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IOQM EXCEL MODULES

POLYNOMIALS
(Theory)
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© 2025 Shaurya Shrimal

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only.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or

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1. Introduction
Definition 1: A polynomial is an expression in terms of a variable x
in the form:
P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 ,
where a0 , a1 , . . . , an are constants called the coefficients of the
polynomial, an ̸= 0, and n is a non-negative integer called the degree
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of the polynomial.

Some Points:
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1. Polynomials are usually considered as expression not as functions.
2. Due to the restriction of degree(n), any expression which contains
terms like x1/n , x−n for n ∈ N are not polynomials.
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3. The highest power of x that appears in the polynomial is called the
degree of the polynomial provided that its coefficient is not equal
to 0. It is always a whole number.
4. In the general representation of a polynomial (above), an is called
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the leading coefficient of the polynomial.
5. A polynomial with its leading coefficient (an ) equal to 0 is called
a monic polynomial.
6. A polynomial with degree equal to: n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 are called
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constant, linear, quadratic, cubic and quartic polynomials
respectively.
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7. A polynomial of the form P (x) = 0 is called a zero polynomial. Its
degree is defined as −∞ but it is preferred to not define the degree
of such a polynomial.
8. Two polynomials are (identically) equal if firstly their degrees are
equal and the coefficients of respective powers of x in them are
equal.
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9. A polynomial of degree n, which contains all powers of the

variable from 0 to n, is called a complete polynomial. Otherwise
it is said to be incomplete polynomial.
Example 1:
Check if the following expressions are polynomials:
√ 1
(i) x2 + 3 x (ii) 2 + x3 + 5 (iii) x7 + x3 + x + 2
x
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Sol: In the (i) and (ii) options we have expressions having powers
of x which are not natural numbers. So they are not polynomials.
But the (iii) option has all natural number powers of x, so it is a
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polynomial with degree 7.

2. Arithemtic of polynomials
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Addition, Subtraction and Multiplication of polynomials can be

done in a regular manner considering them as algebraic expressions.
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Note the following points: Let the degrees of two non-zero
polynomials P (x) and Q(x) be m and n respectively.
1. The degree of a polynomial F (x) = P (x) ± Q(x) is less than or
equal to max(m,n)
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2. The degree of a polynomial F (x) = P (x) × Q(x) is m + n
3. The degree of a polynomial F (x) = P (Q(x)) is m × n
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2.1 Division of Polynomials
Theorem 1: For two polynomials F (x) and P (x) ̸= 0, there exists a
pair of unique polynomials Q(x) and R(x) such that:
F (x) = P (x) × Q(x) + R(x)
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where the degree of R(x) < degree of P (x) or R(x) = 0.

Here Q(x) is called the Quotient, and R(x) is called the remainder.

Proof:
This has two parts: For two polynomials F (x) and P (x),
(a) Proving the existence of such pair of polynomials(quotient
remainder pair) that satisfying the conditions and...
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(b) Proving the uniqueness of this quotient remainder pair.

(a) For proving the existence:

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Let S = {s(x) : s(x) = F (x) − Q(x)P (x), for some Q(x)}
This is basically the set of all possible remainders without taking the
degree of them into regard.
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First we take the case that 0 ∈ S:
s(x) = 0 ⇒ F (x) = Q(x)P (x)
Now we let R(x) be the zero polynomial. From this we get:
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F (x) = Q(x)P (x) + R(x)
This essentially completes this case.

Now we consider the case that 0 ∈ / S. This implies that every

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polynomial in S has a whole number degree.
By the Well Ordering Principle applied to the degree of the
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polynomials in S, there is at least one polynomial R(x) ∈ S whose
degree is minimum among all other polynomials in S.
Thus we can write:
R(x) = F (x) − Q(x)P (x) for some Q(x)
⇒ F (x) = P (x)Q(x) + R(x) ...(1)
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But here we still have to prove that the deg[R(x)] < deg[P(x)]. We
shall do this by contradiction.

Assume that the degree of R(x) is higher or equal to the degree of

P (x).

Now we represent R(x) and P (x) in polynomial form.

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R(x) = am xm + am−1 xm−1 + · · · + a0
P (x) = bn xn + bn−1 xn−1 + · · · + b0
where R(x) is of degree m ≥ n, the degree of P (x) and am , bn ̸= 0.
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Now we look at an b−1
n x
m−n
P (x)
= am xm + an b−1 m −1
n bn−1 x − 1 + · · · + an bn b0 x
m−n
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After subtracting this from R(x), the leading coefficient cancels out.
Letting the result to be r(x) whose degree will be less than that of
R(x), we get:
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r(x) = R(x) − an b−1
n x
m−n
P (x)
−1 m−n
⇒ R(x) = r(x) + an bn x P (x)
Substituting this in the already proved (1):
⇒ F (x) = P (x)Q(x) + r(x) + an b−1
n x
m−n
P (x)
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⇒ F (x) = P (x)[Q(x) + an b−1
n x
m−n
] + r(x)
We get another Quotient remainder pair. But here r(x) is a
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remainder that has a degree lesser than that of R(x).

But this contradicts the statement of the Well-Ordered Principle,

that R(x) is the remainder with the smallest degree.
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This contradiction arises from our incorrect assumption that the

degree of R(x) is higher or equal to the degree of P (x).
Hence, this proves that the degree of R(x) is less than that of P (x)

Thus, this finally proves the existence of the Quotient Remainder

pair for two polynomials F (x) and P (x)
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(b) For proving the uniqueness:
This means that there is only one unique pair of Quotient and
Remainder for the two polynomials F (x) and P (x).
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For proving this, we will assume a second pair and prove that this
pair has to be equal to the original pair.
Suppose we have another pair as Q′ (x) and R′ (x)[degree less than
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deg(P (x))] satisfying the conditions of the division algorithm. Then
we have:
F (x) = P (x)Q′ (x) + R′ (x)
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Also we have the original pair.

F (x) = P (x)Q(x) + R(x)

Equating these:
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⇒ P (x)Q′ (x) + R′ (x) = P (x)Q(x) + R(x)
⇒ P (x)[Q(x) − Q′ (x)] = R′ (x) − R(x)
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Now using the property that for non-zero polynomials B(x) and
C(x): deg[A(x) = B(x) × C(x)] = deg[B(x)] + deg[C(x)]

Assuming that Q(x) − Q′ (x) is a non-zero polynomial,

deg(P (x)[Q(x)−Q′ (x)]) = deg[P (x)] + deg[Q(x)−Q′ (x)] > deg[P(x)]
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By equating to the equation above: deg(R′ (x) − R(x)) > deg(P (x))
But this is not possible as the degrees of both R′ (x) and R(x) are less
than the degree of P (x).
This contradiction arises from our incorrect assumption that
Q(x) − Q′ (x) is a non-zero polynomial. Hence, Q(x) = Q′ (x)
P (x)[Q(x) − Q′ (x)] = R′ (x) − R(x) ⇒ R′ (x) = R(x)
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As the second pair is identically equal to the first pair, we have proved
that only one unique pair of Quotient Remainder satisfies the division
algorithm for certain dividend and divisor.
Hence, Proved the theorem
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Some Points:
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ˆ Remainder and Quotient are found by Long division method of
polynomials.
ˆ If the dividend is divided by a divisor of degree 1 (linear
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polynomial), then the remainder obtained during division will
have a degree of 0 (constant polynomial). Similarly we can
extend to other degrees.
Example - 2x2 + 1 = (1 + x)(2x − 2) + 1
ˆ If we divide two integer polynomials, then the Quotient and
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Remainder are over Q. But if we divide two monic integer
polynomials, the Quotient and Remainder are over Z
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Example 2:
Divide (x2 + 1)(x + 1) by x2 + 2.
Sol: We have to divide x3 + x2 + x + 1 by x2 + 2. We will do this by
grouping the terms as follows:
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x3 + x2 + x + 1 = x3 + 2x − x + x2 + 2 − 1
= x(x2 + 2) − x + (x2 + 2) − 1
= (x + 1)(x2 + 2) − x − 1

Hence by dividing we get: Quotient = x + 1, Remainder = −x − 1

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3. Roots of a Polynomial
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Definition 2: A number (say α) is said to be a root of a polynomial
f (x) if when plugged in the polynomial it gives a result of 0 i.e
f (α) = 0. A root of a polynomial can also be called a zero of a
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polynomial.

3.1 Difference between a solution and a root.

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A solution is a value that satisfies a given equation. A solution is a
value for the polynomial (f (x)) such that it satisfies the following
equation:
f (x) = 0
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Now the main difference in a root and a solution is that a root is
defined for a polynomial and a solution is defined for a equation.
Also there can be roots which are equal but there can’t be solutions
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that are equal.

To show this, for the polynomial f (x) = x3 − 5x + 8x − 4, the roots

are 2, 2, 1, but the solutions of the equation f (x) = 0 are 2, 1.
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3.2 Remainder Theorem.

Theorem 2: If a polynomial f (x) is divided by x − a, then the
remainder is f (a).

Proof:
This proof is very straightforward, we use the division algorithm here.
Also, because our divisor is of degree 1, the remainder will be of degree
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0 i.e R(x) = c (constant).
So, now we divide f (x) by x − a:
f (x) = (x − a)Q(x) + c
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As we do not know the value of Q(x), we will try to remove it from
the equation. We can do this by replacing x as a:
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f (a) = 0 + c
Thus, we get: R(x) = c = f (a).
Hence, Proved the theorem.
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We can also extend this concept with divisors of higher degree. An
example to show this:
Example 3:
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Find the remainder when x3 + 4x2 + 3x + 9 is divided by x2 − 8x + 15.
Sol: The remainder can be of degree 1 at max. So lets assume it to
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be R(x) = ax + b where a, b are constants. Now Division Algorithm:
x3 + 4x2 + 3x + 9 = (x2 − 8x + 15)Q(x) + ax + b
We see that the roots of x2 − 8x + 15 are 3, 5, so plugging these in
the equation:
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x → 3 : 33 + 4(32 ) + 3(3) + 9 = 3a + b ⇒ 81 = 3a + b
x → 5 : 53 + 4(52 ) + 3(5) + 9 = 5a + b ⇒ 249 = 5a + b

On solving we get: a = 84, b = −171, so the remainder is

R(x) = 84x − 171
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3.3 Factor Theorem.
Theorem 3: A number a is a root of a polynomial f (x), iff x − a is a
factor of f (x).
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Proof:
Lets prove the forward direction first: As x − a is a factor of f (x), we
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get:
f (x) = (x − a)Q(x)
Plugging x → a, we get: f (a) = 0. So a is a root of f (x)
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Now proving the backward direction: As a is a root of f (x), we get
from the division algorithm:

f (x) = (x − a)Q(x) + c
x → a : f (a) = c
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As f (a) = 0 : c = 0 ⇒ f (x) = (x − a)Q(x)

So x − a is a factor of f (x)
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Hence, This completes the proof.

3.4 Polynomial in terms of its roots.

Theorem 4:
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Fundamental theorem of Arithmetic: Every polynomial

function of degree ≥ 1 over C has atleast one zero in the complex
number.

The proof of this theorem is very complex and not-important for

our discussion.
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Theorem 5: Every polynomial of degree n has exactly n complex
roots.
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Proof:
Let the given equation be as follows:
P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 (1)
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As this equation must have at least one root (say α1 ). So x − α1 is a
factor of P (x):
⇒ P (x) = (x − α1 )f1 (x)
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where f1 (x) is a polynomial of degree n − 1.
Similarly this polynomial should also have at least one root (say α2 ).
So:
⇒ f1 (x) = (x − α2 )f2 (x) ⇒ P (x) = (x − α1 )(x − α2 )f2 (x)
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where f2 (x) is a polynomial of degree n − 2.
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Continuing in this way we get n factors of P (x):
⇒ P (x) = (x − α1 )(x − α2 ) . . . (x − αn )fn (x)
Here fn (x) will be of degree n−n = 0, so we can take it as a constant,
say fn (x) = c.
⇒ P (x) = c(x − α1 )(x − α2 ) . . . (x − αn )
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Now comparing the first term of this with Eq (1).

We get c = an , So polynomial becomes:
P (x) = an (x − α1 )(x − α2 ) . . . (x − αn )
As n values, namely α1 , α2 , . . . , αn are the only values satisfy the
equation P (x) = 0, these are the only roots of the equation.
For any other value of x, P (x) never vanishes, so these are the only
roots.
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Hence there are exactly n roots for a n degree polynomial.
Hence, This completes the proof.
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Theorem 6:
Representation of a polynomial in terms of its roots:
Every polynomial p(x) has a unique representation in terms of its roots
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in the form of:
p(x) = k(x − α1 )(x − α2 ) . . . (x − αn )
where k is a constant.
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Proof:
In this previous proof, we proved the existence of the representation
of a polynomial in terms of its roots.
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Now we will prove the uniqueness of this representation:
Assume that there are another n roots also showing this
representation, (say β1 , β2 , . . . , βn ) which are not equal to the original
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ones.
⇒ p(x) = a(x − α1 )(x − α2 ) . . . (x − αn ) = b(x − β1 )(x − β2 ) . . . (x − βn )
Comparing the leading coefficients on both sides, we get a = b.
Now lets substitute a root α1 in the equation: Then the LHS = 0:
p(α1 ) = 0 = b(α1 − β1 )(α1 − β2 ) . . . (α1 − βn )
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For this to be true, one of βi , should be equal to α1 .

Similarly we can substitute every original root. On doing this, we

ultimately get that each β is equal to its corresponding α.
But this contradicts our assumption that these roots are not equal to
the original ones. Hence, the assumption is incorrect.
Thus, there is only one unique representation in terms of its roots
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Hence, This completes the proof.

3.5 Important Points, Theorems and Corollaries

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1. For a monic polynomial, the representation is as follows:
P (x) = (x − α1 )(x − α2 ) . . . (x − αn )
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2. Some roots of polynomial may repeat. The number of times a
particular root repeats for a polynomial is known as the
multiplicity of the root.
Note:
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a) Multiplicity is denoted by m where deg[P(x)] > m > 0 ∈ R.
b) A root with m = 1, is called a simple root and a root with
m ≥ 2 is called a repeated root.
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3. Theorem 7:
A polynomial over Q will always have imaginary roots occurring
in conjugate pairs.
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Proof:
Let a + ib be the imaginary root of polynomial f (x).
So f (a + ib) = 0
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Now dividing f (x) by [x − (a + ib)][x − (a − ib)]: remember the

remainder is linear!.
f (x) = [x − (a + ib)][x − (a − ib)]Q(x) + cx + d
Substituting x = a + ib in the equation:
f (a + ib) = 0 + c(a + ib) + d ⇒ 0 = (ca + d) + i(cb)
Equating real and imaginary parts on both sides:
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ca + d = 0 ; cb = 0
As b ̸= 0, as the root is imaginary, we get: c = 0 and hence, d = 0.
So Equation becomes:
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⇒ f (x) = [x − (a + ib)][x − (a − ib)]Q(x)
Now by factor theorem, we get that a − ib is also a root.
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Hence, conjugate (a − ib) of an imaginary number (a + ib) is also
a root of the polynomial.
Hence, This completes the proof.
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Corollary: Every odd degree polynomial over Q has at least one
Real Root.
5. Theorem 8:
A polynomial over Q will always have irrational roots occurring
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in conjugate pairs.
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6. Theorem 9:
If f (x) be a polynomial of degree n and α is any complex number,
there exists unique numbers: b0 , b1 , b2 , . . . , bn such that:
f (x) = b0 + b1 (x − α) + b2 (x − α)2 + · · · + bn (x − α)n (bn ̸= 0)
This can be proved using induction.
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Example 4:
Find the roots of the polynomial: 3x2 + 5x − 12.

Sol: We can factorize this:

3x2 + 5x − 12 = 3x2 + 9x − 4x − 12
= 3x(x + 3) − 4(x + 3)
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= (3x − 4)(x + 3) = 0

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So x = , −3 are the roots.
3
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Example 5:
Let f (x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + c be a polynomial such that
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f (1) = 0, f (2) = 0, and f (3) = 6.. Find the values of a, b and c.

Sol: We can directly substitute each value and get three linear
equations.
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x → 1; f (1) = 0 = 1 + a + b + c ⇒ a + b + c = −1
x → 2; f (2) = 0 = 8 + 4a + 2b + c ⇒ 4a + 2b + c = −8
x → 3; f (3) = 6 = 27 + 9a + 3b + c ⇒ 9a + 3b + c = −21
C
By solving we get: a = −3, b = 2, c = 0
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Example 6: Find the sum of the coefficients of the polynomial:
f (x) = (x − 2)(x2 + 5x − 9) + (x + 2)(x4 + 3x − 2)

Sol: Sum of all coefficient of a polynomial is given by f (1):

f (1) = (1 − 2)(1 + 5 − 9) + (1 + 2)(1 + 3 − 2) = 9
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Example 7: Find the monic rational polynomial of minimum degree

√
which has one of root as 5 + 2i.

Sol: For this, we would need to√take conjugate of the imaginary part
and the irrational
√ part.
√ So as √ 5 + 2i is a root, we also have other
roots as: 5 − 2i, − 5 + 2i, − 5 − 2i
As we need minimum degree monic rational polynomial, there will be
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no other roots and the leading coefficient will be 1.
√ √ √ √
f (x) = [x − ( 5 + 2i)][x − ( 5 − 2i)][x − (− 5 + 2i)][x − (− 5 − 2i)]
√ √ √ √
= [(x − 5) − 2i][(x − 5) + 2i][(x + 5) − 2i][(x + 5) + 2i]
√ √
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= [(x − 5)2 − 4(−1)][(x + 5)2 − 4(−1)]
√ √
= [x2 − 2x 5 + 5 + 4][x2 + 2x 5 + 5 + 4]
√ √
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= [(x2 + 9) − 2x 5][(x2 + 9) + 2x 5]
= [(x2 + 9)2 − 4x2 (5)] = x4 + 18x2 + 81 − 20x2 = x4 − 2x2 + 81
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3.6 identity Theorem
Theorem 10: If a polynomial f (x) of degree n vanishes for at least
n + 1 distinct values of x, then f (x) is identically equal to 0.
Proof:
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Let α1 , α2 , . . . , αn be n distinct values of x for which f (x) vanishes.
Then:
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f (x) = k(x − α1 )(x − α2 ) . . . (x − αn )
where k is a constant as f (x) is of degree n.
Now, as there is at least one more distinct value of x( say αn+1 ) for
which f (x) vanishes, we have:
f (αn+1 ) = 0 = k(αn+1 − α1 )(αn+1 − α2 ) . . . (αn+1 − αn )
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As αn+1 is not equal to any of α1 , α2 , . . . , αn , αn+1 − αi ̸= 0 for

i = 1, 2, . . . , n. Hence k = 0 ⇒ f (x) ≡ 0. So f (x) is identically equal
to 0.
Hence, Prooved.

Corollary: If polynomials p(x) and q(x) of degree n have atleast

n + 1 common solutions (say t) for which p(t) = q(t), then p(x) and
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q(x) are equivalent (equal) polynomials.

Proof:
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Let f (x) = p(x) − q(x). As deg[p(x), q(x)] = n ⇒ deg[f (x)] ≤ n.
But p(x) = q(x) for at least n + 1 values, so f (x) vanishes for at least
n + 1 values.
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Hence, f (x) ≡ 0 ⇒ p(x) = q(x). Hence Proved.

Corollary: The only periodic polynomial is a constant polynomial.

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Proof:
Let f (0) = c(constant), also let the period of f (x) be T .
So f (0) = f (T ) = f (2T ) = · · · = c.
Here we see that the polynomial f (x) − c vanishes for infinite values
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of x. Hence this should be identically 0.
⇒ f (x) − c ≡ 0 ⇒ f (x) = c. So f (x) is a constant polynomial.
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Hence Proved.

Example 8: If p(2) = g(2), p(3) = g(3) and p(−1) = g(−1) for two
polynomials p(x) = (a − 3b)2 x2 + (b − 2c)2 x + c2 + 4c − 4 and
g(x) = x2 − 3x + 2, then find the value a, b and c.
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Sol: We see that p(x) and g(x) both of degree 2 are equal at 2 + 1
values of x. So from our corollary, we have that these have too be
equal.
p(x) = g(x), ∀x
Also, we notice that p(1) = (a − 3b)2 + (b − 2c)2 + (c − 2)2 and g(1) = 0.

As p(1) = g(1) ⇒ (a − 3b)2 + (b − 2c)2 + (c − 2)2 = 0

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⇒ a = 3b, b = 2c, c = 2.
Hence we get a = 12, b = 4, c = 2 .

3.7 Rational Root Theorem

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p
Theorem 11: If the rational number , where q ̸= 0 and gcd(p, q) = 1
q
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(i.e., p and q are relatively prime), is a root of the equation

an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 = 0,

where a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , an ∈ Z and an ̸= 0, then p | a0 and q | an .

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Proof:
p
Suppose is a root of the polynomial and gcd(p, q) = 1. Then we get:
q
 n  n−1  
p p p
an + an−1 + · · · + a1 + a0 = 0.
C
q q q
Multiply both sides by q n to eliminate denominators:
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an pn + an−1 pn−1 q + · · · + a1 pq n−1 + a0 q n = 0

⇒ an pn = − an−1 pn−1 q + · · · + a1 pq n−1 + a0 q n

Now, the RHS is divisible by q, and hence LHS = an pn is divisible by

q. But gcd(p, q) = 1, so gcd(pn , q) = 1, and thus q | an .
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Similarly, from the same equation:

a0 q n = − an pn + an−1 pn−1 q + · · · + a1 pq n−1 ,

the RHS is divisible by p, so LHS = a0 q n is divisible by p. Since

gcd(p, q) = 1, we conclude that p | a0 .
Hence Proved.
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Corollary: Integer root Theorem: Every rational root of a
monic polynomial with integer coefficients is an integer and a
divisor of constant term coefficient.
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p
3
√ p
3
√
Example 9: If x = 2 + 5 + 2 − 5 is rational, then find this
rational value of x.
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Sol: We can create a polynomial from this equation. Cubing:
√ √ √ √ √ √
q q q q
3 3 3 3
3
x = 2 + 5 + 2 − 5 + 3( 2 + 5)( 2 − 5)( 2 + 5 + 2 − 5)
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√ √
q q
3 3
x3 = 4 + 3(4 − 5)( 2 + 5 + 2 − 5)
x3 = 4 + −3x
x3 + 3x − 4 = 0
C
Now we use the Integer root theorem as coefficient of x3 is 1. The
only possible rational roots can be ±4, ±2, ±1. Using factor theorem
to check these, we get:
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f (1) = 13 + 3 × 1 − 4 = 0
No other rational value except x = 1 satisfies f (x), so we get that:
√ √
q q
3 3
x= 2+ 5+ 2− 5=1
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3.8 Common Divisors of polynomial

For two non-zero polynomials f (x) and g(x), a polynomial h(x) ̸= 0
is called a common divisor of the two polynomials if it is a factor of
both the polynomials .i.e. h(x) | f (x) and h(x) | g(x).

Theorem 11: Existence of GCD and Bézout’s Theorem

Let f (x) and g(x) be any two non-zero polynomials. Then their greatest
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common divisor (gcd) exists and is unique.
And further if d(x) is the gcd, then there exist polynomials a(x) and
b(x) such that:
d(x) = a(x)f (x) + b(x)g(x).
Q
We wont be proving these.
M
Some Points:

1. Two polynomials are said to be co − prime if their common divisor

EX
is d(x) = 1.
2. If a is a root of both polynomials f (x) and g(x), then a is said to
be a common root of f (x) and g(x).
Also, α will be a root of p(x) = m(x)f (x) + n(x)g(x) ̸= 0 where
m(x), n(x) are any non-zero polynomials.
C
3. If h(x) = gcd(f (x), g(x)) has n roots, then these n roots are also
the common roots of f (x) and g(x).
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4. Theorem 12: If α is a root of multiplicity of m for the polynomial
f (x), then α is a root of multiplicity m−1 for the polynomial f ′ (x)
and hence α is a common root of f (x) and f ′ (x) if m ≥ 2.
Proof:
As α is a repeated root with a multiplicity m, we can write:
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f (x) = (x − α)m Q(x)

⇒f ′ (x) = (x − α)m Q′ (x) + (x − α)m−1 Q(x) (Chain Rule)
⇒f ′ (x) = (x − α)m−1 [(x − α)Q′ (x) + Q(x)]

So (x − α)m−1 | f ′ (m), and by factor theorem, α is a root of f ′ (x)

with a multiplicity m − 1.
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Example 10: If the equation x4 + ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0 has three
6c − ab
equal roots, show that each of them is equal to 2 .
3a − 8b
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Sol: Multiplicity of α in f (x) is 3. So using the above theorem:
α is a root of multiplicity 2 for f ′ (x) = 4x3 + 3ax2 + 2bx + c. And..
M
α is a root of multiplicity 1 for f ′′ (x) = 12x2 + 6ax + 2b.
So, α is a common root of f ′ (x) and f ′′ (x). So it will also be the root
of 3f ′ (x) − f ′′ (x):
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3f ′ (x) − f ′′ (x) = p(x) = 3ax2 + 4bx + 3c = 0

Now α be a root of a × p(x) − 4 × f ′′ (x) as p(α) = 0 and f ′′ (α) = 0.

a × p(x) − 4 × f ′′ (x) = q(x) = (16 − 6a2 )x + (12c − 2ab) = 0

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6c − ab
So finally we get that x = which is the required triple root.
3a2 − 8b
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Theorem 13: If f (x) is a polynomial with integer coefficients then
r − s | f (r) − f (s) where r, s ∈ N.
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Proof:
Let f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 where ai ∈ N.
⇒ f (r) − (s) = an (rn − sn ) + an−1 (rn−1 − sn−1 ) + · · · + a1 (r − s)
As r, s ∈ N, we know that r − s | rn − sn for n ∈ N. So the
r − s | RHS and hence r − s | f (r) − f (s).
Hence Proved.
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Corollary: If α is a root of f (x), then a − m | f (m) for a ̸= m ∈ N.

Example 11: If for the polynomial f (x) = (x2 − 1)Q(x) where Q(x)
Q
is a polynomial having integer coefficients and (x2 − 1) ∤ Q(x), we
have f (0) = 2048 and f (2) = 6231, then find all the roots of the
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polynomial f (x).

Sol: In this question we are not given enough information to find the
polynomial directly. So this question might involve some special case.
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We can clearly see that x = ±1 are roots of f (x). Let see if this
problem involves the possibility that there are no more roots of the
polynomial f (x) besides ±1.
C
We are also given, f (2) and f (0) from which we can get: q(0) = −2048
and q(2) = 2077 and it is given that q(x) is a integer polynomial.
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Now the constant term of q(x) will be q(0) = c = −2048.
Lets assume there exists at least one root of q(x) as α. By Integer
Root Theorem α will be even as α ̸= ±1 as (x2 − 1) ∤ Q(x) (Given)
and α | c = 212 .
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Using the above Corollary, we get: α − 2 | f (2) = 2077. But α − 2

will be even so this is a contradiction.
So our assumption that there exists at least one root of q(x).
So, f (x) has only +1, −1 as its roots.
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Q
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