FIBER OPTICS

Topics

 INTRODUCTION
 ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBERS
 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF OPTICAL FIBER
 CONSTRUCTION OF OPTICAL FIBER
 ACCEPTANCE ANGLE AND NUMERICAL APERTURE
 CLASSIFICATION OF OPTICAL FIBERS
 STEP INDEX FIBERS
 GRADED INDEX FIBERS
 ATTENUATIONS IN OPTICAL FIBERS
 DISTORTION LOSSES
 TRANSMITION LOSSES
 BENDING LOSSES
 OPTICAL FIBER IN COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
 APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL FIBERS
 SOLVED PROBLEMS
 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
 OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS
 FILL IN THE BLANKS
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
 FIBER OPTICS

Introduction:
Fiber optics deals with the light propagation through thin glass
fiberes. Fiber optics plays an important role in the field of
communication to transmit voice, television and digital data signals from
one place to other place. The transmission of light along the thin
cylindrical glass fiber by total internal reflection was first demonstrated
by John Tyndall in 1870 and that light follows the curve of a stream of
water pouring from a container; it was this simple principle that led to the
study and development of application of the fiber optics. The transmission of
information over fibers has much lower losses than compared to that of
cables.

Advantages of optical fibers:

 Light in weight and small in size.

 Higher information carrying capacity.
 Low attenuation and low dispersion possible.
 No hazards of short circuits as in case of metals.
 Can be used safely in explosive environment.
 Low cost of cable per unit length compared to copper or G.I cables.
 Immune to moisture and temperature variation.
 High security for tapping.
 Nominal installation charges.
 High flexibility of bandwidth.
 The transmission is not subject to electromagnetic interference.
 Tight bending radii is possible.

Basic principle of Optical fiber:

The mechanism of light propagation along fibers can be understood using the
principle of geometrical optics. The transmission of light in optical fiber is based
on the phenomenon of total internal reflection.

Let n1 and n2 be the refractive indices of core and cladding respectively such
that n1>[Link] a light ray traveling from the medium of refractive index n1 to
the refractive index n2 be incident with an angle of incidence ‘i’ and the angle
of refraction ‘r’ . By Snell’s law,

n1 Sin i = n2 Sin r…………………(1)

Fig. (1) Total internal reflection.

The refractive ray bends towards the normal as the ray travels from rarer medium
to denser medium . On the other hand ,the refracted ray bends away from normal as it
travel from denser medium to rarer medium. In the later case , there is a possibility to
occur total internal reflection provided, the angle of incidence is greater than critical
angle(θ c ). This can be understood as follows.

1. When i < θ c , then the ray refracted is into the second medium as shown in fig.
2. When i= θc, then the ray travels along the interface of two media as shown in fig.
3. When i> θc then the ray totally reflects back into the same medium as shown in fig.

Suppose if i= θc then r =90o ,hence

n1sin θc= n2sin 90o
 sin θc= n2/ n1 (since sin 90o=1)
θc=sin-1(n2/ n1)………………………….(2)

thus any ray whose angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, total internal
reflection occurs ,when a ray is traveling from a medium of high refractive index to low
refractive index.

Construction of optical fiber:

Optical fiber is a cylinder of transparent dielectric medium and designed

to guide visible and infrared light over long distances. Optical fibers work on
the principle of total internal reflection. When a ray of light travels from a
denser medium into a rarer medium and if the angle of incidence is greater
than the critical angle then the light gets totally reflected.
The light launched at one end of the fiber has to travel through the entire length
and reach the other end without much loss. Initially only single circular dielectric
rods were considered as waveguides but the light launched through its one end
penetrated into the air surrounding the rod there by causing the losses to be very
[Link] problem has been overcome with the development of cladded dielectric
wave guides.
Optical fiber is a very thin and flexible medium having a cylindrical shape
consisting of three sections.
(1) The Core (2) The Cladding (3) Protective Jacket.

Fig. 2 Structure of an optical fiber.

Acceptance angle and Numerical aperture:

 Once light rays enter into core, they propagate by means of multiple total
internal reflections. When we launch the light beam into a fiber at its end using a
focusing lens, the entire light may not pass through the core and propagate. Only
the rays which make the angle of incidence greater than critical angle at the core-
cladding interface undergo total internal reflection and propagate through the core.
The other rays are reflected to the cladding and are lost.

From above figure it shows a longitudinal cross section of launch end of a

fiber with a ray entering it. The light is launched from a medium of refractive
index no into core of refractive indeed n 1. The ray enters with and angle of
incidence θo to the fiber end face. This particular ray enters the core at its axis
point O and proceeds after refraction at an angle θ 1 from the axis. It then
undergoes total internal reflection at B on core wall at an internal incidence angle
(90o-θ1). Let us now find up to what value of θ o at O, total internal reflection at B
is possible.
From, Sinell’s law at B is,
n1 Sin (90o - θ1) = n2 Sin 90o
n1 cos θ1 = n2

n2
cos θ1 = n1 (or) Sin θ1=

Sin θ1 = -------------------(1)
Sinell’s law at ‘O’ n0 sin θo = n1 sin θ1
 or sin θo = sin θ1 ----------(2)
Substitute equation (1) in equation (2) ,

sin θ0 = =
As the fiber is in air, so the refractive index no = 1

The equation (3) becomes, Sin θo =

This is the equation for acceptance angle.
Acceptance Cone:

When the light beam is launched into a fiber, the entire light may
not pass through the core and propagate. Only the rays which make the angle of
incidence greater than critical angle at the core -cladding interface undergoes total
internal reflection. The other rays are refracted to the cladding and is lost. Hence the
angle we have to launch the beam at its end is essential to enable the entire light to
pass through the core .This maximum angle of launch is called acceptance angle.
Consider an optical fiber of cross sectional view as shown in figure n o, n1 and n2
are refractive indices of air, core and cladding respectively such that n 1 > n2 > no. Let
light ray incidence on interface of air and core medium with an angle of incidence
(θo). This particular ray enters the core at the axis point O and proceeds after
refraction at an angle θ1 from the axis. It then undergoes total internal reflection at
B on core at an internal incidence angle (90o - θ1).

Acceptance cone obtained by rotating the acceptance angle about the fiber
axis

Numerical aperture:-
Light collecting capacity of the fiber is expressed in terms of acceptance
angle using numerical aperture. Sine of the maximum acceptance angle is called
the numerical aperture of the fiber.

Numerical aperture =NA = Sin θo (max) = …………….(1)

Let the fractional change in the refractive index (∆) be the ratio between the difference in
refractive indices of core and cladding to the refractive index of core.

i.e., ∆ = /
= ∆ n1--------------(2)
But equation (1) can be written as, NA =

= ---------- (3)

Substituting equation (1) in (3), we have NA = √ ∆ n1 (n1+ n2)

Since n1 ≈ n2 so n1+ n2 =2n1
Therefore NA = n1√ 2 ∆

Numerical aperture can be increased by increasing ‘∆’and thus enhances

the light gathering capacity of fiber.

Types or classification of optical fibers:

Optical fibers are classified as follows:

Depending upon the refractive index profile of the core, optical fibers are
classified into two categories (a) Step index;
b) Graded index

Depending upon the number of modes of propagation, optical fibers are

classified into two categories; they are (a) Single mode

(b) Multi mode

Based on the nature of the material used, optical fibers are classified into four
categories.
(1) Glass fiber
(2) Plastic fiber
(3) Glass Core with plastic cladding fiber
(4) PCS Fibers (Polymer-Clad
Step index
fibers:-

In step index fibers the refractive index of the core is uniform

through out the medium and undergoes an abrupt change at the interface of core
and [Link] diameter of the core is about 50-200µm and in case of multi
mode [Link] 10 µm in the case of single mode [Link] transmitted
optical signals travel through core medium in the form of meridonal rays, which
will cross the fiber axis during every reflection at the core-cladding interface. The
shape of the propagation appears in a zig-zac manner.

Graded index fiber:-

In these fibers the refractive index of the core varies radially as shown fib.
It has maximum refractive index at its centre, which gradually falls with
increase of radius and at the core – cladding interface matches with the
refractive index of the cladding. The variation of refractive index of the core
with radius, measured from the centre of the core.
 Let us now consider a signal pulse travelling through graded index fiber in
two different paths 1 and 2. The pulse 1, travelling along the axis of the fiber,
though travels along shorter route it travels through a medium of higher
refractive index. The other pulse2, travelling away from the axis undergo
refraction and bend as shown in the fig. Though it travels longer distance, it
travels along the path possessing relatively lesser refractive index and hence
both the pulses reach the other end simultaneously. Thus the problem of inter
modal dispersion can be overcome by using graded index fiber.

Attenuations in optical fiber (or losses):

While transmitting the signals through optical fiber some energy is lost due to few
reasons. The major losses in fibers are [Link] losses [Link] losses
[Link] losses.

1. Distortion losses:-
When a pulse is launched at one end of the fiber and collected at the other
end of the fiber, the shape and size of the pulse should not be changed. Distortion of
signals in optical fiber is an undesired feature. If the out put pulse is not same as the
input pulse, then it is said that the pulse is distorted .If the refractive index of the core is
not uniform most of the rays will travel through the medium of lower refractive index
region. Due to this the rays which are travel in fiber will become broadened. Because
of this the out put pulses will no longer matches with the input pulses.
The distortion takes place due to the presence of imperfections, impurities and doping
concentrations in fiber crystals. Dispersion is large in multi mode than in single mode
fiber.
2. Transmission losses (attenuation):-
The attenuation or transmission losses may be classified into two categories
i ) Absorption losses ii) scattering losses

i) Absorption losses:-
Absorption is a characteristic possessed by all materials every
material in universe absorb suitable wavelengths as they incident or passed
through the material. In the same way core material of the fiber absorbs wavelengths
as the optical pulses or wavelengths pass through it.

ii) Scattering losses:-

The core medium of the fiber is made of glass or silica. In the passage of
optical signals in the core medium if crystal defects are encountered, they
deviate from the path and total internal reflection is discontinued, hence such
signals will be destroyed by entering into the cladding however attenuation is
minimum in optical fibers compared to other cables.

ii) Bending losses:-

The distortion of the fiber from the ideal straight ling configuration my
also result in fiber losses. Let us consider a wave front travels perpendicular
to the direction of propagation. In order to maintain this, the part of the mode
which is on the outside of the bend has to travel faster than that on the inside.
As per the theory, each mode extends an infinite distance into the cladding
though the intensity falls exponentially. Since the refractive index of the
cladding is less than that of core, the part of the mode travelling in the
cladding will attempt to travel faster.
Optical fiber in communication systems as a wave guide:

An efficient optical fiber communication system requires high

information carrying capacity fast operating speed over long distances with minimum
number of repeaters .An optical fiber communication system mainly contains

1. Encoder

2. Transmitter

3. Wave guide

4. Receiver

5. Decoder.

Encoder:-

It is an electronic system that convert the analog information like voice,

figure, objects etc into binary data. This binary data contain a series of electrical
pulses.

Transmitter:-

It consist of two parts namely drive circuit and light source .Drive circuit
supplies electric signals to the light source from the encoder in the required form.
In the place of light source either an LED or A diode Laser can be used ,which
converts electric signals into optical signals. With the help of specially made
connecter optical signal will be injected into wave guide from the transmitter.

Wave guide:-
It is an optical fiber which carries information in the form of optical
signals over long distances with the help of repeaters. With the help of specially
made connector optical signal will be received by the receiver from the wave
guide.
Receiver:-
It consists of three parts namely photo detector, amplifiber and signal
restorer. The photo detector converts the optical signals into equivalent
electric signals and supplies them to amplifier. The amplifier amplifies the
electric signals as they become weak during the journey through the wave
guide over long distances. The signal restorer keeps all the electric signals in
sequential form and supplies to decoder in suitable way.

Decoder:- It convert the received electric signals into the analog information.

Applications;

(1) Fiber optic sensing applications:

Fiber optic sensors are used to monitor displacement, liquid level, flow,
temperature and pressure, chemical composition etc.
(i) Intensity modulated sensors: These are based on the change in
refractive index, temperature, absorption, etc.
(ii) Phase-modulated sensors: These involve the interference
between the signal and reference in the interferometer. This leads
to a shift in the interference fringes by the variable.
(iii) Polarization-modulated sensors: In this, a change in
polarization state of the guided signal by the variable takes place.
(iv) Wavelength-modulated ensors: In this, the spectral dependent
variation of absorption and emission by the variable takes place.
(v) Displacement sensors: Intensity modulation of the transmitted
light beam is utilized in this sensor.
(vi) Liquid level sensor: This shows the operation of a simple optical
fluid level switch.
(vii) Temperature and pressure sensor: When a single optical fiber
is subjected to temperature or pressure variations, then its length
and refractive index changes. This causes change in phase of light
at the end of fiber. The change in phase of light is proportional to
magnitude of the change in temperature or pressure. And this
phase change can be measured by an interferometer method.
(viii) Chemical sensors: Here the sensing element is a modified fiber,
 and this sensing element senses the concentration of a chemical in
terms of the phase change of the light wave.
(2) Optical fibers in medical field: An optical fiber instrument used to see the
internal parts of human body is endoscope. The endoscope facilitates the
physicians to see the internal parts of body without performing surgery. The
main part in endoscope is fiberscope Based on application, the endoscopes are
classified into,
(i) Gastroscope: It is used to examine the stomach. A gastro scope can
be fitted with various parts to photograph tumors and ulcers. Laser-used
to remove objects that have been swallowed.
(ii) Bronchoscope: It is used to see upper passages of lungs.
(iii) Orthoscope: It is used to see the small spaces within joints.

(iv) Couldoscope: It is used to test female pelvic organs.

(v) Peritoneoscope: It is used to test the abdominal cavity, lower parts
of liver and gall bladder.

Solved Problems:
(1) The refractive indices of core and cladding materials of a step index
fiber are 1.48 and 1.45, respectively. Calculate (i) Numerical
Aperture(NA) (ii) Acceptance Angle, and (iii) Critical Angle
Sol: Let the refractive index of core, n1 = 1.48
the refractive index of cladding, n2 = 1.45

(i) Numerical Aperture(NA) = √ n −n 2

1
2
2

= √ (1.48) −(1.45)
2 2

NA = 0.2965.
(ii) Let Өo be the acceptance angle,
Then sin Өo = NA = √ n −n
2
1
2
2

Өo = Sin-1 = √ n −n2
1
2
2 = Sin-1(0.2965) = 17o 15’
(iii) N2 sin 90 = n1 sin Өc (Өo = critical angle)
n2
Sin Өc =
n1

Өc = sin-1
n2
n1
= sin-1 [ ]
1.45
1.48
= 78o 26’.
 2) Calculate the refractive indices of core and cladding of an optical fiber
with a numerical aperture of 0.33 and their fractional difference of
refractive indices being 0.02.
Sol. Refractive index of core, n1 = ?
Refractive index of cladding, n2 = ?
Numerical Aperture, NA = 0.33
Fractional difference of refractive index, Δ = 0.02
n1−n 2
Δ = or 0.02n1 = n1−n2 , n2 = (1 – 0.02) , n1 = 0.98n1
n1

NA = √ n −(0.98 n )
2
1
2
1 ❑ 0.33 = n1 X 0.198997

n1 = 1.6583; n2 = 0.98 X 1.6583 = 1.625.

Objective Type Questions:-

(1). Propagation of light through fiber core is due to [ ]

(A) Diffraction (B) interference (C) total internal reflection (D) refraction

(2). Attenuation in an optical fiber is a function of [ ]

(A) Fiber material only (B) Wavelength of light only
(C) Length of fiber Only (D) All the above

(3). Step index fiber can be a [ ]

(A) Monomode fiber only (B) Multimode fiber only
(C) Monomode as well as multimode fiber (D) Either monomode or multimode

(4). If thickness of the fiber core is of the order of 50um, then it is [ ]

(A) Step index fiber (B) Graded index fiber
(C) Single mode fiber (D) Multimode fiber

(5) If the thickness of the fiber is of the order of 8 μm, then it is [ ]

(A) Step index fiber (C) Single mode fiber
(B) Graded index fiber (D) Multimode fiber.

(6) To overcome the problem of inter model dispersion one has to use [ ]
(A) Multimode fiber (B) step index fiber (C) graded index fiber (D) Plastic fiber.

(7) The losses induced because of Rayleigh scattering [ ]

(A) Vary inversely with the fourth power of the wavelength
 (B) Vary directly with the fourth power of the wavelength
(C) Vary directly with the second power of the wavelength
(D) Vary directly with wavelength

(8) Total internal reflection takes place when light ray travels from [ ]
(A) denser to rarer medium (B) denser to denser medium
(C) Rarer to rarer medium (D) rarer to denser medium
(9) The refractive index of a cladding of a fiber with core refractive index
1.5 and Numerical aperture 0.244 is [ ]
(A) 1.4 (B) 1.325 (C) 1.48 (D) 1.656

(10) Source of light in a fiber optic system [ ]

(A) LED and laser diode (B) LED (C) laser diode (D) photodiode

Fill in the blanks:

1. Sine of the maximum acceptance angle is called __________ of the
fiber.
2. In optical fibers attenuation is mainly due to two sources of losses
namely ________ and ______________
3. The maximum transmission rate of signal through a fiber is called
_____________
4. In communication, mixing of signal wave with carrier wave is called
___
5. A light source in which the signal is modulated by modulating the
driving current is called _______________
6. LEDs and semiconductor laser diodes are examples of ______________
modulators.
7. Function of _________ is to reshape, retime and retransmit the received
signal.
8. ___________ are devices used to measure quantities such a displacement,
pressure etc. Using fibers.
9. A ray that propagates through the core of the fiber undergoing total internal
reflection is called ____________
 10. The spreading of pulse width of transmitted signal sent through the fiber
is called _____.

Review Questions:
1. Explain the principle of an optical fiber.
2. Explain how the optical fibers are classified.
3. Explain the terms Numerical Aperture and Acceptance Angle.
4. Explain with the neat diagram the principle, construction and working
of an optical fiber as a wave guide.
5. Derive an expression for the Numerical Aperture and the fractional
index change of an optical fiber.
6. Describe different types of fibers by giving the refractive index and
propagation details.
7. Describe step index and graded index optical fiber and explain the
transmission of signal through it.
8. What are different losses in optical fibers? Write brief note on each.
9. What are the advantages of optical fibers in communication?
10. Write few applications of optical fibers.

Answers:
Objective questions:-

1) C. 2) A .3) C. 4) D .5) D .6) C. 7) A. 8) A. 9) B. 10) A.

Fill in the blanks:-

1. Numerical Aperture. 2. Scatering losses and absorption losses 3. Bandwidth

4. Modulation 5. Direct Modulator 6. Direct 7. Repeter. 8. Fiber Optic sensors

9. Meridional ray 10. Band width-dispersion product

END