Gender Equality

Definition

• The view that both men and women should receive equal treatment and
not be discriminated against based on their gender.

• Also known as sex equality , gender equalitarianism, sexual equality or

equality of the genders.

• The process of being fair to women and men.

Requires equal enjoyment by women and men of socially valued- goods,
opportunities, resources and rewards.

• It doesn’t mean men and women being the same.

Factors responsible for gender inequality

Illiteracy

• Illiteracy is one of the factors responsible for gender inequality. According to 2011
census of India., the literacy level in India is 74.04% in which the male literacy level
is 82.14% and female literacy level is only 65.46%.

Child Marriage

• Children specially the girls are married at a very young age. This proves fatal for their
overall development and have a negative impact on their health, too.

Social evils

• Social evils like dowry system, sati system, are also responsible for the low status of
women.

Discrimination against the girl child

• The girl child is not treated properly in the family. People still prefer the birth of a boy
rather than a girl. The girl child is basically trained for household work only. Even
today, female infanticide is a common social evil.

Lack of employment equality

 • The current global labor force participation rate for women is close to 49%. For men,
it’s 75%. That’s a difference of 26 percentage points, with some regions facing a gap
of more than 50 percentage points.

Job segregation

• One of the causes for gender inequality within employment is the division of jobs. In
most societies, there’s an inherent belief that men are simply better equipped to
handle certain jobs. Most of the time, those are the jobs that pay the best. This
discrimination results in lower income for women.

Lack of legal protections

• In many countries, there’s also a lack of legal protections against harassment in the
workplace, at school, and in public. These places become unsafe and without
protection, women frequently have to make decisions that compromise and limit
their goals.

Lack of bodily autonomy

• According to the WHO, over 200 million women who don’t want to get pregnant are
not using contraception. There are various reasons for this such as a lack of options,
limited access, and cultural/religious opposition. On a global scale, about 40% of
pregnancies are not planned and while 50% of them do end in abortion, 38% result
in births. These mothers often become financially dependent on another person or
the state, losing their freedom.

Poor medical care

• women receive lower-quality medical care than men. This is linked to other gender
inequality reasons such as a lack of education and job opportunities, which results
in more women being in poverty. They are less likely to be able to afford good
healthcare.

Types of Gender Inequality

• There are many kinds of gender inequality or gender disparity which are as follows:

o Inequality in Family

o Natality inequality

o Professional or Employment inequality

 o Ownership inequality

o Household inequality

Inequality in Family

• The divorce proceedings have been equal for men and women since 1976. Divorce
by mutual consent is legal, but in reality, any woman who initiates a divorce is
condemned by public opinion. For that reason, divorces are very rare.

• The old Hindu traditions favored men in matters of inheritance: only sons – not
daughters – could inherit their parents. After independence, however, these
traditions were abolished by law. But in the North, nothing has really changed, and
women are still deprived of inheritance.

Natality inequality

• In this type of inequality a preference is given for boys over girls that many male
dominated societies have, gender inequality can manifest itself in the form of the
parents wanting the newborn to be a boy rather than a girl. There was a time when
this could be no more than a wish (a daydream or a nightmare, depending on one's
perspective), but with the availability of modern techniques to determine the
gender of the fetus, sex-selective abortion has become common in many countries.
It is particularly prevalent in East Asia, in China and South Korea in particular, but
also in Singapore and Taiwan, and it is beginning to emerge as a statistically
significant phenomenon in India and South Asia as well.

Professional or Employment inequality

• In terms of employment as well as promotion in work and occupation, women often

face greater handicap than men. A country like Japan and India may be quite
egalitarian in matters of demography or basic facilities, and even, to a great extent,
in higher education, and yet progress to elevated levels of employment and
occupation seems to be much more problematic for women than for men. The
example includes unequal pay at work and unpaid care work.

Ownership inequality

• In many societies, the ownership of property can also be very unequal. Even basic
assets such as homes and land may be very asymmetrically shared. The absence of
claims to property can not only reduce the voice of women, but also make it harder
for women to enter and flourish in commercial, economic, and even some social
 activities. This type of inequality has existed in most parts of the world, though there
are also local variations.

Household Inequality

• It is quite common in many societies to take it for granted that while men will
naturally work outside the home, women could do so if and only if they could
combine it with various inescapable and unequally shared household duties. This is
sometimes called a "division of labor," though women could be forgiven for seeing it
as an "accumulation of labor.“

• The reach of this inequality includes not only unequal relations within the family but
also derivative inequalities in employment and recognition in the outside world.
Also, the established fixity of this type of "division" or "accumulation" of labor can
have far-reaching effects on the knowledge and understanding of different types of
work in professional circles.

Gender Discrimination In Indian Society

• In India, discriminatory attitude towards men and women have existed for
generations and effect the lives of both genders. Although the constitution of
India has granted men and women equal rights, gender disparity still remains.

• Gender discrimination violates human rights.

• These are mostly seen in family land sharing among sisters and brothers.

• Everyday, women and girls around the world face violence and discrimination.

• 1 in 3 women experience physical or sexual violence in their lifetime, regardless of

age, background or country, and every country in the world has laws that treat
women and girls as second-class citizens.

• Sexual exploitation, violence, harmful cultural practices and systemic inequalities

violate their human rights and prevent them from reaching their potential

Discrimination Where ?

In the workplace

• Deciding not to hire or promote someone, treating employees differently, or paying

them less based on their gender are all examples of workplace discrimination.
In schools

• Preventing or discouraging girls and young women from participating in traditionally

male-dominated fields such as science, math, and sports, is an example of gender
discrimination. Schools may also enforce gendered dress codes, punish those who
do not conform to gender norms, or fail to punish bad behavior on the basis that
“Boys will be boys.”

In Public

• Sexual harassment and catcalling are unwanted, and they are forms of
iscrimination. These behaviors can make people feel unsafe, and they can restrict
how people use public spaces. This limits a person’s freedom.

In institutions

• Organizations, governments, and legal and healthcare systems can enact policies
that discriminate against certain genders, either intentionally or unintentionally.

In relationships

• People who prevent their partners from doing things on the basis of their gender are
also acting in a discriminatory way. This might include stopping women from
working, managing their money, and driving.

Gender Issues :

• Unequal Education
India’s education landscape is extremely unequal. These inequalities manifest
themselves in the form of differences based on caste, class and in some case of
gender. Achievement, earnings, health status, and political participation also
contribute to educational inequality within the United States and other countries.

• Child sex Ratio

The Child Sex Ratio is defined as the number of females per 1000 males in the age
group 0–6 years. As per Census 2011, the Gender ratio of India is 943 females per
1000 males. There are 949 females to 1000 men in rural areas, while in an urban
area, there are 929 females to 1000 males.

• Unequal pay
Gender pay gap in India refers to the difference in earnings between women and
 men in the paid employment and labor market. The Indian Constitution recognized
the principle of 'Equal Pay for Equal Work' for both men and women, and 'Right to
Work' through Article 39(d) and 41.

• Racism
Races are the physical qualities that one inherits biologically and serves as a way of
self identification from the other groups. Racism is a theory that one race is superior
that the other based on the physical attributes, caste, creed, ethnicity or origin.
ARTICLE 15(1) says that there should be no discrimination on the grounds of
religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.

• Sexual Harassment
Sexual harassment involves inappropriate promises, rewards in exchange for sexual
favors or unwelcome sexual behavior that is offensive, humiliating, or intimidating,
or use of explicit or implicit sexual overtones, etc. A woman is sexually harassed
every twelve minutes. Harmonizing our Indian law, sexual harassment violates the
fundamental right of gender equality and life with dignity under Article 14 and Article
21 of the Indian Constitution respectively. 85% of Indian women say they have
missed out on a raise, promotion or work offer because of their gender. This is
markedly higher than the region’s average of 60%.

• Less Promoted

• 85% of Indian women say they have missed out on a raise, promotion or work offer
because of their gender. This is markedly higher than the region’s average of 60%.
Health
Indian women have high mortality rates, particularly during childhood and in their
productive years. The health of Indian women is intrinsically linked to their status in
society. The women in India belong to various socio-economic backgrounds and are
sometimes marginalized or neglected when it comes to basic healthcare.

• Nutrition
In India and in South Asia, gender discrimination is one of the most significant
underlying factors for poor nutrition. Poverty that itself underlies conditions like
limited ability to access nutritious food, limited time and control over time and
access to sanitation are important determinants.

• Violence
Violence occurs in about 35 per cent of women globally in their lifetime. on about
10000 women, 26 per cent reported having experienced physical violence from
 spouses during their lifetime. The prevalence could be as high as 45 per cent as
indicated by data from Uttar Pradesh.

Contemporary Challenges of Gender equality, Discrimination, Issues

• Poverty

• Gender based Violence

• Family Violence

• Lack of Girls Friendly school environment

• Child Marriage & Early Pregnancy

• Body Shaming

• killing girl in fetus

• Psychological violence

• Physical violence

• Verbal violence

• Unequal seats (Only 33% seats reserve for women in politics)

Sex Ratio: Types, Measurement, and Determinants

Definition of Sex Ratio:

Sex ratio is used to determine the number of females per thousand males.
It indicates the gender composition of the population.

Males and females are equally important for various tasks in the family and society.
Any imbalance in the sex population ratio disturbs the structure of society.

It reflects various demographic, biological, social, and economic factors.

Hence, it is an important demographic indicator.

Types of Sex Ratio:

1. Primary Sex Ratio

→ Refers to the sex ratio at the time of conception.
→ This is not measurable directly.

2. Secondary Sex Ratio

→ Refers to the sex ratio at the time of birth.
→ This is commonly used in demographic studies.

3. Tertiary Sex Ratio

→ Refers to the sex ratio in a specific age group, particularly the adult or reproductive
age group.

4. Quaternary Sex Ratio

→ Refers to the sex ratio in the older population (post-reproductive age).

Measurement of Sex Ratio:

The sex ratio is usually expressed as the number of females per 1000 males.

Formula:

𝑺𝒆𝒙 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 = (𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑭𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒔 / 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑴𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒔) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎

 𝑺𝒆𝒙 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 = \𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄{𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓\ 𝒐𝒇\ 𝑭𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒔}{𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓\ 𝒐𝒇\ 𝑴𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒔} × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎

Example:

If there are 950 females and 1000 males, then the sex ratio is:

9501000×1000=950\frac{950}{1000} \times 1000 = 9501000950×1000=950

This means there are 950 females per 1000 males in that population.

Biological Possibilities Affecting Sex Ratio:

There are three natural possibilities:

1. Equal number of male and female births.

2. More male births than female births (this is the natural tendency globally).

3. More female births than male births (less common biologically).

→ Naturally, the ratio slightly favors males at birth due to biological factors.
→ However, due to higher male mortality at later stages, the number tends to balance in
older age groups, sometimes leading to a higher number of females.

Natural Tendency of Sex Ratio:

• At birth: More males are born than females.

• With age: Males have a higher mortality rate; thus, the number of females exceeds
males in older age groups.

This balance happens because biologically, men are more vulnerable to diseases and risks,
leading to a higher death rate among males.

Factors Affecting Sex Ratio:

Biological Factors:

• More male births occur naturally.

• Higher male mortality balances this at older ages.

Social and Cultural Factors:

• Preference for male children.

• Neglect of female children.

• Female foeticide and infanticide.

• Poor health care and nutrition for girls.

Economic Factors:

• Male-dominated labor migration affects the local sex ratio.

• In-migration of males to urban or industrial areas reduces the female proportion

there.

War, Conflict, and Disasters:

• Higher male deaths during wars lead to a higher female proportion afterward.

Example Demonstration:

If a country has:

• 1000 males and 950 females, then the sex ratio is:

9501000×1000=950\frac{950}{1000} \times 1000 = 9501000950×1000=950

→ This indicates 950 females per 1000 males, reflecting gender imbalance.

• In many African countries, the sex ratio is higher due to a larger number of females.

• In Asian countries like India, the sex ratio is lower due to societal preferences for
male children and gender-based discrimination.

Causes of Low Sex Ratio in Some Regions:

• Strong preference for sons.

• Female foeticide and infanticide.

• Poor health facilities for females.

• Neglect of girl children.

• Lack of education for women.

 • Male migration from rural to urban areas (can lead to an increased female
proportion in some rural regions).

Consequences of Low Sex Ratio:

• Increase in crimes against women (kidnapping, trafficking, assault).

• Forced marriages and bride buying in some regions.

• Social unrest due to imbalance in the male and female population.

• Psychological stress in society, including loneliness and mental health issues in

surplus male populations.

• Difficulty in marriage prospects for men.

Conclusion:

A balanced sex ratio is crucial for a healthy, sustainable society.

A low sex ratio indicates deep-rooted gender discrimination and is a threat to social
harmony.

It is important for governments and societies to take necessary measures like:

• Promoting female education,

• Ensuring equal healthcare,

• Banning prenatal sex determination,

• Implementing strict laws against female foeticide, and

• Running awareness campaigns about gender equality.

A balanced sex ratio leads to better social, economic, and demographic health.
The Dowry system

The Dowry system in India has been running for a long time. It is the money that is given
during marriage to the boy or their family, even property can also be included in dowry. The
system of dowry started from ancient times like during marriage the money will be given to
the groom so that he can take proper care of his bride, it was used to honour both sides of
the family. As the time changes dowry still remains in the society but its significance keeps
changing with time. Nowadays, the dowry system is becoming like business for some
castes. Dowry system is becoming a burden for the bride’s family. Many times if demand is
not fulfilled for the boy's side then the marriage is abruptly cancelled as a result of this
failure. If we see it in our Asian country, then dowry is becoming more important for the
groom's side, mainly in countries like India. To end this heinous social practice, the
government has made a law to refrain people from taking dowry under the Act of 1961.
Whatever money or property given by the bride side they should accept but it never
followed. Many places we come to know that because of not doing so on the groom's side
the girls are harmed in such a way that sometimes even it leads to death. Some people
even think dowry is like crime, it's illegal and they never ask anything from the bride's
family. In India, everyone speaks and progresses for women's rights and says ‘Beti Bachao
Beti Padhao’ but a girl even after achieving everything in her life; where she starts taking
care of her family but even then she can't escape the shackles of dowry. Some time
because of dowry which is mostly prevalent among the below poverty line people they kill
their daughters after they are born or before their birth in the mother’s womb itself so that
they can escape dowry. Since they know after growing up and educating her, they still need
to give dowry in order to get her married. However, one fails to understand that it is not a
daughter’s fault for which she is being wrongfully punished but the fault of the society that
allows such practices even after so many years of independence.

A dowry is a payment, such as property or money, paid by the bride's family to the groom or
his family at the time of marriage. Dowry contrasts with the related concepts of bride price
and dower. While bride price or bride service is a payment by the groom, or his family, to
the bride, or her family, dowry is the wealth transferred from the bride, or her family, to the
groom, or his family. Similarly, dower is the property settled on the bride herself, by the
groom at the time of marriage, and which remains under her ownership and control. Dowry
is an ancient custom that is already mentioned in some of the earliest writings, and its
existence may well predate records of it. Dowries continue to be expected and demanded
as a condition to accept a marriage proposal in some parts of the world, mainly in parts of
Asia, Northern Africa and the Balkans. In certain Asian countries, disputes related to dowry
sometimes result in acts of violence against women, including killings and acid attacks.
The custom of dowry is most common in cultures that are strongly patrilineal and that
expect women to reside with or near their husband's family (patrilocality) Dowries have
long histories in Europe, South Asia, Africa and other parts of the world.

THE HISTORY AND MEANING OF THE DOWRY

During the Roman Empire, the bride’s family would provide a dowry to the groom or his
family to offset the cost of her living expenses. While it is commonly thought that a dowry is
always given by a woman to her future husband, it is the reverse in other cultures, where
the groom offers a gift to the bride or her family upon marriage. The dowry can serve as a
gift to in-laws or insurance for the bride should she choose to leave her husband. It is
something she can take with her in the event of divorce to ensure her financial security.
Other terms for this exchange may be “bride price” or “bride wealth.”

Over time, it became common practice for families to exploit the dowry system all over the
world in some cases. What was meant to be a gift and promise of security from one partner
to another soon became a financial demand that resulted in broken engagements or
divorce, violence, and even death for unpaid dowries. It is for this reason that countries like
India, Pakistan, Nepal, Greece, and Kenya passed laws making dowries illegal in any
capacity.

DEFINITION OF DOWRY

A dowry is the transfer of parental property to a daughter at her marriage (i.e. 'inter vivos')
rather than at the owner's death (mortis causa). A dowry establishes a type of conjugal
fund, the nature of which may vary widely. This fund may provide an element of financial
security in widowhood or against a negligent husband, and may eventually go to provide for
her children.Dowries may also go toward establishing a marital household, and therefore
might include furnishings such as linens and furniture. Locally, dowry or trousseau is called
jahez in Urdu, Persian and Arabic; dahez in Hindi, dāj in Punjabi, daijo in Nepali, çeyiz in
Turkish, joutuk in Bengali, jiazhuang in Mandarin, varadhachanai in Tamil, streedhanam in
Malayalam, miraz in Serbo-Croatian and in various parts of Africa as serotwana, idana,
saduquat or mugtaf.

CAUSES FOR DOWRY SYSTEM

Various reasons have been suggested as cause of dowry practice in India. These include
economic factors and social factors.
ECONOMIC FACTORS

There are many economic factors that contribute towards the system of dowry. Some of
these include inheritance systems and the bride's economic status. Some suggestions
point to economics and weak legal institutions on inheritance place women in
disadvantage, with inheritances being left only to sons. This leaves women dependent
upon their husbands and in-laws, who keep the dowry when she marries.Prior to 1956,
including during the British Raj, daughters had no rights of inheritance to their family's
wealth. In 1956, India gave equal legal status to daughters and sons among Hindu, Sikh
and Jain families, under the Hindu Succession Act (India grants its Muslim population the
Sharia derived personal status laws). Despite the new inheritance law, dowry has
continued as a process whereby parental property is distributed to a daughter at her
marriage by a social process, rather than after parents death by a slow court supervised
process under Hindu Succession Act (1956).

Dowry gave, at least in theory, women economic and financial security in their marriage in
the form of movable goods. This helped prevent family wealth break-up and provided
security to the bride at the same time. This system can also be used as a premortem
inheritance, as once a woman is presented with movable gifts, she may be cut off from the
family estate. For many, dowry has become a greater financial burden on the family, and
can leave families destitute based on the demands from the groom.The demand for dowry
has increased over time.

SOCIAL FACTORS

The structure and kinship of marriage in parts of India contributes to dowry. In the north,
marriage usually follows a patrilocal (lives with husband's family) system, where the bride
is a non-related member of the family. This system encourages dowry perhaps due to the
exclusion of the bride's family after marriage as a form of premortem inheritance for the
bride. In the south, marriage is more often conducted within the bride's family, for example
with close relatives or cross-cousins, and in a closer physical distance to her family. In
addition, brides may have the ability to inherit land, which makes her more valuable in the
marriage, decreasing the chance of dowry over the bride price system. In addition to
marriage customs that may influence dowry, social customs or rituals, and parents'
expectations of dowry are important factors to consider. A 1995 study showed that while
attitudes of people are changing about dowry, dowry continues to prevail.In a 1980 study
conducted by Rao, 75% of students responded that dowry was not important to marriage,
but 40% of their parents likely expected dowry. While India has been making progress for
women's rights, women continue to be in a subordinate status in their family.Women's
education, income, and health are some significant factors that play into the dowry
system, and for how much control a woman has over her marriage.

RELIGIOUS FACTORS

Dowry in India is not limited to any specific religion. It is widespread among Hindus and
other religions. For example, Indian Muslims call dowry as jahez, justify the practice in
terms of jahez-e-fatimi. Islamists classify jahez into two categories: The first comprises
some essential articles for the outfit of the bride as well as for conjugal life. The other is
made up of valuable goods, clothes, jewelry, an amount of money for the groom's family,
which is settled on after bargaining. The jahez often far exceeds the cost of the baraat and
marriage parties. The jahez is separate from cash payment as Mahr or dower that Sharia
religious law requires.

TYPES OF DOWRY CRIMES

(including physical, emotional and sexual assault), abetment to suicide and dowry death
(including, issues of bride burning and murder)

FRAUD

A 2005 Canadian Recently married women can be a target for dowry related violence
because she is tied economically and socially to her new husband.In some cases, dowry is
used as a threat or hostage type situation, in order to extract more property from the bride's
family.This can be seen in new brides, who are most vulnerable in the situation.Dowry
crimes can occur with the threat or occurrence of violence, so that the bride's family is left
with no choice but to give more dowry to protect their daughter. The northern and eastern
states of India show higher rates of dowry-related violence. Dowry is considered a major
contributor towards observed violence against women in India. Some of these offences
include physical violence, emotional abuses, and even murder of brides and young girls
prior to marriage.The predominant types of dowry crimes relate to cruelty (which includes
torture and harassment), domestic violence documentary film, Runaway Grooms, exposed
a phenomenon of Indo Canadian men taking advantage of the dowry system. These men
would fraudulently return to India ostensibly seeking a new bride, but then abandon the
woman and return to Canada without her as soon as they had secured possession of her
dowry.

CRUELTY

Cruelty in the form of torture or harassment of a woman with the objective of forcing her to
meet a demand for property or valuable security is a form of dowry crime. The cruelty could
be in the form of verbal attacks or may be accompanied by beating or harassment in order
to force the woman or her family to yield to dowry demands. In many instances, the cruelty
may even force the woman to commit suicide and it has been specifically criminalized by
the anti-dowry laws in India.

LAWS AGAINST DOWRY DOWRY PROHIBITION ACT, 1961

The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 consolidated the anti-dowry laws which had been passed
on certain states.This legislation provides for a penalty in section 3 if any person gives,
takes or abets giving or receiving of dowry. The punishment could be imprisonment for
minimum 5 years and a fine more than 15,000 or the value of the dowry received,
whichever is higher. Dowry in the Act is defined as any property or valuable security given or
agreed to be given in connection with the marriage.The penalty for giving or taking dowry is
not applicable in case of presents which are given at the time of marriage without any
demand having been made. The Act provides the penalty for directly or indirectly
demanding dowry and provides for a penalty involving a prison term of not less than 6
months and extendable up to two years along with a fine of 10,000. Dowry agreements are
void ab initio and if any dowry is received by anyone other than the woman, it should be
transferred to the woman. The burden of proving that an offense was not committed is on
the persons charged and not on the victim or her family.Under its powers to frame rules for
carrying out its objectives under the Act, the government of India has framed the
Maintenance of Lists of Presents to the Bride and the Bridegroom Rules, 1985.There are
also several state level amendments to the Dowry Prohibition Act.

Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005

The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 ("Domestic Violence Act") was
passed in order to provide a civil law remedy for the protection of women from domestic
violence in India.The Domestic Violence Act encompasses all forms of physical, verbal,
emotional, economic and sexual abuse and forms a subset of the anti-dowry laws to the
extent it is one of the reasons for domestic violence.Section 3 of the Domestic Violence Act
specifically incorporates all forms of harassment, injury and harms inflicted to coerce a
woman to meet an unlawful demand for dowry.

Some of the common remedies under the Domestic Violence Act include:

• protection orders – prohibiting a person from committing domestic violence;

• residence orders – dispossessing such person from a shared household;

• custody orders – granting custody of a child; and

• compensation orders – directing payment of compensation. International conventions
India is a party to several international human rights instruments which provide theoretical
remedies to the dowry problems.

These international conventions include the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

("UDHR"), International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ("ICCPR"), the International
Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights ("ICESCR"), the Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women ("CEDAW"), and the Convention
on the Rights of the Child ("CRC"). CEDAW codifies the rights most relevant to the
discussion of dowry-related violence: the rights of women. However, there are issues of
non-intervention and cultural relativism which impede the use of international law to
combat dowry deaths.

DOMESTIC VIOLENCE DOMESTIC VIOLENCE IN INDIA

Domestic violence includes a broad spectrum of abusive and threatening behavior which
includes physical, emotional, economic and sexual violence as well as intimidation,
isolation and coercion. There are laws like the Protection of Women from Domestic
Violence Act 2005 that help to reduce domestic violence and to protect women's rights.

ABETMENT TO SUICIDE

Continuing abuse by the husband and his family with threats of harm could lead to a
woman committing suicide. In such situations, the dowry crime even extends to abetment
of suicide, which includes all acts and attempts to intentionally advise, encourage, or
assist in committing suicide.[The impact of dowry can leave a woman helpless and
desperate, which can cumulate in emotional trauma and abuse.[Dowry related abuse
causes emotional trauma, depression and suicide.[he offence of abetment to suicide is
significant because in many cases, the accused persons often bring up a defense that the
victim committed suicide at her own volition, even though this may not be true in reality.

DOWRY MURDER

Dowry deaths and dowry murder relate to a bride's suicide or killing committed by her
husband and his family soon after the marriage because of their dissatisfaction with the
dowry. It is typically the culmination of a series of prior domestic abuses by the husband's
family. Most dowry deaths occur when the young woman, unable to bear the harassment
and torture, commits suicide by hanging herself or consuming poison. Dowry deaths also
include bride burning where brides are doused in kerosene and set ablaze by the husband
or his family. Sometimes, due to their abetment to commit suicide, the bride may end up
setting herself on fire.
Bride burnings are often disguised as accidents or suicide attempts. Bride burnings are the
most common forms of dowry deaths for a wide range of reasons like kerosene being
inexpensive, there being insufficient evidence after the murder and low chances of survival
rate. Apart from bride burning, there are some instances of poisoning, strangulation, acid
attacks, etc., as a result of which brides are murdered by the groom's family.

India, with its large population, reports the highest number of dowry related deaths in the
world according to Indian National Crime Record Bureau.In 2012, 8,233 dowry death cases
were reported across India, while in 2013, 8,083 dowry deaths were reported.[This means a
dowry-related crime causes the death of a woman every 90 minutes, or 1.4 deaths per year
per 100,000 women in India.

EFFECT OF DOWRY SYSTEM

INITIATES GENDER IMBALANCE: When we speak of gender in equality in the nation,

dowry system can be considered the catalyst for this issue. According to the social
infrastructure of the nation, it is a common perception that a woman is able ability and is to
be married off someday, with a dowry debt at disposal. Well, for the masses, the birth of a
girl is an inception to long-term plans to pay off the dowry along with the child. Seemingly,
this saving venture hampers the future of the girl and restricts her of equal opportunities for
the mail child. The very future planning for a better marriage proposal ruins the prospects
of a merrier life for the child. Well, dowry system can be accounted for atrocities on the
masses. The plight of the girl child is initiated with her birth due to this particular
infrastructure and continues to hamper her peace of mind and tranquility. According to the
latest 2011 census stats, the number of females per 1000 males stands at am eager count
of 943. Hence, this impacts the building blocks of the society and hampers the growth of
the nation.

Social Effects Society owes its origins to masses and when we speak of the constituent
evil of the segment in our subcontinent, dowry system is one of the most leverage
done.Being widely practiced across the nation, every other family faces the brunt of it. If a
demand is not met by the bride’s family, she suffers at the hands of her groom’s family
leading to social imbalance and emotional breakdown. Seventy % of our population
resides in the villages and this practice still holds its stance midst the economy and the
society as a whole. The society seemingly judges the worth of a person on the basis of
dowry accepted or received and this framework can be attributed to the detrimental status
of woman in the society.

Decrements status of women When a girl is born, for particular individuals, the societal
framework is dismayed. She is no longer happiness and her birth is no more an occasion.
She is deprived of basic rights to education, freedom and speech. However, owing to the
basic structure, the dowry ideology, her ordeal doesn’t end with marriage. For a female
individual, with little or no self economic support, she exists at the assistance of her
groom. Hence, when his demands aren’t met, it leads to the breakdown of the empathetic
relation between the two entities leading to disparity. After a period, this ordeal doesn’t
come to conclusion, rather, it leads to domestic violence and poses a serious threat to the
future of the family. The girl loses on her freedom once she is married and it yet again,
comes at the cost of a dowry debt.

Promotes domestic violence and crime Dowry system initiates the act of violence in the
society. When demands are not meet by the bride’s family, the atrocities elevate
proportionately. At times, extreme steps are undertaken to shell out financial grants or
material benefits from the bride’s family. Well, yet again these steps can be attributed to
the much debated domestic violence. The crimes against women take a surge owing to this
structure of extortion.

Economic effects Economy is not just the financial stockpile of the nation. Rather, it is a
deep-vested, mass effort to bring the platter for every individual. Dowry system, though it
seems a minor social evil can affect the nation and its individuals alike. Owing to this
setup, women aren’t granted equal rights and opportunities, leading to loss of economic
workforce from the segment. Women are active participants in the development of the
nation, and if their rights are hampered at the domestic level, it affects our economic build-
up significantly. We lose the consistent workforce at the hands ofa social evil and hamper
the growth of our own home and the society.

Deteriorating financial status of bride’s family Dowry doesn’t affect the bride alone.
Rather, its ordeal extends to bride’s parents and they have to bear the financial demands of
their counterparts to ensure well-being of their child. With regular demands from the
groom’s family, reports of suicides are yet again common in the country. Needless to say,
this social evil should necessarily be eradicated for the society and the nation.

Loss of self-esteem among the women The demands being met for the welfare of the
bride comes at a cost. Out of concern for her parents, she loses on self-esteem by
believing she is a burden on her family. It costs her peace of mind, and her right to a better
life. Dowry system has imposed an invisible chain upon the freedom and self-respect of
women and continues to haunt them since time eternal. Observing the problem closely,
the greed of an individual ruins the peace of a beautiful brain.

IMPACT OF DOWRY SYSTEM:

 Gender Discrimination: Due to the dowry system, many a times it has been seen that
women are seen as a liability and are often subjected to subjugation and are given second
hand treatment may it be in education or other amenities.

 Affecting Career of Women: The larger context for the practice of dowry is the poor
presence of women in the workforce, and their consequent lack of financial independence.
o The Poorer sections of society who send their daughters out to work and earn some
money, to help them save up for her dowry. o The regular middle and upper class
backgrounds do send their daughters to school, but don't emphasize career options.

 Many Women End Up Being Unmarried: An uncountable number of girls in the country,
despite being educated and professionally competent remain endlessly unmarried
because their parents cannot fulfil the demand for pre-marriage dowry.

 Objectification of Women: Contemporary dowry is more like an investment by the bride's

family for plugging into powerful connections o This renders women as merely articles of
commerce. and money making opportunities.

 Crime Against Women: In some cases, the dowry system leads to crime against women,
ranging from emotional abuse and injury to even deaths.

 Consequences of dowry- One of the worst part of the dowry system is that if a girl brings
less dowry she is harassed in her in-law’s family. Sometimes she is burnt too. Many commit
suicide. Three girls in Kanpur and three in Delhi hanged themselves for this very season.
There is an average of dowry death a day in Delhi alone. Such deaths in a rural area are
never reported. Another worst part of this custom is that many honest people become
corrupt to earn money to money their daughters. They take a bribe, do tuitions and practise
unfair means in business. Taxes are not paid on this extra income. It’s unacquainted
creates inflation in the country. It is said that 50% of the black money in the north is
because of down.

 Great evil- The dowry system is a great evil in society. The girl’s birth in the family is sad
news. It is all because of the dowry system. The girl has to be married off. Every parent
wishes for the happy married life of his or her daughter. But the better is the boys family, the
higher is the dow.

 The problem of marriage- To settle the girl’s marriage is another problem. The girl’s father
has to face all kinds of insults. He is asked to spend more and more. He has been saving
paisa by paisa

since his daughter’s birth. Yet the marriage market is higher. He may have to take loans or
sell his land and house. Such are the sufferings of a girl’s parent. Very often the girl has to
suffer if the boy’s demands are not fulfilled. The girl’s father wants to save his skin. But the
boy’s father likes to rob him. Sometimes the girl is beaten. Sometimes she is murdered for
dowry. We have to rob out this evil. We need to reform our society. Let our young boys and
girls came forward and accept the challenge. If not we are suffering today, our children will
suffer.

CONCLUSION

We ‘as the citizens of India, marching towards the new millennium, should also strive for
the discontinuation of this evil practice. Dowry is a black spot on the bright face of the
country. But it cannot be done away by the elderly people. Only the younger generation can
do it.

Inter-Caste Marriage in India

Few couples in India are willing to disobey this strict societal norm because doing so can
lead to intense communal animosity and even honour killings. The India Human
Development Survey 2011–12 data analysis shows a negligible increase in this social
incongruity since 1951 to reach 4.5% in 2012. The northeastern region has the highest
prevalence (11.6%), whereas caste-ridden central India has the lowest prevalence (1.8%).
Multivariate data show that when choosing a life mate, caste is less important when
women are given the option. It is quite popular among women who chose their husbands
independently and were acquainted with them for at least a year prior to marriage. Contrary
to popular belief, education cannot encourage inter-caste unions. In Dalit (lowest social
standing) households, the likelihood of an intercaste marriage is substantially lower than it
is for households of higher castes. In order to encourage intercaste marriage, which has the
potential to lessen the grip of India's caste system, persistent, targeted efforts are required.

In India, where marriage is nearly common, there are several important factors to take into
account while choosing a partner. Caste, religion, mother tongue, economic situation, and
others are a few of the more significant ones. The most crucial of these is if the two merging
families have a same caste. These parallels are said to be the foundation of a happy
marriage. Contrary to class, caste is legislated rather than ascribed. It is predetermined at
the moment of birth, and it cannot be altered later in life. It is also a fundamental part of
Hinduism. As a result, it is firmly ingrained in Indian society and culture. Monogamy is the
most common type of marriage, and divorce is not widely accepted by most tribes, which
furthers the caste dynamics. Therefore, it is very important to carefully select a life mate.
Inter-caste and inter-religious marriages are consequently detested and looked down upon
by society (Srinivasan and James, 2015). Therefore, even now, arranged marriages are still
preferred over other sorts, particularly among parents and seniors (Banerji et al., 2013;
Desai and Andrist, 2010; Jeejeebhoy et al., 2013; Mishra, 2013). While the younger
generation may adopt it to receive parental support, the older generation prefers it to obtain
social solidarity in trying times. With the globalization and socio-economic development,
social norms are supposed to loosen its noose. Increase in the level of education, change
in place of residence, easy mingling with opposite sex, etc. opens the gateway for selecting
a life-partner from another community. One of the famous Indian sociologists (Srinivas,
1955) noted back in 1955 that co-education is bound to make inter-caste marriages more
common shortly. Further, he concluded that the caste system is bound to give way in the
end, though it would be against the nature of things to expect untouchability to disappear
overnight. A similar study (Kales, 2014) suggests that even today the caste system is
prevalent mainly in rural India, which condemns inter-caste marriage, and the couple who
tries to defy this norm faces dire consequences. Also, the sporadic incidences of honor
killing, especially in caste-ridden north India, negate such inference. Many parents wish to
send their children to modern schools and provide all modern facilities. But when it comes
to mate selection, they would like to follow the traditional pattern of marrying within the
same caste. Here the problem arises. Due to strong cultural importance put into the
marriage and caste system embedded in the Hindu religion, inter-caste marriages (Baas,
2007) and marriages outside the same economic status groups are not common
phenomena (Goli et al., 2013). Marriage outside the caste is considered taboo, although
there are no restrictions on inter-caste marriage as per the Hindu Marriage Act (Trigunayat,
2014). Such a couple is out-casted, driven out of the parental home, and the worst cases
lead to honor killing. At the backdrop of such socio-cultural settings, it is pertinent to know
which type of female and male take the high risk of breaking this arduous social norm.
Although previous research exhibits existence of a preference for same-caste marriage in
India until today (Banerjee et al., 2012; Dommaraju, 2016), traces of inter-caste marriage
can be found far back in history (Banerjee et al., 2012; Chaudhry and Mohan, 2011). Cited
reasons for (long distance) inter-caste marriage is the poverty and inability to pay the dowry
demand at the native place (Chaudhry and Mohan, 2011: 317). Another study by Goli et al.
(2013) concludes that education and economic status are two major factors contributing
toward women’s choice and freedom in the selection of a spouse from outside their own
socio-economic group. But another study by Das et al. (2011) found education (of both
women and men) to have a negative effect on inter-caste marriage, though the economic
condition has a positive impact on it. However, studies suggest that today in Indian society
we can see inter-caste marriages. Though mostly it is part of the city/urban culture, and
they constitute a minor proportion of the total number of marriages (Ahuja and Ostermann,
2016; Das et al., 2011; Goli et al., 2013; Trigunayat, 2014). It is said that those who defied
inter-caste marriage by violating the social norm had to face the consequences in terms of
violence, social boycott, family boycott, and death of the boys and girls (honor killing) (Das
et al., 2011). Research suggests a higher prevalence of inter-caste marriage among lower
caste women (Ahuja and Ostermann, 2016) because interest in inter-caste marriage is
rooted in a desire for upward mobility and governed by the principle of exchange (Ahuja and
Ostermann, 2016). It is also substantiated by the findings that lower caste people in rural
North India evaluate their lives to be worse than higher caste people and this difference is
not explained by poverty (Spears, 2016). There is a shortage of literature on inter-caste
marriage, possibly due to the lack of data, or the controversies surrounding it, though it is a
very pertinent and complex social issue in the Indian context. There are scattered
ethnographic studies that, by their very nature, are not generalizable. Studies are primarily
conducted in pockets and with small sample sizes. Further, some of the works (Das et al.,
2011; Goli et al., 2013; Jejeebhoy et al., 2013) that cover the entire country and have large-
scale data are not free from limitations. These studies have mainly investigated the
prevalence of inter-caste marriage across different socio-economic strata, and region, but
they try to assess the factors responsible for inter-caste marriage, including those variables
that actually do not have a corresponding effect on inter-caste marriage. Hence, the
present paper is a humble attempt to address unexplored areas in this regard. The overall
aim is to investigate the level and trends of inter-caste marriage from 1951 to 2012 and its
spatial variation in prevalence, and its determinants.

Methodology

The present study used data from the India Human Development Survey 2011–12 (IHDS-II),
a nationally representative, multi-topic survey of 42,152 households. The survey
interviewed women who were interviewed in the previous IDHS (2005) survey, or ever-
married women in the age group 15 years and over. It surveyed total 39,523 women within
this age group. Hence, the year of marriage for these women dates between 1951 and
2012. Out of these many samples, 29,596 non-tribal Hindu women are retained. Because
the caste system is a mostly Hindu-religion feature, it is not possible to say with certainty
about its prevalence in other faiths. Similarly, tribal population is outside the caste system
and is therefore outside the scope of this study. Further, 133 women whose information on
inter-caste marriage is missing were removed from the analyses. Thus, the analyses are
related to 29,463 women aged 15 years and over. As IHDS-II provides a nationally
representative and large sample data-set, it allows a robust statistical exploration on one of
the very critical social issues, such as inter-caste marriage, and draws meaningful
conclusions. However, it is not possible to do a state-wide analysis because of the small
sample size for some of the states. Nevertheless, an attempt is made to analyze at the
regional level. The study first presents levels and trends of inter-caste marriage from 1951
to 2012 by using a line graph with a linear trend. Spatial variation in prevalence of inter-
caste marriage is presented as the bi-variate table with the chi-square test. To see the
factors associated with inter-caste marriage, the bi-variate cross-tabulation is done and
chi-square tests performed. To find out the determinants of inter-caste marriage, binary
logistic regression is run. The number of cases in different categories of some variables
may not add up to the whole total, due to the missing cases. The entire statistical exercise
is performed in the SPSS-20 software package.

Only variables that relate to the period of marriage are used in the current study. However,
it is assumed that after marriage, neither the caste of the household nor the education of
women has altered. After being married, it's not typical for women in India to finish their
formal schooling. As a result, before getting married, women had to reach a certain degree
of education. In addition, unlike class, caste is a rigorous structure, as a woman's marriage
does not affect the caste of the household she enters. Therefore, the household's caste
and level of education directly relate to and have an impact on intercaste marriage.

Results

Inter-caste marriage: levels and trends

IHDS-2011–12 data provides information on marriages taking place from 1951 to 2012. The
survey data reveals three distinct periods of inter-caste marriage in India: 1951–1978,
1978–1994, and 1994–2012 (Figure 1). The first period shows an extremely erratic pattern,
the percentage of inter-caste marriage varying between zero to as high as 20%. In the
second period, the variation is somewhat insignificant. During this period the percentage of
inter-caste marriage hovered around 4.7. After that, in the third period, the trend is again
erratic. However, the fluctuation during the later period is smaller than the first period. In
the third period, it varied between 2.5 to 5.2%. Due to the significant fluctuations in the
percentage of inter-caste marriage by single year data, we fitted a linear best fit line. The
linear pattern shows a steady rise in the inter-caste marriage to attain slightly above five %
by the year 2012.
From the total sample who belong to Hindu religion and non-tribals, 4.5% were found to
have married across another caste in India during 2011 to 2012 (Table 1). A study by Goli et
al. (2013) based on the IHDS-2005 data estimated inter-caste marriage to be about 6.1% in
2005. Whereas, another research based on National Family Health Survey 2005–2006
shows the percentage of inter-caste marriages as about 10%, of which 4.97% of women
married men of a lower caste, and another 4.95% of women married men of a higher caste
(Das et al., 2011). The variations between the present study and the earlier study on IHDS-1
might be because of the differences in retaining the sample size, whereas the difference
with later work might be due to the sampling design effect, as these two large-scale studies
have pretty different sampling designs. Whatever may be the level of prevalence of inter-
caste marriage, it is certain that amidst stringent social norm it exists in some extent, so
further investigation is required. inter-caste marriages as about 10%, of which 4.97% of
women married men of a lower caste, and another 4.95% of women married men of a
higher caste (Das et al., 2011). The variations between the present study and the earlier
study on IHDS-1 might be because of the differences in retaining the sample size,
whereas the difference with later work might be due to the sampling design effect, as these
two large-scale studies have pretty different sampling designs. Whatever may be the level
of prevalence of inter-caste marriage, it is certain that amidst stringent social norm it exists
in some extent, so further investigation is required.

Spatial variation in prevalence of inter-caste marriage

India is a vast country with significant regional variation in all aspects of human
civilization. As such, it is pertinent to also review the regional difference in the prevalence
of inter-caste marriage. It is found (Table 2) that the inter-caste marriage is notably (11.6%)
higher in the northeastern region of India, whereas it is minimal in central India. This
pattern is very similar to the earlier study by Das et al. (2011). The regional variation in inter
caste marriage also reflects the existing social norm. The Khap panchayat is an active
social institution in central India known to be against inter-caste marriage, as such inter-
caste marriage is much lower in this region. On the other hand, northeast India is known to
be more liberal, and the caste system is not strongly followed, possibly due to intermingling
with a large proportion of the tribal population. Further, as expected, intercaste marriage is
at a minimum in less developed villages of India. This indicates the persistence of a
stringent caste system in the less developed villages, for which women/men are afraid of
crossing the accepted social norm. Further, arranged marriage is the norm in such areas,
and the question of inter-caste marriage hardly arises. Surprisingly, compared to the
women in the metros, the women in other urban areas are slightly more inclined toward
inter-caste marriage. This may be due to the following two reasons. First, in metros, people
are too engrossed with hectic daily work schedule and have minimal social interaction.
Whatever interaction they have is also within their caste or class only. As a result, metro
areas do not provide much scope for inter-caste marriage. Second, in small urban areas,
people are comparatively less busy and have more social interactions across a range of
population, which provides sufficient ground for inter-caste marriage. A significant rural
and urban dichotomy is apparent in inter-caste marriage. Inter-caste marriage is much
higher in urban areas than in metro areas.

Conclusions
Positive views are a clear step toward diminishing caste hierarchy, which will eventually
lead to caste assimilation, but negative attitudes are a strong evidence of the social gap
between the various groups. Additionally, the best way to eliminate this pervasive social ill
is through inter-caste marriage. The research being done shows that inter-caste marriage
has been around for a very long time. However, both its trends and its present state are not
very positive. Contrary to popular assumption and expectation, education does not appear
to encourage intercaste marriage; rather, giving women the freedom to select their life mate
will probably encourage intercaste marriage. In order to lessen the grip of India's caste
system, persistent, targeted efforts must be made to promote intercaste marriage.