Soil Mechanics

By
Zzigwa Marvin
1.0 Introduction to Construction industry
1.0 Introduction to Construction industry
1.1 Introduction – Project Life Cycle
Mathew 7:24-27: Principle of Civil Engineering

Therefore everyone who hears these words of mine and puts them
into practice is like a wise man who built his house on the rock.

The rain came down, the streams rose, and the winds blew and
beat against that house; yet it did not fall, because it had its
foundation on the rock.
But everyone who hears these words of mine and does not put them
into practice is like a foolish man who built his house on sand.
The rain came down, the streams rose, and the winds blew and beat
against that house, and it fell with a great crash.“
1.2 Soil

DEFINITION OF SOIL
Soil is the relatively loose mass of mineral and organic materials and sediments found
above the bedrock, which can be relatively easily broken down into its constituent
mineral or organic particles.
➢ minerals constituents differ from parent materials -morphological, physical,
chemical and mineralogical
characteristics

Soil can also be referred to as regolith, or loose

rock material.
1.3 Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering

Soil mechanics is a branch of engineering mechanics that describes the behavior of soils .
Soil mechanics provide the theoretical basis for analysis in geotechnical engineering.
Geotechnical Engineer uses the Principles of soil mechanics, rock mechanics and engineering geology to;
❖ investigate subsurface conditions and materials,

❖ determine the relevant physical/mechanical and chemical properties of the

materials,

❖ evaluate stability of natural slopes and man-made soil deposits,

❖ access risks posed by site conditions,

❖ design earthworks and structure foundations and

❖ monitor site conditions,

❖ earthwork and foundation construction.

1.4 Soil Formation

Soil is formed from the weathering of rocks and minerals.

WEATHERING
is the process of breaking down rocks. Weathering occurs in situ or “with no movement”

Physical weathering;
Break down of rock as a result of; heat, water, ice and pressure, without any change in chemical
condition.
Chemical weathering;
changes the composition of rocks by decomposing the parent minerals, transforming them into
new compounds such as clay silica particles, carbonates and iron oxides.

The decomposition of rock is the result of the following reactions;

❖ Oxidation
❖ Carbonation
❖ Hydration
❖ Leaching
1.5.0 Clay Mineralogy

“The contact of rocks and water produces clays, either at or near the surface of the
earth” (from Velde, 1995).
Rock +Water → Clay
For example,
The CO2 gas can dissolve in water and form carbonic acid, which will become
hydrogen ions H+ and bicarbonate ions, and make water slightly acidic.
CO2+H2O → H2CO3 →H+ +HCO3-

The acidic water will react with the rock surfaces and tend to dissolve the K ion and
silica from the feldspar. Finally, the feldspar is transformed into kaolinite.
Feldspar + hydrogen ions+water → clay (kaolinite) + cations, dissolved silica
2KAlSi3O8+2H+ +H2O → Al2Si2O5(OH)4 + 2K+ +4SiO2

Note that the hydrogen ion displaces the cations.

1.5.1 Atomic and Molecular Bonds

Forces which bind atoms and molecules to build up the structure of substances are
primarily of electrical nature. They may be broadly classified into “primary bonds”
and “secondary bonds.’
❖ Primary bonds combine the atoms into molecules.
❖ Secondary bonds link atoms in one molecular to atoms in another and are much weaker than the
primary bonds.

Primary bonds are the ionic bond and the covalent bond. Secondary bonds are the hydrogen bond and the Van
der Waals bond.

Note; Read about ionic bonds

Covalent bond ;
The covalent bond is formed when one or more bonding electrons
are shared by two atoms so that
they serve to complete the outer shell for each atom.
1.5.1 Atomic and Molecular Bonds

Hydrogen bond
A hydrogen bond is the attractive interaction of a hydrogen atom with
an electronegative atom, such as nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine, that
comes from another molecule
❖ Thus when water molecules are close together, their positive and
negative regions are attracted to the oppositely-charged regions of
nearby molecules.
1.5.1 Atomic and Molecular Bonds

Van der Waals bonds

It is the sum of the attractive or repulsive forces between molecules (or between parts of the same molecule) other
than those due to covalent bonds or ionic bond.

The bonds between the molecules that allow siding and rupture to occur are called Van der Waals forces.

Heat can be used to break the Van der Waal forces between the molecules and change the form of the
material from solid to liquid gas.
1.5.2 Basic Structural Units of Clay Minerals

The clay minerals are a group of complex alumino-silicates, i.e.,

oxides of aluminium and silicon with smaller amounts of metal ions substituted
within the crystal.

The atomic structures of clay minerals are built up of two basic units;

a) Silica tetrahedral units, and

b) Aluminium (or magnesium) octahedral unit.
1.5.2.1 Basic Unit-Silica Tetrahedra

(Si2O10)-4
1 Si
Replace four
4O Oxygen with
hydroxyls or
combine with
positive union

Tetrahedron
Plural: Tetrahedra
Hexagonal
hole
(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)
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1.5.2.2 Basic Unit-Octahedral Sheet
1 Cation
6 O or OH

Gibbsite sheet: Al3+

Al2(OH)6, 2/3 cationic spaces are filled Different
One OH is surrounded by 2 Al: cations
Dioctahedral sheet

Brucite sheet: Mg2+

Mg3(OH)6, all cationic spaces
are filled
One OH is surrounded by 3 Mg:
Trioctahedral sheet

(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981) 15

1.5.2.3 Basic Unit-Summary

Mitchell, 1993

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1.5.2.4 Synthesis

Mitchell, 1993

Noncrystall
ine clay -
allophane

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1.5.3 Types of Clay Minerals

The variation in the stacking of the two basic sheet structures and nature of bonding
has given rise to over dozen clay minerals which have been identified.

From an engineering point of view, three clay minerals of interest are;

❖ kaolinite,

❖ montmorillonite

❖ and illite.
1.5.3.1 Minerals-Kaolinite
Basal spacing is 7.2 Å

layer

• Si4Al4O10(OH)8. Platy shape

• The bonding between layers are van der
Waals forces and hydrogen bonds (strong
bonding).
• There is no interlayer swelling
Trovey, 1971 ( from
Mitchell, 1993)
• Width: 0.1~ 4m, Thickness: 0.05~2 m
17 m 19
1.5.3.2 Minerals-Montmorillonite
• Si8Al4O20(OH)4·nH2O (Theoretical
unsubstituted). Film-like shape.
• There is extensive isomorphous
substitution for silicon and
aluminum by other cations, which
results in charge deficiencies of clay
particles.
n·H2O+cations • n·H2O and cations exist between unit
layers, and the basal spacing is from
9.6 Å to  (after swelling).
• The interlayer bonding is by van der
Waals forces and by cations which
balance charge deficiencies (weak
bonding).
• There exists interlayer swelling, which
is very important to engineering
practice (expansive clay).
• Width: 1 or 2 m, Thickness: 10
5 m (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981) Å~1/100 width 20
1.5.3.3 Minerals-Illite (mica-like minerals)
• Si8(Al,Mg, Fe)4~6O20(OH)4·(K,H2O)2. Flaky
shape.
• The basic structure is very similar to the mica,
so it is sometimes referred to as hydrous mica.
Illite is the chief constituent in many shales.
potassium K
• Some of the Si4+ in the tetrahedral sheet are
replaced by the Al3+, and some of the Al3+ in
the octahedral sheet are substituted by the Mg2+
or Fe3+. Those are the origins of charge
deficiencies.
• The charge deficiency is balanced by the
potassium ion between layers. Note that the
potassium atom can exactly fit into the
hexagonal hole in the tetrahedral sheet and
form a strong interlayer bonding.
• The basal spacing is fixed at 10 Å in the
presence of polar liquids (no interlayer
swelling).
• Width: 0.1~ several m, Thickness: ~ 30 Å
Trovey, 1971 ( from
7.5 m Mitchell, 1993)
21
1.5.4 Interaction of Water and Clay
Minerals

22
1.5. 4.1 Origins of Charge Deficiencies

1. Imperfections in the crystal lattice -Isomorphous substitution.

• The cations in the octahedral or tetrahedral sheet can be replaced by different kinds of
cations without change in crystal structure (similar physical size of cations).
For example,
Al3+ in place of Si4+ (Tetrahedral sheet)
Mg2+ instead of Al3+(Octahedral sheet)
unbalanced charges (charge deficiencies)

• This is the main source of charge deficiencies for montmorillonite.

• Only minor isomorphous substitution takes place in kaolinite.

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1.5. 4.1 Origins of Charge Deficiencies (Cont.)

2. Imperfections in the crystal lattice

- The broken edge

The broken edge can be

positively or negatively
charged.

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1.5 4.1 Origins of Charge Deficiencies (Cont.)

3. Proton equilibria (pH-dependent charges)

M − OH + H +  M − OH +2 (Pr otonation)
M − OH + OH −  M − O − + H 2 O (Deprotonation)

H Kaolinite particles are positively

M O + charged on their edges when in a
H
low pH environment, but negatively
M O H charged in a high pH (basic)
M: metal
environment.
M O-

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1.5.4.2 “Charged” Clay Particles

• External or interlayer surfaces are

- or + negatively charged in general.
• The edges can be positively or
negatively charged.
• Different cations balance charge
deficiencies.

Cation

- or +
Kaolinite and negative gold sol Dry condition
(van Olphen, 1991)

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1.5.4.3 Polar Water Molecules
Structure Polar molecule O(-)

H(+) H(+)
Hydrogen bond Salts in aqueous solution

hydration
27
1.5.4.4 Clay-Water Interaction
1. Hydrogen bond
Kaolinite

H
O O
H H

Clay Surfaces
Adsorbed layers Free water
3 monolayers Bulk water

Oxygen Hydroxyl
O OH
The water molecule “locked” in the adsorbed
layers has different properties compared to
that of the bulk water due to the strong
attraction from the surface.
H
O
H 28
1.5.4.4 Clay-Water Interaction (Cont.)
Na+ crystal radius: 0.095 nm
2. Ion hydration
radius of hydrated ion: 0.358 nm

cation

Clay
layers

The cations are fully hydrated,

Dry condition The water molecules which results in repulsive forces
(Interlayer) wedge into the interlayer and expanding clay layers
after adding water (hydration energy). 29
1.5.4.4 Clay-Water Interaction (Cont.)
3. Osmotic pressure

A B

From Oxtoby et
al., 1994

The concentration of cations is higher in the interlayers (A) compared with that
in the solution (B) due to negatively charged surfaces. Because of this
concentration difference, water molecules tend to diffuse toward the interlayer
in an attempt to equalize concentration.
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1.5.4.5 Clay-Water Interaction (Cont.)

Relative sizes of adsorbed water layers on sodium montmorillonite and

sodium kaolinite

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

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 1.4.5. Interaction of Clay Particles
(or Layers)
Interlayer
Particle
Interparticle

Layer

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1.4.5.1 Diffuse Double Layer

- - Cations
-

- - Exponential decay

Concentration
+ + -
x Distance x
Clay particle with
negatively charged
surface Anions

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1.4.5.2 Interaction Forces

Net force between clay particles (or interlayers)

DLVO = van der Waals attraction +
forces Double layer repulsion (overlapping of the double layer)+
Coulombian attraction (between the positive edge and negative face)

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1.4.5.3 Interaction of Clay Particles
Dispersed fabric Flocculated fabric
Edge-to-face (EF): positively
charged edges and negatively
charged surfaces (more common)
Edge-to-edge (EE)
The net interparticle force
between surfaces is repulsive Aggregated fabric

Face-to-Face (FF) Shifted FF

Increasing Decreasing •Reduce the double
Electrolyte concentration n0 Permittivity  layer repulsion (only
Ion valence v Size of hydration ion applicable to some cases)
Temperature T (?) pH
•Flocculated or
Anion adsorption
aggregated fabric 35
 1.5.5.3 Interaction of Clay Particles (Cont.)

(1) Decrease pH
+
+

(2) Decrease anion adsorption

(3)Size of hydration
The total required
number of cations
Clay is 10
Particle

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1.4.5.4 Atterberg Limit of Clay Minerals
Na-montmorillonite
•Thicker double layer
•LL=710
Ca-montmorillonite
•Thinner double layer
•LL=510
The thickness of double
layer increases with
decreasing cation valence.

Lambe and Whitman, 1979

37
1.4.5.5 Cation Replaceability

• Different types and quantities of cations are adsorbed to balance charge

deficiencies in clay particles.
• The types of adsorbed cations depend on the depositional environment. For
example, sodium and magnesium are dominant cations in marine clays
since they are common in sea water. In general, calcium and magnesium
are the predominant cations.
• The adsorbed cations are exchangeable (replaceable). For example,

Na Na Na Na Ca Ca
+4CaCl2  +8NaCl
Na Na Na Na Ca Ca

(Lambe and Whitman, 1979)

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1.4.5.5 Cation Replaceability (Cont.)
The ease of cation replacement Non-hydrated Hydrated
depends on the Cations radius (Å) radius (Å)
(1) Valence (primarily) Li+ 0.68 3.8
− Higher valence cations can replace
cations of lower valence. Na+ 0.95 3.6
(2) Ion size K+ 1.33 3.3
− Cations with larger non-hydrated Cs+ 1.69 3.3
radii or smaller hydrated radii have
greater replacement power. Be2+ 0.31 4.6
According to rules (1) and (2), the Mg2+ 0.65 4.3
general order of replacement is
Li+<Na+<K+<Rb+<Cs+<Mg2+<Ca2+<Ba2+ Ca2+ 0.99 4.1
<Cu2+<Al3+<Fe3+<Th4+ Ba2+ 1.35
(3) Relative amount Al3+ 0.5 4.8
− High concentration of
Na+ can displace Al3+. Fe3+ 0.6
(Data compiled from
Israelachvili, 1991)
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1.4.5.5 Cation Replaceability (Cont.)

•Hard water softener

Hard water contains soluble calcium and magnesium salts such as Ca(HCO3)2 and Mg(HCO3)2. The
hardness can be removed by exchanging Ca2+ and Mg2+ with sodium ions Na+. For example,

Na2Z(s) (Zeolite) + Ca2+(aq)  CaZ(s)+2 Na+(aq)

As the ion-exchange capacity of Zeolite is saturated, the capacity can be regained by passing
through a concentrated solution of NaCl.

40
1.45.6 Cation Exchange Capacity (cec)

• The quantity of exchangeable cations is termed the cation exchangeable capacity

(cec) and is usually expressed as milliequivalents (meq) per 100 gram of dry clay
( from Mitchell, 1993).

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1.4.5.7 Swelling Potential
Practically speaking, the three ingredients generally necessary for
potentially damaging swelling to occur are (1) presence of
montmorillonite in the soil, (2) the natural water content must be around
the PL, and (3) there must be a source of water for the potentially
swelling clay (Gromko, 1974, from Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

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1.4.5.8 Engineering Applications
Lime treatment for the swelling clay
• The swelling clay such as Na-montmorillonite beneath the foundation is
potentially harmful to the light structure. Adding lime (CaO) into such
soil can effectively reduce the swelling potential due to Ca2+ displacing
Na+, and can increase the strength by dehydration of soils and
cementation.
Drilling mud The swelling clays can
Soil particle form a so-called “filter
cake” and enable soil Pressure
layers to become profile of
relatively impermeable. slurry

Earth
Bentonite or pressure+
Polymer ground water
pressure
Trench
Montmorillonite is the dominant clay mineral in bentonite
Xanthakos, 1991
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1.4.6 You tube Link for further understanding
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qh6wSfVN45s

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1.4.7 Assignment 1
Carry out a detailed literature Review on the Challenges offered by expansive soils
during the execution of Civil engineering Projects and how such are mitigated.

Marked out of 5.

Hand in on 7th November by 6:00 Pm

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