primarily driven by a combination of physical factors, which include:

1. Wind: Surface winds, particularly the trade winds, westerlies, and polar easterlies,
create friction with the ocean surface, causing the water to move. Wind-driven currents
are most prominent in the upper layers of the ocean.
2. Earth’s Rotation (Coriolis Effect): The rotation of the Earth causes moving water to be
deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern
 Hemisphere. This deflection shapes the direction of currents, particularly in the mid-
latitudes.
3. Temperature and Salinity Differences (Thermohaline Circulation): Differences in
water temperature and salinity create variations in water density. Cold, salty water is
denser and sinks, while warm, less saline water rises. This process drives the global
thermohaline circulation (also known as the "global conveyor belt"), which is a deep
ocean current that moves water around the globe.
4. Tidal Forces: The gravitational pull of the moon and the sun causes the rise and fall of
tides. This creates tidal currents, which are usually noticeable near coastlines.
5. Topography of the Ocean Floor: The shape of the ocean floor (such as underwater
mountains, ridges, and valleys) can alter the direction and speed of currents by
channeling or deflecting water flow.

Characteristics of Ocean Currents

 Temperature: Ocean currents are classified as warm currents (e.g., the Gulf Stream,
Kuroshio) or cold currents (e.g., California, Labrador) based on the temperature of the
water they transport. Warm currents generally flow from the equator toward the poles,
and cold currents flow from the poles toward the equator.
 Speed: The speed of ocean currents can vary significantly, with surface currents typically
moving at speeds of 0.5 to 2 knots (0.9 to 3.7 km/h), while deep currents can move much
more slowly.
 Direction: Ocean currents follow specific patterns due to the Coriolis effect. In the
Northern Hemisphere, currents generally flow clockwise in gyres, and in the Southern
Hemisphere, they flow counterclockwise.
 Depth: Currents can be surface currents (affecting the upper 400 meters of the ocean), or
they can be deep currents, which are part of the global thermohaline circulation that
affect the entire ocean's depth.

General Circulation of Currents

The global circulation of ocean currents is a complex system that involves both surface and deep
currents. The main components include:

1. Surface Currents: These are primarily driven by wind and influenced by the Coriolis
effect. The surface currents form large-scale gyres (circular flow patterns) in the world’s
oceans:
o In the North Atlantic: Gulf Stream (warm) and Canary Current (cold).
o In the North Pacific: Kuroshio Current (warm) and California Current (cold).
o In the Southern Ocean: Antarctic Circumpolar Current (cold and vast).
2. Thermohaline Circulation: The movement of water in deeper layers, driven by
differences in water density due to temperature and salinity (thermohaline). This
 circulation connects all the major oceans and helps regulate the global climate system.
The deep currents move cold, dense water from polar regions toward the equator, while
warm surface water flows toward the poles.

Effect of Ocean Currents on the Climate

Ocean currents play a significant role in regulating the Earth’s climate by redistributing heat.
Key effects include:

1. Moderation of Coastal Climates: Warm currents, such as the Gulf Stream, have a
warming effect on nearby land areas, especially in higher latitudes (e.g., Western
Europe). In contrast, cold currents, such as the California Current, can cool coastal
areas.
2. Climate Regulation: Ocean currents help to redistribute heat across the globe. For
example, the global conveyor belt of thermohaline circulation moves warm water from
the equator toward the poles and cold water from the poles toward the equator, thereby
helping to moderate global temperatures.
3. El Niño and La Niña: These climate phenomena, which involve shifts in ocean current
patterns in the Pacific Ocean, can cause significant global climate disruptions, such as
altered precipitation patterns, droughts, and storms.
4. Monsoons: Ocean currents can influence seasonal monsoon patterns. For example, the
Indian Ocean Dipole (a difference in sea surface temperatures) influences the intensity
of the Indian monsoon.

Seasonal Changes in Ocean Currents

Ocean currents experience seasonal changes primarily due to variations in wind patterns and
temperature differences across seasons.

1. Summer: In the summer months, winds are often stronger, leading to increased
evaporation and a more pronounced warming of surface waters. This can enhance the
strength and extent of certain currents, such as the Kuroshio Current in the Pacific.
2. Winter: In winter, the cooling of surface waters in high-latitude regions (e.g., the North
Atlantic) can increase the density of the water, causing it to sink and drive the
thermohaline circulation. Seasonal shifts in wind patterns also affect the flow of currents
like the Monsoon currents in the Indian Ocean.
3. Monsoon Effects: In the Indian Ocean, seasonal winds bring about significant changes in
ocean currents. The Somali Current strengthens during the Northeast Monsoon (winter)
and weakens during the Southwest Monsoon (summer), affecting climate and ocean
productivity.
Formation, Source Region, and Movement of Water Masses

Water masses are large bodies of ocean water with distinct temperature and salinity
characteristics. They are formed in specific regions and move over long distances, influencing
ocean currents.

1. Formation of Water Masses:

o Polar Regions: Water masses form in polar regions where water cools and
becomes denser, sinking to form cold water masses, such as North Atlantic Deep
Water and Antarctic Bottom Water.
o Equatorial Regions: Warm surface water forms in the equatorial regions and
moves toward the poles, contributing to the formation of warm water masses like
the Equatorial Water Mass.
2. Source Regions:
o High-Latitude Source Regions: Water masses like the North Atlantic Deep
Water and Antarctic Bottom Water originate in cold polar regions, where
surface water cools, becomes dense, and sinks.
o Low-Latitude Source Regions: Water masses in tropical or subtropical regions,
such as the Subtropical Mode Water, form through the mixing of warm surface
water.
3. Movement of Water Masses:
o Water masses move as part of the global thermohaline circulation. They travel
along deep ocean currents, contributing to the movement of heat around the globe.
o Deep Ocean Currents: Water masses formed at high latitudes (cold, dense water)
sink and travel toward the equator along the deep ocean conveyor belt.
o Surface Currents: Warmer water masses from tropical regions move toward
higher latitudes, warming cooler regions and influencing the climate.

Summary:

 Causes of Ocean Currents: Winds, Earth's rotation (Coriolis effect), temperature and
salinity differences, tidal forces, and ocean floor topography.
 Characteristics: Temperature (warm vs. cold), speed, direction, and depth.
 General Circulation: Surface currents form large gyres, and deep currents are driven by
thermohaline processes.
 Climate Effects: Ocean currents regulate climate by distributing heat, affecting coastal
temperatures, and influencing weather patterns (e.g., monsoons, El Niño).
 Seasonal Changes: Changes in wind patterns and water temperatures affect current
strength and direction.
 Water Masses: Formed in specific regions, they move along currents, influencing global
ocean circulation and climate.
3.4 Explain Speed, length, period, height and significance of
waves;
difference between waves and swell, types of waves, wave
energy, behaviour of wave in deep and shallow waters; sea
waves, swell, storm surge, tsunami, bore tides; tide producing
forces, types of tides, tide prediction and analysis; tidal
streams.
Relationship between tides and phases of moon.
Waves: Characteristics and Significance

Ocean waves are undulations of water caused by various forces. Understanding their speed,
length, period, height, and significance is crucial in oceanography, navigation, and weather
forecasting.

1. Speed of Waves (Wave Velocity)

 Definition: The speed of a wave refers to how fast the wave travels through the water.
 Factors: Wave speed depends on the wavelength and the water depth. In deep water,
wave speed is calculated using the formula:
Wave Speed (C)=gλ2π\text{Wave Speed (C)} = \sqrt{\frac{g
\lambda}{2\pi}}Wave Speed (C)=2πgλ
Where:
o ggg = acceleration due to gravity.
o λ\lambdaλ = wavelength.
 In shallow water, wave speed decreases due to friction with the ocean floor.

2. Length of Waves (Wavelength)

 Definition: The distance between two consecutive wave crests or troughs.

 Factors: Wavelength is affected by wind speed, duration of wind, and the distance over
which the wind blows (fetch). Longer wavelengths typically correspond to larger waves.

3. Period of Waves
  Definition: The time it takes for two consecutive wave crests (or troughs) to pass a fixed
point.
 Units: Measured in seconds.
 Factors: The wave period is determined by the wind speed and fetch and is independent
of wave height.

4. Height of Waves

 Definition: The vertical distance between the crest (highest point) and the trough (lowest
point) of a wave.
 Factors: Wave height is influenced by wind strength, duration, and fetch. Larger fetches
and stronger winds create higher waves.

5. Significance of Waves

 Marine Ecosystem: Waves mix surface water with deeper waters, affecting nutrient
distribution.
 Coastal Erosion: Waves erode coastlines by hitting cliffs and beaches, reshaping the
shore.
 Navigation: Understanding wave heights and behavior is vital for shipping safety and
marine operations.
 Energy: Waves are a renewable energy source, used for generating electricity in some
regions.

Waves vs. Swell

 Waves: Typically generated by local winds, they have a shorter wavelength and period.
Waves tend to be more irregular and are more noticeable close to shore.
 Swell: These are longer-wavelength waves that travel great distances across the ocean.
Swell is generated by distant storms and tends to be more regular and orderly than locally
generated waves. As swell moves away from the storm center, it can travel for thousands
of kilometers with little loss of energy.

Types of Waves

1. Sea Waves:
o Characteristics: Localized waves generated by wind over a short period and
fetch. They are irregular and have a relatively small wavelength and height.
o Significance: Most common waves encountered near the shore.
2. Swell:
o Characteristics: Long-period waves generated by distant storms. They have
longer wavelengths, regular intervals, and travel over vast distances.
 o Significance: Swell is often used by surfers and mariners to estimate ocean
conditions.
3. Storm Surge:
o Characteristics: A sudden rise in sea level caused by strong winds from a storm
(such as a hurricane or cyclone), combined with low atmospheric pressure.
o Significance: Storm surges can lead to coastal flooding and significant damage
during extreme weather events.
4. Tsunami:
o Characteristics: Large waves generated by seismic activity (e.g., earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, or underwater landslides). Unlike wind waves, tsunamis have
long wavelengths and can travel at high speeds.
o Significance: Tsunamis can cause devastating coastal flooding, especially when
they reach land.
5. Bore Tides:
o Characteristics: A tidal phenomenon where incoming tides create a wave that
travels upstream in narrow rivers or estuaries.
o Significance: Bore tides can be dangerous for vessels and can lead to rapid
changes in water levels along riverbanks.

Wave Energy

 Definition: The energy carried by waves, which is proportional to the square of the wave
height. Larger waves carry more energy.
 Calculation: Wave energy is often expressed as: Energy∝H2\text{Energy} \propto
H^2Energy∝H2 Where H is the wave height.
 Utilization: Wave energy can be harnessed for renewable energy production, through
devices like wave energy converters.

Behavior of Waves in Deep and Shallow Waters

1. In Deep Water:
o Wave Speed: Waves travel faster in deeper water.
o Shape: Waves maintain their shape as they travel, with little interaction with the
seafloor.
o Energy Transmission: The energy in the wave moves through the water without
disturbing the water mass significantly.
2. In Shallow Water:
o Wave Speed: Waves slow down due to friction with the ocean floor.
o Height: As waves slow down, their height increases, a process known as wave
shoaling.
o Breaking Waves: When the wave height becomes too large relative to the water
depth, waves "break" as they approach the shore.
 o Energy Dispersion: The wave energy is transferred to the seafloor, often causing
erosion and sediment movement.

Tide-Related Concepts

Tide-Producing Forces

Tides are primarily caused by the gravitational forces of the moon and sun, combined with the
centrifugal force due to the Earth-Moon system’s rotation. The key tide-producing forces
include:

1. Gravitational Force of the Moon: The moon’s gravity pulls on Earth’s oceans, creating
a bulge of water on the side closest to the moon.
2. Gravitational Force of the Sun: The sun also exerts gravitational pull, but its effect is
weaker than the moon's because it is farther from Earth. When the moon and the sun
align, we get spring tides with higher high tides and lower low tides.
3. Centrifugal Force: This force arises due to the Earth and Moon's rotation around a
common center of mass, which causes a second bulge of water on the opposite side of
Earth.

Types of Tides

1. Diurnal Tides:
o Definition: A single high tide and a single low tide occur each day.
o Occurrence: This type of tide is typically observed in regions like the Gulf of
Mexico.
2. Semidiurnal Tides:
o Definition: Two high tides and two low tides occur each day, with roughly equal
heights.
o Occurrence: This is the most common type of tide, observed along the Atlantic
coasts of the U.S. and Europe.
3. Mixed Tides:
o Definition: Two high tides and two low tides occur each day, but with different
heights.
o Occurrence: This type is commonly found on the Pacific coast of North America.

Tide Prediction and Analysis

 Methods: Tides are predicted using tidal charts and models, which account for the
positions of the moon, sun, and Earth, as well as local geographic factors (such as bays,
estuaries, and the ocean floor's shape).
 Tidal Constituents: A detailed analysis of tide prediction incorporates various tidal
components, such as lunar day, solar day, eccentricity, and longitude of the moon.
Tidal Streams

 Definition: Tidal streams refer to the horizontal movement of water caused by the rise
and fall of tides. These currents move in and out of coastal regions as the tide rises and
falls, affecting navigation and coastal environments.

Relationship Between Tides and Phases of the Moon

 New Moon and Full Moon: During these phases, the moon and sun align, leading to the
strongest tidal forces (spring tides), with higher high tides and lower low tides.
 First and Third Quarter Moons: During these phases, the moon and sun are at right
angles to each other, leading to weaker tidal forces (neap tides), with lower high tides and
higher low tides.

Summary

 Waves: Caused by wind, they vary in speed, height, and wavelength, affecting coastal
erosion, navigation, and energy.
 Types of Waves: Sea waves (local), swell (distant), storm surge, tsunami, and bore tides.
 Tide-Producing Forces: Gravitational pull from the moon and sun, and centrifugal
forces.
 Tide Types: Diurnal, semidiurnal, and mixed tides, influenced by the phases of the
moon.
 Tidal Analysis: Tides can be predicted with models considering the moon’s and sun's
positions, and tidal streams play a role in water movement.

3.6 Describe the properties of ocean water- Temperature,

salinity,
density - their relationship and measurement; and vertical and
horizontal distribution.
Properties of Ocean Water

Ocean water has several important physical properties that vary with location, depth, and time.
The three primary properties are temperature, salinity, and density. These properties are
interconnected, and their distribution plays a crucial role in ocean circulation, climate regulation,
and marine life.

1. Temperature of Ocean Water

 Definition: Temperature is a measure of the heat energy contained in water.

 Variation:
o Surface Temperature: The temperature at the ocean surface is influenced by
solar radiation, air temperature, and seasonal changes. It tends to be higher at the
equator and decreases toward the poles.
o Depth Dependence: Ocean temperature generally decreases with depth. The
surface layer (epipelagic zone) is warmer due to direct solar heating, while the
deeper layers (e.g., the deep ocean or abyssal zone) are much colder, typically
just above freezing (around 0-4°C).
o Thermocline: The thermocline is a layer in the ocean where temperature changes
rapidly with depth. It exists between the warm surface layer and the colder deep
ocean, typically found at depths of 200 to 1000 meters.
o Polar Regions: In polar regions, the surface water is colder but the temperature
tends to stabilize at low values due to less direct sunlight.
o Tropical and Subtropical Regions: In tropical regions, the surface temperature
can be as high as 30°C, and it decreases with depth more gradually.

2. Salinity of Ocean Water

 Definition: Salinity is the concentration of dissolved salts in seawater, primarily sodium

chloride (NaCl), but also magnesium sulfate (MgSO₄), calcium carbonate (CaCO₃), and
others.
 Average Salinity: The average salinity of ocean water is about 35 grams per kilogram
(or 35 PSU – Practical Salinity Units). This means that for every 1 kilogram of seawater,
there are about 35 grams of dissolved salts.
 Variation:
o Latitudinal Distribution:
 Equatorial Regions: Rainfall is high and evaporation is low, which
dilutes seawater, leading to lower salinity.
 Subtropical Regions: High evaporation and low rainfall cause higher
salinity (up to 37-38 PSU), especially in areas like the Mediterranean Sea
and Red Sea.
 Polar Regions: Melting ice and freshwater input from rivers reduce
salinity near the poles.
o Depth Dependence: Salinity tends to be more constant at deeper layers, though it
can show some variation due to mixing from surface currents.
o Ocean Circulation Effects: Salinity is affected by ocean currents that move
water masses with different salinity levels across vast distances.

3. Density of Ocean Water

 Definition: Density is the mass of water per unit volume, often measured in kg/m³.
 Factors Influencing Density:
o Temperature: As water warms, its molecules move faster and spread out,
reducing its density. Colder water is denser.
o Salinity: Higher salinity increases the density of seawater because the dissolved
salts add mass without significantly increasing the volume.
o Pressure: Pressure increases with depth, which compresses the water slightly,
making it denser, but pressure's effect on density is less significant than
temperature and salinity.
 Density Profile:
o Surface Waters: Warmer and less salty waters have lower density, which floats
on top of denser, colder, and more saline water in the ocean.
o Deep Waters: Cold, dense water forms at high latitudes (near the poles),
especially in the North Atlantic and Southern Ocean, where it sinks and moves as
part of the thermohaline circulation.
o Pycnocline: The pycnocline is a layer in the ocean where density changes rapidly
with depth. This layer typically lies beneath the surface mixed layer and above the
deep ocean layer.

Interrelationship Between Temperature, Salinity, and Density

 Temperature vs. Density: In general, colder water is denser than warmer water. This
relationship is one of the main factors controlling ocean circulation. As cold water sinks,
it drives deeper currents.
 Salinity vs. Density: Higher salinity increases the density of seawater. This is why the
Mediterranean Sea, with high salinity, has denser water than the Atlantic Ocean.
 Temperature, Salinity, and Density Interaction:
o Thermohaline Circulation: The movement of water masses driven by
differences in temperature (thermo) and salinity (haline) is fundamental to ocean
circulation. The denser water sinks in polar regions and spreads out across the
globe, while warmer, less dense water rises in tropical regions.
Vertical Distribution of Temperature, Salinity, and Density

 Surface Layer (Mixed Layer):

o The surface layer is warmed by the sun and mixed by wind and waves. Here,
temperature is the most variable, salinity is influenced by rainfall and evaporation,
and density is relatively low.
 Thermocline:
o This layer is characterized by a rapid decrease in temperature with depth. The
thermocline usually occurs at depths of about 200–1000 meters.
o In some areas (especially tropical regions), there is also a halocline (rapid change
in salinity) that coincides with the thermocline, contributing to a strong
pycnocline.
 Deep Ocean:
o Below the thermocline, water temperature is stable and very cold, usually ranging
from 0°C to 4°C.
o Salinity is more uniform, though slightly affected by surface water input and
evaporation at higher latitudes.
o Water density is highest here due to low temperature and higher salinity, which
causes these waters to sink and form deep ocean currents.

Horizontal Distribution of Temperature, Salinity, and Density

 Temperature:
o Equatorial Regions: Warm, tropical waters dominate the surface layers, with
temperatures around 30°C.
o Polar Regions: Cold waters are found near the poles, with surface temperatures
close to freezing.
o Mid-latitudes: Water temperatures gradually decrease with increasing latitude.
 Salinity:
o High Latitudes: Polar regions typically have lower salinity due to the melting of
ice and freshwater inputs.
o Tropical and Subtropical Regions: Higher salinity occurs due to high
evaporation rates, such as in the Red Sea or Arabian Sea.
o Temperate Regions: Moderate salinity, influenced by both rainfall and
evaporation.
 Density:
o Equator: Less dense surface waters due to higher temperatures and lower
salinity.
o Polar Regions: Higher-density waters due to low temperatures and higher
salinity, which sink and drive thermohaline circulation.

Measurement of Temperature, Salinity, and Density

 1. Temperature: Measured using thermometers, satellites, and remote sensors (e.g., CTD
devices – Conductivity, Temperature, and Depth sensors).
2. Salinity: Measured using a conductivity meter (since salinity affects electrical
conductivity) or by collecting water samples and measuring the concentration of
dissolved salts.
3. Density: Calculated using the temperature and salinity of water, as well as pressure at
the depth of measurement. The equation of state for seawater, such as the International
Equation of State of Seawater (TEOS-10), is often used for precise calculations.

Summary

 Temperature: Varies with latitude, season, and depth. It influences the behavior of
ocean currents and marine ecosystems.
 Salinity: Affected by evaporation, precipitation, river input, and ice formation/melting. It
plays a significant role in determining water density.
 Density: A function of temperature, salinity, and pressure. It determines the vertical
movement of water in the ocean and drives ocean circulation patterns like thermohaline
circulation.
 Vertical Distribution: In the surface layer, temperature and salinity are more variable,
with a clear thermocline and pycnocline beneath. Deep waters are colder, saltier, and
denser.
 Horizontal Distribution: Warm waters dominate the tropics, while cold, dense waters
are found in polar regions, driving ocean currents and influencing global climate patterns.

3.8 Explain the principle, use and operation of Aneroid

Barometer,
Barograph, Hygrometer, Hydrometer, Stevenson’s screen,
Whirling psychrometer, Anemometer.
Here is an explanation of the principle, use, and operation of various meteorological instruments:

1. Aneroid Barometer

 Principle: The aneroid barometer works on the principle of measuring air pressure using
a flexible metal box (called an aneroid cell) that expands or contracts as the atmospheric
pressure changes. The movement is mechanically linked to a pointer, which shows the air
pressure on a calibrated scale.
 Use: It is used to measure atmospheric pressure, which helps predict weather changes,
such as the approach of storms or high-pressure systems.
  Operation: As atmospheric pressure increases, the aneroid cell is compressed, moving
the needle to indicate a higher pressure reading. Conversely, as pressure decreases, the
aneroid cell expands, moving the needle to indicate lower pressure.

2. Barograph

 Principle: A barograph is a continuous recording device that measures atmospheric

pressure. It operates on the same principle as an aneroid barometer but records the
measurements on a rotating drum.
 Use: Barographs are used to record changes in atmospheric pressure over time, which can
help analyze weather patterns and trends, particularly in weather stations.
 Operation: The aneroid capsule inside the barograph is connected to a pen that records
the pressure on a paper drum, which rotates slowly. The movement of the pen provides a
continuous record of pressure variations, typically on a daily chart.

3. Hygrometer

 Principle: A hygrometer measures the amount of moisture or water vapor in the air
(humidity). There are two common types: the psychrometric hygrometer and the dew
point hygrometer.
o In a hair hygrometer, a strand of human hair is used. Hair elongates with
increased humidity and contracts as humidity decreases. This movement is
transferred to a dial or digital readout.
o In a digital hygrometer, a sensor detects the relative humidity and displays it
digitally.
 Use: Hygrometers are used to measure the relative humidity of the air, which is important
for weather forecasting, comfort, and various industrial applications (e.g., for controlling
humidity in greenhouses).
 Operation: As the humidity changes, the hair in the hygrometer stretches or contracts,
causing the dial or needle to move, indicating the humidity level.

4. Hydrometer

 Principle: A hydrometer works based on Archimedes' Principle, which states that the
buoyant force on an object is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. In
this case, a hydrometer is used to measure the specific gravity (density) of a liquid,
typically water or other liquids.
 Use: Hydrometers are often used in meteorology for measuring the salinity of seawater,
or in agriculture and industry for determining the concentration of solutions.
  Operation: The hydrometer is placed in the liquid to be tested. If the liquid is denser, the
hydrometer floats higher, indicating a higher specific gravity. If it’s less dense, the
hydrometer sinks lower, indicating a lower specific gravity.

5. Stevenson’s Screen

 Principle: A Stevenson Screen is a shelter designed to house meteorological instruments,

such as thermometers, hygrometers, and barometers, in a way that protects them from
direct sunlight, precipitation, and wind while allowing air to circulate freely.
 Use: The Stevenson Screen is used to ensure accurate temperature and humidity
measurements by shielding instruments from environmental factors that could skew
readings, such as direct sunlight, which could heat up thermometers.
 Operation: The screen is a white-painted, louvered wooden box that allows for air
ventilation. It is usually placed at a height of 1.2 meters above ground level, providing a
shaded and ventilated space for meteorological instruments.

6. Whirling Psychrometer

 Principle: A whirling psychrometer is an instrument that measures relative humidity by

comparing the readings of two thermometers: a dry thermometer and a wet thermometer.
The wet thermometer has its bulb wrapped in a wet cloth. When air passes over both
thermometers (by rapidly whirling the device), the evaporation from the wet bulb cools it
down.
 Use: It is used to determine the relative humidity of the air by comparing the temperature
difference between the dry and wet bulbs.
 Operation: As the psychrometer is whirled through the air, the temperature of the wet
bulb will drop due to evaporation. The difference between the dry and wet bulb
temperatures can be used to calculate relative humidity using a psychrometric chart or
formula.

7. Anemometer

 Principle: An anemometer measures wind speed and, in some cases, wind direction. The
most common type of anemometer consists of cups that catch the wind. The wind’s force
causes these cups to rotate, and the speed of rotation is directly related to the wind speed.
 Use: Anemometers are used to measure wind speed in meteorology, for weather
forecasting, and in wind energy applications to assess potential wind farm locations.
 Operation: The rotating cups or blades are attached to a spindle connected to a scale or
dial. As the wind blows, the cups rotate, and the number of rotations is counted and
converted into wind speed (often in meters per second or kilometers per hour).
Summary of the Instruments

Instrument Principle Use Operation

Measures air pressure Weather prediction, The metal box
Aneroid
using a flexible metal atmospheric pressure expands/contracts with pressure
Barometer
box (aneroid cell). monitoring. changes, moving a needle.
A rotating drum records
A continuous Records pressure
Barograph pressure variations via a pen
recording barometer. changes over time.
attached to an aneroid capsule.
Weather forecasting,
Measures humidity in A hair or digital sensor detects
Hygrometer controlling humidity in
the air. humidity, showing readings.
environments.
Seawater salinity, The hydrometer floats, and its
Measures the density
Hydrometer liquid solution depth indicates the specific
of liquids.
concentration. gravity of the liquid.
Ensures accurate
Shelters instruments
Stevenson’s temperature and A ventilated, louvered box
from direct sunlight
Screen humidity houses instruments.
and precipitation.
measurements.
Whirling the device causes
Measures relative
Whirling Weather monitoring, evaporation, with temperature
humidity using a wet
Psychrometer determining humidity. differences used to calculate
and dry thermometer.
humidity.
Weather forecasting, Rotating cups or blades measure
Measures wind speed
Anemometer wind speed wind speed, and readings are
and direction.
monitoring. converted to speed.

These instruments provide essential data for understanding weather, climate patterns, and
conditions at a given location. They are widely used in meteorology, agriculture, and industrial
applications.

3.9 Understand different types of ice, icebergs, limits of

icebergs,
accumulation of ice on ships and organizations for issuing ice
warnings.
Types of Ice, Icebergs, and Accumulation of Ice on Ships

1. Types of Ice

In the context of the oceans and maritime activities, ice can form in several distinct types based
on its location, formation process, and characteristics:

Sea Ice

 Definition: Sea ice forms from the freezing of seawater. It is usually thin (less than 5
meters thick) and covers vast areas of the Arctic and Antarctic oceans.
 Formation: Sea ice forms when ocean temperatures drop below freezing. The ice is
primarily made of freshwater, as salt is excluded during freezing.
 Types:
o Pack Ice: A large area of sea ice that is continually shifting and moving due to
wind and ocean currents.
o First-Year Ice: Ice that has formed within one year.
o Multi-Year Ice: Ice that has survived more than one melting season and is thicker
and stronger than first-year ice.

Glacial Ice

 Definition: Ice that forms from the accumulation and compaction of snow over time on
land. It is found on glaciers, ice caps, and ice sheets, primarily in polar regions and
mountainous areas.
 Formation: Over thousands of years, snow compacts into firn (a granular form of ice)
and eventually becomes solid glacial ice. Glacial ice can be thousands of meters thick.
 Types:
o Alpine Glaciers: Glaciers that form in mountainous regions.
o Continental Glaciers: Massive ice sheets covering large areas, such as in
Greenland and Antarctica.

Icebergs

 Definition: Icebergs are large, floating masses of freshwater ice that have broken off
(calved) from glaciers or ice shelves and drift into the ocean.
 Formation: Icebergs form when sections of glaciers or ice shelves break off due to
melting at the base of the ice or pressure from the glacier's movement. These ice masses
then float in the ocean.
  Composition: Icebergs are made entirely of freshwater ice, which is less dense than
seawater, allowing them to float.

2. Icebergs: Limits and Characteristics

Limits of Icebergs

 Iceberg Limits: The "Iceberg Limit" refers to the boundary beyond which icebergs are
not commonly found. This limit typically marks the region where the continental ice
sheets, such as those of Greenland or Antarctica, meet the ocean.
o The Southern Iceberg Limit refers to the latitude south of which icebergs are
generally found in the Southern Ocean.
o The Northern Iceberg Limit is a similar concept for the Northern Hemisphere,
although icebergs are less common north of the Arctic Circle.
 Iceberg Sizes: Icebergs vary greatly in size, ranging from small pieces of ice that can be
a few meters across to massive icebergs that are hundreds of meters long and tens of
meters tall. The majority of an iceberg's mass is underwater; typically, only about 10% of
an iceberg is above the water's surface, with the other 90% submerged.

Types of Icebergs:

 Tabular Icebergs: Large, flat-topped icebergs, usually originating from ice shelves.
They tend to have steep sides and a relatively level top.
 Non-Tabular Icebergs: These are irregularly shaped icebergs, often with jagged or
sloping surfaces, and can be much more varied in appearance.

Movement and Drift:

 Icebergs drift with ocean currents and are carried over long distances. Their movement is
slow but can be influenced by wind, tides, and ocean currents. This makes icebergs a
hazard to ships, especially in regions where they may be difficult to track.

3. Accumulation of Ice on Ships

Ice accumulation on ships is a common concern in polar and sub-polar regions, particularly in
the Arctic and Antarctic seas. This accumulation can affect the stability, maneuverability, and
safety of vessels.

Types of Ice Accumulation on Ships:

 Frazil Ice: Small, needle-like ice crystals that form in supercooled water. They can
accumulate on ship surfaces and cause damage or reduce stability.
  Pack Ice: Large, consolidated sheets of ice that may collide with the ship's hull, leading
to physical damage if the ship is not properly reinforced.
 Ice Accretion: The buildup of ice on exposed parts of the ship, such as the deck,
superstructure, and rigging, can increase the weight and shift the ship's balance. This can
affect the vessel's performance, requiring regular de-icing efforts.
 Icebreaking Ships: These are specially designed ships built to navigate through thick sea
ice. Their reinforced hulls and powerful engines allow them to break through or navigate
in icy waters safely.

4. Organizations for Issuing Ice Warnings

Several organizations and entities issue ice warnings, helping ships avoid dangerous ice
conditions. These warnings are crucial for ensuring safe navigation in icy waters.

International Ice Patrol (IIP)

 Role: The IIP monitors and issues ice reports for the North Atlantic, particularly for areas
near the Grand Banks, where icebergs pose significant risks to shipping.
 History: It was established after the Titanic disaster in 1912 to track icebergs and
prevent similar accidents.
 Operations: The IIP collects data from various sources, such as satellites and ship
reports, to track the movement of icebergs. They issue regular ice reports and warnings to
mariners, including the position of icebergs, the density of pack ice, and conditions in
iceberg-prone areas.

Arctic and Antarctic Ice Services

 Arctic: Various national agencies, such as the Canadian Ice Service and Russian Arctic
and Antarctic Research Institute (AARI), provide ice charts and warnings in the Arctic
region, based on satellite imagery, radar, and ship reports.
 Antarctic: The Australian Antarctic Division (AAD) and other international bodies
collaborate to monitor ice conditions in the Southern Ocean, with special attention to the
Antarctic Peninsula and surrounding waters.

National Weather Services

 NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) in the United States,

along with similar agencies in Canada, the UK, and other countries, issue ice warnings
and ice charts, often as part of their weather services for polar regions.

Naval and Maritime Authorities

  Some countries have their own maritime safety organizations that monitor ice conditions
in their exclusive economic zones (EEZs) and issue region-specific warnings for ice
navigation.

Summary

 Ice Types: Sea ice, glacial ice, and icebergs are the primary types of ice in maritime and
polar contexts. Sea ice forms in the ocean, while glacial ice forms on land. Icebergs are
large pieces of ice that have broken off from glaciers and ice sheets and float in the
ocean.
 Icebergs: Icebergs are large, floating masses of ice with about 90% of their volume
submerged underwater. The "Iceberg Limit" refers to the boundary beyond which
icebergs are found. Icebergs are categorized into tabular and non-tabular types, with the
former being large and flat and the latter irregularly shaped.
 Accretion on Ships: Ice accumulation on ships in polar regions poses significant safety
risks. It can affect the ship's stability and maneuverability, requiring regular monitoring
and de-icing procedures.
 Organizations for Ice Warnings: Various organizations, including the International
Ice Patrol, Canadian Ice Service, and national weather agencies, issue ice warnings to
prevent accidents and ensure safe navigation in ice-prone areas.

Understanding these factors is critical for safe maritime navigation in ice-covered seas,
protecting ships and crew from the dangers posed by icebergs, sea ice, and ice accumulation.