CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

CEMENT:
Cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens and can bind other materials
together. Cements used in construction can be characterized as being either hydraulic or non-
hydraulic, depending upon the ability of the cement to be used in the presence of water. Non-
hydraulic cement will not set in wet conditions or underwater, rather it sets as it dries and reacts
with carbon dioxide in the air. It can be attacked by some aggressive chemicals after setting.
Hydraulic cement is made by replacing some of the cement in a mix with activated aluminum
silicates, pozzolana, such as fly ash. The chemical reaction results in hydrates that are not very
water-soluble and so are quite durable in water and safe from chemical attack. This allows
setting in wet condition or underwater and further protects the hardened material from chemical
attack (e.g., Portland cement).

Types of Cement and their uses:

(a) Ordinary Portland Cement.
i) 33 grade: IS 269-1989
ii) 43 grade: IS 8112-1989
iii) 55 grade: IS 12269-1987

(b) Rapid Hardening cement. (IS 8041-1990)

(c) Extra Rapid hardening cement. (d) Sulphate resisting cement. (Is 12330-1988)
(e) Portland slag cement (IS 455-1989) (f) Quick setting cement.
(g) Super sulphate cement. (IS 6909-1990) (h) Low heat cement. (IS 12600-1989)
(i) Portland Pozzolana Cement. (IS 1489- 1991) (j) Air Entraining cement.
(k) Colored cement/ White cement. (IS 8042-1989) (l) Hydrophobic cement. (IS 8043-1991)
(m) Expansive cement. (n) High Alumina cement. (IS 6452-1989)
(o) Oil well cement (IS 8229-1986)

ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT (OPC):-

Portland cement is an extremely ground material having adhesive and cohesive properties, which
provide a binding medium for the discrete ingredients. It is obtained by burning together, in a
definite proportion, a mixture of naturally occurring argillaceous (containing alumina) and
calcareous (containing calcium carbonate or lime) materials to a partial fusion at high
temperature (about 1450°C). The product obtained on burning, called clinker or nodules (5 to 25
mm diameter), is cooled and ground to the required fineness to produce a material known as
cement. Its inventor, Joseph Aspdin, called it Portland cement because when hardened, it
produced a material resembling stone from the quarries near Portland in England. During the
grinding of clinker, gypsum or plaster of Paris (CaSO4) is added to adjust the setting time. The
amount of gypsum is about three per cent by weight of clinker. It also improves the soundness of
cement.
Ordinary Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general use around the world.
This cement is made by heating limestone (calcium carbonate) with small quantities of other
materials (such as clay) to 1450°C in a kiln, in a process known as calcinations, whereby a
molecule of carbon dioxide is liberated from the calcium carbonate to form calcium oxide, or
quicklime, which is then blended with the other materials that have been included in the mix.
The resulting hard substance, called 'clinker', is then ground with a small amount of gypsum into
a powder to make 'Ordinary Portland Cement'(often referred to as OPC). Portland cement is a
basic ingredient of concrete, mortar and most non-specialty grout. The most common use for
Portland cement is in the production of concrete. Concrete is a composite material consisting of
aggregate (gravel and sand), cement, and water. As a construction material, concrete can be cast
in almost any shape desired, and once hardened, can become a structural (load bearing) element.
Portland cement may be grey or white.
• Cement mortar for Masonry work, plaster and pointing etc.
• Concrete for laying floors, roofs and constructing lintels, beams, weather- shed,
stairs, pillars etc.
• Construction of water, wells, tennis courts, septic tanks, lamp posts, telephone cabins etc.
• Making joint for joints, pipes, etc.
• Manufacturing of precast pipes, garden seats, flower posts, etc.
• Preparation of foundation, water tight floors, footpaths, etc.

Rapid-hardening Portland cement

This cement is similar to OPC but with higher C3S content and finer grinding. A higher fineness
of cement particles provides greater surface area (not less than 325000 mm2/g) for action with
water. It gains strength more quickly than OPC, though the final strength is only slightly higher.
The one-day strength of this cement is equal to the three- day strength of 33-grade OPC with the
same water-cement ratio. This cement is used where a rapid strength development is required.
The rapid gain of strength is accompanied by a higher rate of heat development during the
hydration of cement. This may have advantages in cold weather concreting, but a higher concrete
temperature may lead to cracking due to subsequent thermal contraction, and hence should not
be used in mass concreting or thick structural sections. The composition, fineness and other
properties are governed by IS: 8041-1990. It is only about 10 per cent costlier than OPC. It is
recommended for prefabricated concrete construction, road repairs and in applications requiring
early stripping of forms.

Extra rapid hardening cement:

It is obtained by intergrinding calcium chloride with rapid hardening Portland cement. The
normal addition of calcium chloride should not exceed 2 per cent by weight of the rapid
hardening cement. It is necessary that the concrete made by using extra rapid hardening cement
should be transported, placed and compacted and finished within about 20 minutes. It is also
necessary that this cement should not be stored for more than a month. Extra rapid hardening
cement accelerates the setting and hardening process. A large quantity of heat is evolved in a
very short time after placing.
Sulfate-resisting cement:
A Portland cement with low C3A (less than five per cent) and C4AF contents is very effective
against sulfate attack. Such a cement having high silicate content is called sulfate-resisting
cement.
The use of sulfate resisting cement is recommended for concretes to be used in the marine
environment, foundations in chemically aggressive soils, for pipes to be buried in marshy
regions or sulfate bearing soils, and construction of sewage treatment plants.

Portland slag cement:

Portland slag cement is obtained by mixing Portland cement clinker, gypsum and granulated
blast furnace slag in suitable proportions and grinding the mixture to get a, thorough and intimate
mixture between the constituents. It may also be manufactured by separately grinding Portland
cement clinker, gypsum and ground granulated blast furnace slag and later mixing them
intimately. The resultant product is a cement which has physical properties similar to those of
ordinary Portland cement. In addition, it has low heat of hydration and is relatively better
resistant to chlorides, soils and water containing excessive amount of sulphates or alkali metals,
alumina and iron, as well as, to acidic waters, and therefore, this can be used for marine works
with advantage.
Portland slag cement exhibits very low diffusivity to chloride ions and such slag cement
gives better resistance to corrosion of steel reinforcement. Therefore, it is a preferred cement
for construction of underground raff for tall buildings in coastal region like Mumbai etc.

Quick setting cement:

This cement as the name indicates sets very early. The early setting property is brought
out by reducing the gypsum content at the time of clinker grinding. This cement is required
to be mixed, placed and compacted very early. It is used mostly in under water construction
where pumping is involved. Use of quick setting cement in such conditions reduces the
pumping time and makes it economical. Quick setting cement may also find its use in some
typical grouting operations.

Low-heat Portland cement

This cement is less reactive than OPC and is obtained by increasing the proportion of C2S and
reducing C3S and C3A. This reduction in the content of more rapidly hydrating compounds C3S
and CA results in a slow development of strength but the ultimate strength is the same. In any
case, to ensure a sufficient rate of development of strength, the specific surface of cement must
not be less than 320000 mm-/g. The initial setting time is greater than OPC. The properties and
composition are governed by IS: 12600-1989. This cement is recommended for the use in mass
concrete construction such as dams where temperature rise by heat of hydration can become
excessive.
Super sulphated cement:
Super sulphated cement is manufactured by grinding together a mixture of 80-85 per
cent granulated slag, 10-15 per cent hard burnt gypsum, and about 5 per cent Portland
cement clinker. The product is ground finer than that of Portland cement. Specific surface must
not be less than 4000 cm2 per gm. The super-sulphated cement is extensively used in Belgium,
where it is known as "ciment metallurgique sursulfate." In France, it is known as "ciment
sursulfate"
This cement is rather more sensitive to deterioration during storage than Portland cement.
Super-sulphated cement has a low heat of hydration of about 40-45 calories/gm at 7 days and
45-50 at 28 days. This cement has high sulphate resistance. Because of this property this
cement is particularly recommended for use in foundation, where chemically aggressive
conditions exist. As super-sulphated cement has more resistance than Portland blast furnace
slag cement to attack by sea water, it is also used in the marine works. Other areas where
super-sulphated cement is recommended include the fabrication of reinforced concrete pipes
which are likely to be buried in sulphate bearing soils. The substitution of granulated slag is
responsible for better resistance to sulphate attack.
Super-sulphated cement, like high alumina cement, combines with more water on hydration than
Portland cements. Wet curing for not less than 3 days after casting is essential as the premature
drying out results in an undesirable or powdery surface layer. When we use super sulphated
cement the water/cement ratio should not be less than 0.5. A mix leaner than about 1:6 is also not
recommended.

Portland Pozzolana cement (PPC):

Portland Pozzolana cement (PPC) is manufactured by the intergrinding of OPC clinker
with 10 to 25 per cent of pozzolanic material (as per the latest amendment, it is 15 to 35%).
A pozzolanic material is essentially a silicious or aluminous material which while in itself
possessing no cementitious properties, which will, in finely divided form and in the presence
of water, react with calcium hydroxide, liberated in the hydration process, at ordinary
temperature, to form compounds possessing cementitious properties. The pozzolanic materials
generally used for manufacture of PPC are calcined clay (IS 1489 part 2 of 1991) or fly ash
(IS 1489 part I of 1991). Fly ash is a waste material, generated in the thermal power station,
when powdered coal is used as a fuel. These are collected in the electrostatic precipitator. (It
is called pulverised fuel ash in UK).

Portland pozzolana cement produces less heat of hydration and offers greater resistance
to the attack of aggressive waters than ordinary Portland cement. Moreover, it reduces the
leaching of calcium hydroxide when used in hydraulic structures. It is particularly useful in
marine and hydraulic construction and other mass concrete constructions. Portland pozzolana
cement can generally be used where ordinary Portland cement is usable. However, it is
important to appreciate that the addition of pozzolana does not contribute to the strength at
early ages. Strengths similar to those of ordinary Portland cement can be expected in general
only at later ages provided the concrete is cured under moist conditions for a sufficient period.
In India there is apprehension in the minds of the user to use the Portland pozzolana cement
for structural works. It can be said that this fear is not justified. If the Portland pozzolana cement
is manufactured by using the right type of reactive pozzolanic material, the Portland pozzolanic
cement will not be in any way inferior to ordinary Portland cement except for the rate of
development of strength upto 7 days. It is only when inferior pozzolanic materials, which are
not of reactive type and which do not satisfy the specifications limit for pozzolanic materials,
are used the cement would be of doubtful quality. The advantages of PPC can be summerised
as follows.

Technically PPC has considerable advantages over OPC when made by using optimum
percentage of right quality of fly ash.?

Advantages of PPC

(a) In PPC, costly clinker is replaced by Chimney cheaper pozzolanic material – Hence
economical.
(b| Soluble calcium hydroxide is converted Aspiration into insoluble cementitious products
resulting in improvement of permeability, Precipitators Hence it offers, around durability
characteristics, particularly in hydraulic structures and marine construction.
(c) PPC consumes calcium hydroxide and does not produce calcium hydroxide as Fly ash
much as that of OPC.
(d) It generates reduced heat of hydration and that too at a low rate.
(e) PPC being finer than OPC and also due Combustion zone to pozzolanic action, it improves
the pore size distribution and also reduces the microcracks at the transition zone.
(f) Reduction in permeability of PPC offers many other around advantages.
(g) As the fly ash is finer and of lower density, the bulk volume of 50 kg bag is slightly more
than OPC. Therefore, PPC gives more volume of mortar than OPC.
(h) The long term strength of PPC beyond a couple of months is higher than OPC if
enough moisture is available for continued pozzolanic action.

Air-entraining cement:
This cement is manufactured by mixing small quantity of air-entraining agent like alkali salts of
wood resins; synthetic detergents of alkyl-aryl sulfate type and calcium lignosulfate with
ordinary Portland cement. These agents in powder or in liquid forms are added to the extent of
0.025 to 0.100 per cent by weight of OPC cement clinker at the time of grinding. At the time of
mixing, these cements produce tiny, discrete non- coalescing air bubbles in the concrete mass
which enhances workability and reduces tendency to segregation and bleeding.

Colored Portland cement:

These are basically Portland cements to which pigments are added in quantities up to 10 per cent
during the process of grinding the cement clinker. A good pigment should be permanent, i.e.,
color should be durable under exposure to light and weather, and chemically inert when mixed
with cement. For lighter colors, white cement has to be used as basis.
Hydrophobic cement:

This type of cement is obtained by adding water repellant film forming substances like stearic
acid, boric acid, oleic acid and pentachlorophenol to OPC during grinding of cement clinker.
These acids form a film around the cement particles, which prevent the entry of atmospheric
moisture, and the film breaks down when the concrete is mixed, and then the normal hydration
takes place. The film forming materials also entrain certain amount of air in the body of concrete
which improves its workability. Its composition and properties are governed by IS: 8043-1991.
This cement is useful for the places having high humidity, poor transportation system and
perforce storage for long time. In such situations, OPC gets deteriorated and loses significant part
of its strength.

Expansive cement:

Expansive cement Cement which does not shrink while hardening and thereafter, but expands
slightly with time is called expansive cement. This cement does not suffer any overall change in
volume on drying. Expansive cement is obtained by mixing about 8 to 20 parts of the
sulfoaluminate clinker with 100 parts of the OPC and 15 parts of the stabilizer. In one type of
expansive cement called shrinkage compensating cement, the restraint to the expansion induces
compressive stress which approximately offsets the tensile stress induced by shrinkage. In
another type called self-stressing cement, the concrete induces significant compressive stresses
after the occurrence of drying shrinkage. In addition to neutralizing the shrinkage, they provide
prestressing effects in the tensile zone of a flexural member. This cement is commonly used for
grouting anchor bolts or grouting machine foundations or prestressed concrete ducts wherein
drying shrinkage may otherwise defeat the purpose of grout.

Oil-well cement:

The annular space between steel casting and sedimentary rock formation through which oil well
has been drilled, is sealed off by cement slurry to prevent escape of oil or gas. The cement slurry
also seals off any other fissure or cavities in the rock layer. For this purpose, cement slurry has to
be pumped down to points located in the annulus around the casting, at considerable depth where
prevailing temperature may be as high as 350 °C under pressure up to 150 MPa. The slurry used
for this purpose must remain mobile to be able to flow under these conditions for periods up to
several hours and then harden fairly rapidly to give sufficient strength to support the casting. It
may also have to resist corrosive conditions from sulfur gases and water containing dissolved
salts. The type of cement suitable for above conditions is called oil-well cement. The cement
produced by inter-grinding Portland cement clinker, fly ash, gypsum and certain admixtures
(retarders) in suitable proportions has been found to conform to the requirements of an oil-well
cement. These retarders prevent quick setting and retain slurry in mobile condition to facilitate
penetration to all fissures and cavities. The composition and properties are governed by IS: 8229-
1986.
Very High Strength Cements:

The cements of this category can be obtained by improving particle packing density and
microstructure of cement pastes as follows.
1. Removing entrapped air
In the conventionally mixed cement paste relatively large voids or defects are usually present due
to entrapped air which limit the strength. In one of the systems, water soluble polymer is added
as a rheological aid to permit cement to be mixed with a very small amount of water and at final
processing stage entrapped air is removed by application of modest pressure of 5 MPa. This
process has resulted in a strength of 300 MPa for calcium aluminate system and 150 MP for
OPC. This system is called macro-defect free cement.
2. Providing densely packed system
OPC and ultra fine silica fume (5 to 20

Chemical constituents of cement:-

These are the different constituents which combine to make cement. These are their percentage
content in order to give good cement.

Oxide Per cent content

CaO 60–65
SiO2 17–25
Al2O3 3.5–9.0
Fe2O3 0.5–6.0
MgO 0.5–4.0
Alkalies(K2O,Na2O) 0.5–1.3
SO3 1.0–2.0

Manufacturing of Portland Cement:

The processes used for the manufacture of cement can be classified as dry and wet. When the
basic raw material is rock, it is transported to a large gyratory, or jaw crusher for primary
reduction in size (to about 150 mm). It then passes through a smaller crusher or hammer mill
where further reduction takes place to a 40 mm size aggregate, and from there it goes to a
rock storage or stacker. From the stacker, the crushed rock is fed to a vertical ball mill
along with clay or crushed shale. In the wet process, water is added at this point to
obtain a blended mixture of very finely ground raw materials and water, called shurry:
The slurry is stored in tanks under constant agitation and fed into huge firebrick-lined
rotary kilns. In the dry process, the raw powdered materials (also called raw meal) which are
mixed, and homogenized pass through a series of sophisticated precalcining systems with each
system consisting of separate strings of five or six-stage precalcining units and fed to the kiln in
the dry state. In the recent past, economical, efficient and environmental friendly dry process of
cement manufacturing has replaced the more power-oriented wet process. In the recent years,
significant advancements have been made in raw material grinding, pyro-processing, controlled
clinker cooling, cement grinding and packing technologies with advanced process control and
instrumentation system. The coal consumption in the dry process is approximately one-fourth of
that in the wet process. Typically, the total consumption of coal in the dry process is 100 kg as
against 350 kg in the wet process for producing a tonne of cement.

The composition of Portland cement is rather complicated but basically it consists of

the following four main compounds:
Tricalcium silicate (C3S), 3CaO-SiO2 (alite)
Dicalcium silicate (C2S), 2CaO-SiO2 (belite)
Tricalcium aluminate (C3A), 3 CaO-Al2O3 (aluminate)
Tetracalcium alumino ferrite (C4AF), 4CaO• Al2O3, Fe2O3 (ferrite)

Compound composition of ordinary Portland cement

Compound Percentage by mass in cement
C3 S 25-50
C2 S 20 45
C3 A 5-12
C4AF 6-12

Basic Properties of Cement Compounds:

The two silicates, namely C3S and C2S, which together constitute about 70 to 80 per cent of the
cement, control the most of the strength-giving properties. Upon hydration, both C3S and C2S
give the same product called calcium silicate hydrate (C3S2H3) and calcium hydroxide.
Tricalcium silicate (C3S) having a faster rate of reaction accompanied by greater heat evolution
develops early strength. On the other hand, dicalcium silicate (C2S) hydrates and hardens slowly
and provides much of the ultimate strength. It is likely that both C3S and C2S phases contribute
equally to the eventual strength of the cement. C3S and C2S need approximately 24 and 21 per
cent water by weight, respectively, for chemical reaction but C3S liberates nearly three times as
much calcium hydroxide on hydration as C2S. However, C2S provides more resistance to
chemical attack. Thus, a higher percentage of C3S results in rapid hardening with an early gain in
strength at a higher heat of hydration. On the other hand, a higher percentage of C2S results in
slow hardening, less heat of hydration and greater resistance to chemical
attack.
The compound tricalciumaluminate (C3A) is characteristically fast-reacting with water and
may lead to an immediate stiffening of paste, and this process is termed as flashset. The role
of gypsum added in the manufacture of cement is to prevent such a fast reaction. C3A reacts with
40 per cent water by mass, and this is more than that required for silicates. However, since the
amount of C3A in cement is comparatively small, the net water required for the hydration of
cement is not substantially affected. It provides weak resistance against sulfate attack and its
contribution to the development of strength of cement is perhaps less significant than that of
silicates. In addition, the C3A phase is responsible for the highest heat of evolution, both during
the initial period as well as in the long run. Like C3A, C4AF hydrates rapidly bur its individual
contribution to the overal strength of cement is insignificant. However, it is more stable than
C3A.
In terms of oxide composition, a high lime content generally increases the setting time and
results in higher strengths. A decrease in lime content reduces the strength of concrete. A
high silica content prolongs the setting time and gives more strength. The presence of
excess unburnt lime is harmful since it results in delayed hydration causing expansion
(unsoundness) and deterioration of concrete. Iron oxide is not a very active constituent of
cement, and generally acts as a catalyst and helps the burning process. Owing to the
presence of iron oxide the cement derives the characteristic gray color. Magnesia, if present
in larger quantities, causes unsoundness.

Hydration of Cement:-
The chemical reaction between cement and water in a proportioning mix is called as hydration of
cement. It may be in concrete mix or in the making of mortar in the field work.
The reaction of cement with water is exothermic. The reaction liberates a considerable
quantity of heat. This liberation of heat is called heat of hydration.

SETTING OF CEMENT:-
The action of changing mixed cement from a fluid state to a solid state is called setting of cement
andtime required for it to set is called setting time of cement. Setting time of cement is same as
settingtime of concrete.
When cement mixed with water forms paste which gradually becomes less plastic, and finally a
hard mass is obtained. In this process of setting, a stage is reached when the cement paste is
sufficiently rigid to withstand a definite amount of pressure. The time to reach this stage is
termed as setting time. The time is reckoned from the instant when water is added to the cement.
The setting time is divided into two parts, namely, the initial and the final set-
ting times.

1. Initial Setting Time

Initial Setting Time is defined as the period elapsing between the time when water is added to the
cement and the time at which the needle of 1 mm square section fails to pierce the test block to a
depth of about 5 mm from the bottom of the mould. A period of 30 minutes is the minimum
initial setting time, specified by ISI for ordinary and rapid hardening Portland cements and 60
minutes for low heat cement.

2. Final Setting Time

Final Setting Time is defined as the period elapsing between the time when water is added to
cement and the time at which the needle of 1 mm square section with 5 mm diameter attachment
makes an impression on the test block. 600 minutes is the maximum time specified for the final
set for all the above-mentioned Portland cement. IS: 269-1976 specifies the strengths in
compression on the standard mortar-cube.
STRUCTURE OF HYDRATED CEMENT:-
The desirable engineering characteristics of hardened concrete —strength, dimensional stability,
and durability —are influenced not only by the proportion but also by the properties of the
hydrated cement paste, which, in turn, depend on the micro-structural features (i.e., the type,
amount, and distribution of solids and voids).
Fresh cement paste is a plastic network of particles of cement in water but, once the cement paste
has set, its apparent or gross volume remains approximately constant.
At any stage of hydration, the hardened paste consists of hydrates of the various compounds,
referred to collectively as gel, crystals of Ca(OH)2, some minor components, un hydrated cement
and the residue of water-filled spaces in the fresh paste.

VARIOUS TESTS ON CEMENT:

Basically two types of tests are under taken for assessing the quality of cement. These are either
field test or lab tests. The current section describes these tests in details.
Field test:
There are four field tests may be carried out to as certain roughly the quality of cement. There
are four types of field tests to access the colour, physical property, and strength of the cement as
described below.

Colour:

• The colour of cement should be uniform.

• It should be typical cement colour i.e. grey colour with a light greenish shade.
Physical properties:
• Cement should feel smooth when touched between fingers.
• If hand is inserted in a bag or heap of cement, it should feel cool.
Presence of lumps:
• Cement should be free from lumps.
• For a moisture content of about 5 to 8%, this increase of volume may be much as 20 to 40 %,
depending upon the grading of sand.

Strength:

• A thick paste of cement with water is made on a piece of thick glass and it is kept under water
for 24 hours. It should set and not crack.
Physical properties:
• Cement should feel smooth when touched between fingers.
• If hand is inserted in a bag or heap of cement, it should feel cool.

Presence of lumps:

• Cement should be free from lumps.

• For a moisture content of about 5 to 8%, this increases of volume may be much as 20 to 40 %,
depending upon the grading of sand.

Laboratory tests:

Six laboratory tests are conducted mainly for assessing the quality of cement. These are:
fineness, compressive strength, consistency, setting time, soundness and tensile strength.

Fineness:
(The fineness of a cement is a measure of the size of particles of cement and is expressed in
terms of specific surface of cement. It can be calculated from particle size distribution or
one of the air permeability methods. It is an important factor in determining the rate of
gain of strength and uniformity of quality.)

• This test is carried out to check proper grinding of cement.

• The fineness of cement particles may be determined either by sieve test or permeability
apparatus test.
• In sieve test, the cement weighing 100 gm is taken and it is continuously passed for 15 minutes
through standard BIS sieve no. 9 the residue is then weighed and this weight should not be
more than 10% of original weight.
• In permeability apparatus test, specific area of cement particles is calculated. This test is better
than sieve test. The specific surface acts as a measure of the frequency of particles of average
size.

Compressive strength:

• This test is carried out to determine the compressive strength of cement.

• The mortar of cement and sand is prepared in ratio 1:3.
• Water is added to mortar in water cement ratio 0.4.
• The mortar is placed in moulds. The test specimens are in the form of cubes and the moulds are
of metals. For 70.6 mm and 76 mm cubes, the cement required is 185gm and 235 gm
respectively.
• Then the mortar is compacted in vibrating machine for 2 minutes and the moulds are placed in
a damp cabin for 24 hours.
• The specimens are removed from the moulds and they are submerged in clean water for curing.
• The cubes are then tested in compression testing machine at the end of 3days and 7 days. Thus
compressive strength was found out.

Consistency:-

• The purpose of this test is to determine the percentage of water required for preparing cement
pastes for other tests.
• Take 300 gm of cement and add 30 percent by weight or 90 gm of water to it.
• Mix water and cement thoroughly.
• Fill the mould of Vicat apparatus and the gauging time should be 3.75 to 4.25 minutes.
• Vicat apparatus consists of a needle is attached a movable rod with an indicator attached to it.
• There are three attachments: square needle, plunger and needle with annular collar.
• The plunger is attached to the movable rod. The plunger is gently lowered on the paste in the
mould.
• The settlement of plunger is noted. If the penetration is between 5 mm to 7 mm from the
bottom
of mould, the water added is correct. If not process is repeated with different percentages of
water till the desired penetration is obtained.

Setting time:

• This test is used to detect the deterioration of cement due to storage. The test is performed to
find out initial setting time and final setting time.
• Cement mixed with water and cement paste is filled in the Vicat mould.
• Square needle is attached to moving rod of Vicat apparatus.
• The needle is quickly released and it is allowed to penetrate the cement paste. In the beginning
the needle penetrates completely. The procedure is repeated at regular intervals till the needle
does not penetrate completely.(up to 5mm from bottom)
• Initial setting time =<30min for ordinary Portland cement and 60 min for low heat cement.
• The cement paste is prepared as above and it is filled in the Vicat mould.
• The needle with annular collar is attached to the moving rod of the Vicat apparatus.
• The needle is gently released. The time at which the needle makes an impression on test block
and the collar fails to do so is noted.
• Final setting time is the difference between the time at which water was added to cement and
time as recorded in previous step, and it is =<10hours.
Soundness:

• The purpose of this test is to detect the presence of uncombined lime in the cement.
• the chief tests forv the soundness are the Le Chatelier and Autoclave Tests.
• The cement paste is prepared.
• The mould is placed and it is filled by cement paste.
• It is covered at top by another glass plate. A small weight is placed at top and the whole
assembly is submerged in water for 24 hours.
• The distance between the points of indicator is noted. The mould is again placed in water and
heat is applied in such a way that boiling point of water is reached in about 30 minutes. The
boiling of water is continued for one hour.
• The mould is removed from water and it is allowed to cool down.
• The distance between the points of indicator is again measured. The difference between the
two readings indicates the expansion of cement and it should not exceed 10 mm.

Tensile strength:

• This test was formerly used to have an indirect indication of compressive strength of cement.
• The mortar of sand and cement is prepared.
• The water is added to the mortar.
• The mortar is placed in briquette moulds. The mould is filled with mortar and then a small heap
of mortar is formed at its top. It is beaten down by a standard spatula till water appears on the
surface. Same procedure is repeated for the other face of briquette.
• The briquettes are kept in a damp for 24 hours and carefully removed from the moulds.
• The briquettes
ADMIXTURE:

Admixture is a compound which is used in order to increase or decrease the initial and final
setting time of cement.

Admixture and its types:

Chemical admixtures are the ingredients in concrete other than Portland cement, water, and
aggregate those are added to the mix immediately before or during mixing. Producers use
admixtures primarily to reduce the cost of concrete construction; to modify the properties of
hardened concrete; to ensure the quality of concrete during mixing, transporting, placing, and
curing; and to overcome certain emergencies during concrete operations.

It is of various types-

Water-reducing admixtures usually reduce the required water content for a concrete mixture
by about 5 to 10 percent. Consequently, concrete containing a water-reducing admixture needs
less water to reach a required slump than untreated concrete. The treated concrete can have a
lower water-cement ratio.
This usually indicates that a higher strength concrete can be produced without increasing the
amount of cement. Recent advancements in admixture technology have led to the development
of mid-range water reducers. These admixtures reduce water content by at least 8 percent and
tend to be more stable over a wider range of temperatures. Mid-range water reducers provide
more consistent setting times than standard water reducers.

Retarding admixtures, which slow the setting rate of concrete, are used to counteract the
accelerating effect of hot weather on concrete setting. High temperatures often cause an
increased rate of hardening which makes placing and finishing difficult. Retarders keep concrete
workable during placement and delay the initial set of concrete. Most retarders also function as
water reducers and may entrain some air in concrete.

Accelerating admixtures increase the rate of early strength development; reduce the time
required for proper curing and protection, and speed up the start of finishing operations.
Accelerating admixtures are especially useful for modifying the properties of concrete in cold
weather.
Super plasticizers, also known as plasticizers or high-range water reducers (HRWR), reduce
water content by 12 to 30 percent and can be added to concrete with a low-to-normal slump and
water cement ratio to make high-slump flowing concrete. Flowing concrete is a highly fluid but
workable concrete that can be placed with little or no vibration or compaction. The effect of
super plasticizers lasts only 30 to 60 minutes, depending on the brand and dosage rate, and is
followed by a rapid loss in workability. As a result of the slump loss, super plasticizers are
usually added to concrete at the jobsite.
Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures fall into the specialty admixture category and are used to slow
corrosion of reinforcing steel in concrete. Corrosion inhibitors can be used as a defensive
strategy for concrete structures, such as marine facilities, highway bridges, and parking garages,
that will be exposed to high concentrations of chloride. Other specialty admixtures include
shrinkage-reducing admixtures and alkali-silica reactivity inhibitors. The shrinkage reducers are
used to control drying shrinkage and minimize cracking, while ASR inhibitors control durability
problems associated with alkali-silica reactivity.

DOSASES:-

Super plasticizers are commonly known as High Range Water Reducers because it permits low
water cement ratio as well as the workability also affected. In very recent decades, super
plasticizers creates milestone in the advancement of chemical admixtures for Portland cement
concrete.
The dramatic effect of super plasticizer (SP) on properties of fresh and hardened concrete has
studied and the properties of concrete inspected are compressive strength and slump test. To
determine the optimum dosage for the admixture, an experimental investigation conducted and
the effect of over dosage of the SP admixture experimented, together with one control mixed.
The viscosity of grout and hence the workability of concrete influenced by the dosage of super
plasticizer. From dosages of admixture, the difference between concrete mixes comes, which
used at amounts 400 ml/100 kg, 600 ml/100 kg, 800 ml/100 kg, 1000 ml/100 kg and 1200
ml/100 kg of cement were prepared. By dosage 1.0% of SP, compressive strength is improved
and after 28 days curing it is 57 N/mm2 , which is higher than that of control specimen.

Factors governing the selection of a cement factory:

(1) Climatic conditions:

The site for cement factory should be selected in such a way that its climatic conditions are
favourable for the manufacturing process of cement.

(2) Labour:
The site should be such that it is possible to procure the required labour easily and economically.

(3) Market:

The site for cement factory should be, as far as possible, near to the market of sale. This will
decrease the cost of transport and minimize the chances of spoiling the cement during transport.

(4) Power:

Thea availability of power and fuel at economic rates should also be considered.

(5) Raw materials:

These should be available easily and continuously around the area of site under consideration.
(6) Transport facilities:

The site for a cement factory transport facilities are available for raw materials and finished
products,

(7) Miscellaneous:

It is necessary to have parks, gardens, recreation centres. etc. near the site for a cement factory,
Such arrangements would be helpful for giving relaxation to the officers and workers of the
factory.
It may be mentioned that the above conditions are meant for an ideal site for cement factory. It is
difficult, if not impossible, to obtain such a site in practice. It therefore becomes necessary to select
a site which satisfies most of the conditions mentioned above.

Precautions to be taken in storing the cement:

• Do not stack the cement bags directly on the floors. They shall be placed on the
dry wooden planks, which should be clear above the floor by 150 mm to 200 mm.
• Maintain a minimum all-round space of 450 mm between the bags and the
external walls. A 150mm, maintain sufficient all-round space between two
adjacent stacks for proper movement.
• Place the cement bags in a stack close together so as to minimize the air
circulation
• Restrict the height of a stack to maximum 15 bags so as to prevent the possibility
of lumping up under pressure.
• Restrict the width of a stack preferably to 4 bags or 3 or meter or whichever is
less.
• For the height of a stack more than that of 8 bags, place the bags lengthwise and
widthwise in an alternate layer so as to minimize the danger of toppling over
• Stack the cement bags in a manner so as to facilitate their removal in the order in
which they are received
• For storing the cement bags for a longer period or during monsoon, cover each
stack with a waterproof sheathing
• Store different types of cement in different stacks.
• Number of bags stored on site should be such so as to be consumed on the same
day.
• If more than 8 bags are to be put in a stack, then they should be arranged
alternately as header and stretcher.
• Due to the weight on the lower layer of hags, the cement becomes somewhat hard
which is known as the warehouse pack. This can be removed by rolling the bags
when cement is taken out.
AGGREGATE:

Aggregates are defined as inert, granular, and inorganic materials that normally consist of stone
or stone -like solids. Aggregates can be used alone (in road bases and various types of fill) or can
be used with cementing materials (such as Portland cement or asphalt cement) to form composite
materials or concrete.

Classification of aggregates based on: Grain Size

If you separate aggregates by size, there are two overriding categories:

• Fine aggregates
 Coarse aggregates
The size of fine aggregates is defined as 4.75mm or smaller. That is, aggregates which can be
passed through a number 4 sieve, with a mesh size of 4.75mm. Fine aggregates include things
such as sand, silt and clay. Crushed stone and crushed gravel might also fall under this category.
Typically, fine aggregates are used to improve workability of a concrete mix.
Coarse aggregates measure above the 4.75mm limit. These are more likely to be natural stone or
gravel that has not been crushed or processed. These aggregates will reduce the amount of water
needed for a concrete mix, which may also reduce workability but improve its innate strength.

Classification of aggregates based on: Density

There are three weight-based variations of aggregates:

 Lightweight
 Standard
 High density
Different density aggregates will have much different applications. Lightweight and ultra-light
weight aggregates are more porous than their heavier counterparts, so they can be put to great
use in green roof construction, for example. They are also used in mixes for concrete blocks and
pavements, as well as insulation and fireproofing.
High density aggregates are used to form heavyweight concrete. They are used for when high
strength, durable concrete structures are required – building foundations or pipe work ballasting,
for example.

Classification of aggregates based on: Geographical Origin

Another way to classify aggregates is by their origin. You can do this with two groups:
• Natural – Aggregates taken from natural sources, such as riverbeds, quarries and mines. Sand,
gravel, stone and rock are the most common, and these can be fine or coarse.
• Processed – Also called ‘artificial aggregates’, or ‘by-product’ aggregates, they are commonly
taken from industrial or engineering waste, then treated to form construction aggregates for high
quality concrete. Common processed aggregates include industrial slag, as well as burnt clay.
Processed aggregates are used for both lightweight and high-density concrete mixes.
Classification of aggregates based on: Shape

Shape is one of the most effective ways of differentiating aggregates. The shape of your chosen
aggregates will have a significant effect on the workability of your concrete. Aggregates
purchased in batches from a reputable supplier can be consistent in shape, if required, but you
can also mix aggregate shapes if you need to.
The different shapes of aggregates are:
• Rounded – Natural aggregates smoothed by weathering, erosion and attrition. Rocks, stone,
sand and gravel found in riverbeds are your most common rounded aggregates. Rounded
aggregates are the main factor behind workability.
• Irregular – These are also shaped by attrition, but are not fully rounded. These consist of small
stones and gravel, and offer reduced workability to rounded aggregates.
• Angular – Used for higher strength concrete, angular aggregates come in the form of crushed
rock and stone. Workability is low, but this can be offset by filling voids with rounded or smaller
aggregates.
• Flaky – Defined as aggregates that are thin in comparison to length and width. Increases
surface area in a concrete mix.
• Elongated – Also adds more surface area to a mix – meaning more cement paste is needed.
Elongated aggregates are longer than they are thick or wide.
• Flaky and elongated – A mix of the previous two – and the least efficient form of aggregate
with regards to workability.

Particle shape and Texture:-

Aggregate particle shape and surface texture are important for proper compaction, deformation
resistance, and workability. However, the ideal shape for HMA and PCC is different because
aggregates serve different purposes in each material. In HMA, since aggregates are relied upon
to provide stiffness and strength by interlocking with one another, cubic angular-shaped particles
with a rough surface texture are best. However, in PCC, where aggregates are used as an
inexpensive high strength material to occupy volume, workability is the major issue regarding
particle shape. Therefore, in PCC rounded particles are better. Relevant particle shape/texture
characteristics are discussed below.

Rounded particles create less particle-to-particle interlock than angular particles and thus
provide better workability and easier compaction. However, in HMA less interlock is generally a
disadvantage as rounded aggregate will continue to compact, shove and rut after construction.
Thus angular particles are desirable for HMA (despite their poorer workability), while rounded
particles are desirable for PCC because of their better workability.

Flat or Elongated Particles

These particles tend to impede compaction or break during compaction and thus, may decrease
strength.

Smooth-Surfaced Particles
These particles have a lower surface-to-volume ratio than rough-surfaced particles and thus may
be easier to coat with binder. However, in HMA asphalt tends to bond more effectively with
rough surfaced particles, and in PCC rough-surfaced particles provide more area to which the
cement paste can bond. Thus, rough-surface particles are desirable for both HMA and PCC.

ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES:-

Aggregates are used in concrete to provide economy in the cost of concrete. Aggregates act as
filler only. These do not react with cement and water.
But there are properties or characteristics of aggregate which influence the properties of resulting
concrete mix. These are as follow.
1. Composition
2. Size & Shape
3. Surface Texture
4. Specific Gravity
5. Bulk Density
6. Voids
7. Porosity & Absorption
8. Bulking of Sand
9. Fineness Modulus of Aggregate
10. Surface Index of Aggregate
11. Deleterious Material
12. Crushing Value of Aggregate
13. Impact Value of Aggregate
14. Abrasion Value of Aggregate

1. COMPOSITION
Aggregates consisting of materials that can react with alkalies in cement and cause excessive
expansion, cracking and deterioration of concrete mix should never be used. Therefore it is
required to test aggregates to know whether there is presence of any such constituents in
aggregate or not.

2. SIZE & SHAPE

The size and shape of the aggregate particles greatly influence the quantity of cement required in
concrete mix and hence ultimately economy of concrete. For the preparation of economical
concrete mix on should use largest coarse aggregates feasible for the structure. IS-456 suggests
following recommendation to decide the maximum size of coarse aggregate to be used in P.C.C
& R.C.C mix.
Maximum size of aggregate should be less than
 One-fourth of the minimum dimension of the concrete member.
 One-fifth of the minimum dimension of the reinforced concrete member.
 The minimum clear spacing between reinforced bars or 5 mm less than the minimum cover
between the reinforced bars and form, whichever is smaller for heavily reinforced concrete
members such as the ribs of the main bars.
Remember that the size & shape of aggregate particles influence the properties of freshly mixed
concrete more as compared to those of hardened concrete.

3. SURFACE TEXTURE
The development of hard bond strength between aggregate particles and cement paste depends
upon the surface texture, surface roughness and surface porosity of the aggregate particles.
If the surface is rough but porous, maximum bond strength develops. In porous surface
aggregates, the bond strength increases due to setting of cement paste in the pores.

4. SPECIFIC GRAVITY
The ratio of weight of oven dried aggregates maintained for 24 hours at a temperature of 100 to
1100C, to the weight of equal volume of water displaced by saturated dry surface aggregate is
known as specific gravity of aggregates.
Specific gravities are primarily of two types.
 Apparent specific gravity
 Bulk specific gravity
Specific gravity is a mean to decide the suitability of the aggregate. Low specific gravity
generally indicates porous, weak and absorptive materials, whereas high specific gravity
indicates materials of good quality. Specific gravity of major aggregates falls within the range of
2.6 to 2.9.
Specific gravity values are also used while designing concrete mix.

5. BULK DENSITY
It is defined as the weight of the aggregate required to fill a container of unit volume. It is
generally expressed in kg/litre.
Bulk density of aggregates depends upon the following 3 factors.
 Degree of compaction
 Grading of aggregates
 Shape of aggregate particles

6. VOIDS
The empty spaces between the aggregate particles are known as voids. The volume of void
equals the difference between the gross volume of the aggregate mass and the volume occupied
by the particles alone.

7. POROSITY & ABSORPTION

The minute holes formed in rocks during solidification of the molten magma, due to air bubbles,
are known as pores. Rocks containing pores are called porous rocks.
Water absorption may be defined as the difference between the weight of very dry aggregates
and the weight of the saturated aggregates with surface dry conditions.
Depending upon the amount of moisture content in aggregates, it can exist in any of the 4
conditions.
 Very dry aggregate ( having no moisture)
 Dry aggregate (contain some moisture in its pores)
 Saturated surface dry aggregate (pores completely filled with moisture but no moisture on
surface)
 Moist or wet aggregates (pores are filled with moisture and also having moisture on surface)

8. BULKING OF SAND

It can be defined as in increase in the bulk volume of the quantity of sand (i.e. fine aggregate) in
a moist condition over the volume of the same quantity of dry or completely saturated sand. The
ratio of the volume of moist sand due to the volume of sand when dry, is called bulking factor.
Fine sands bulk more than coarse sand
When water is added to dry and loose sand, a thin film of water is formed around the sand
particles. Interlocking of air in between the sand particles and the film of water tends to push the
particles apart due to surface tension and thus increase the volume. But in case of fully saturated
sand the water films are broken and the volume becomes equal to that of dry sand.

9. FINENESS MODULUS
Fineness modulus is an empirical factor obtained by adding the cumulative percentages of
aggregate retained on each of the standard sieves ranging from 80 mm to 150 micron and
dividing this sum by 100.
Fineness modulus is generally used to get an idea of how coarse or fine the aggregate is. More
fineness modulus value indicates that the aggregate is coarser and small value of fineness
modulus indicates that the aggregate is finer.

10. SPECIFIC SURFACE OF AGGREGATE

The surface area per unit weight of the material is termed as specific surface. This is an indirect
measure of the aggregate grading. Specific surface increases with the reduction in the size of
aggregate particle. The specific surface area of the fine aggregate is very much more than that of
coarse aggregate.
11. DELETERIOUS MATERIALS

Aggregates should not contain any harmful material in such a quantity so as to affect the strength
and durability of the concrete. Such harmful materials are called deleterious materials.
Deleterious materials may cause one of the following effects
 To interfere hydration of cement
 To prevent development of proper bond
 To reduce strength and durability
 To modify setting times
Deleterious materials generally found in aggregates, may be grouped as under
 Organic impurities
 Clay , silt & dust
 Salt contamination

12. CRUSHING VALUE

The aggregates crushing value gives a relative measure of resistance of an aggregate to crushing
under gradually applied compressive load. The aggregate crushing strength value is a useful
factor to know the behaviour of aggregates when subjected to compressive loads.

13. IMPACT VALUE

The aggregate impact value gives a relative measure of the resistance of an aggregate to sudden
shock or impact. The impact value of an aggregate is sometime used as an alternative to its
crushing value.

14. ABRASION VALUE OF AGGREGATES

The abrasion value gives a relative measure of resistance of an aggregate to wear when it is
rotated in a cylinder along with some abrasive charge.

SIEVE ANALYSIS:-

Sieve analysis is a technique used to determine the particle size distribution of a powder. This
method is performed by sifting a powder sample through a stack of wire mesh sieves, separating
it into discrete size ranges. A sieve shaker is used to vibrate the sieve stack for a specific period
of time. Sieve analysis is important for analyzing materials because particle size distribution can
affect a wide range of properties, such as the strength of concrete, the solubility of a mixture,
surface area properties and even their taste.

THE GRADING CURVE:-

The grading curve graphically represents the proportion of different grain sizes which the
aggregate is composed of and which form part of the shortcrete mix. It provides useful
information to find out: Whether the distribution of the different aggregate sizes is suitable for
pumping.
GRADING OF AGGREGATES:-
Grading of aggregates is determining the average grain size of the aggregates before they are
used in construction. This is applied to both coarse and fine aggregates. The aggregate sample is
sieved through a set of sieves and weights retained on each sieve in percentage terms are
summed up.

GAP GRADING AGGREGATE:-

Gap grading is defined as a grading in which one or more intermediate size fractions are absent.
On a grading curve, it represents a horizontal line over the range of sizes that are absent.

MAXIMUM AGGREGATE SIZE:-

Typically, coarse aggregate sizes are larger than 4.75 mm (5 mm in British code), while fine
aggregates form the portion below 4.75 mm. A maximum size up to 40 mm is used for coarse
aggregate in most structural applications, while for mass concreting purposes such as dams, sizes
up to 150 mm may be used.
FRESH CONCRETE:

Concrete as a construction material has the following advantages:

1. Concrete is economical in the long run as compared to other engineering materials. Except
cement, it can be made from locally available coarse and fine aggregates.
2. Concrete possesses a high compressive strength, and the corrosive and weathering effects are
minimal. When properly prepared its strength is equal to that of a hard natural stone.
3. The green or newly mixed concrete can be easily handled and molded or formed into virtually
any shape or size according to specifications. The formwork can be reused a number of times for
similar jobs resulting in economy.
4. It is strong in compression and has unlimited structural applications in combination with steel
reinforcement. Concrete and steel have approximately equal coefficients of thermal expansion.
5. Concrete can even be sprayed on and filled into fine cracks for repairs by the guniting process.
6. Concrete can be pumped and hence it can be laid in difficult positions also.
7. It is durable, fire resistant and requires very little maintenance.

The following are the disadvantages of concrete:

1. Concrete has low tensile strength and hence cracks easily. Therefore, concrete is to be
reinforced with steel bars or meshes or fibers.
2. Fresh concrete shrinks on drying and hardened concrete expands on wetting. Provision for
construction joints has to be made to avoid the development of cracks due to drying shrinkage
and moisture movement.
3. Concrete expands and contracts with the changes in temperature. Hence, expansion joints have
to be provided to avoid the formation of cracks due to thermal movement.
4. Concrete under sustained loading undergoes creep, resulting in the reduction of prestress in the
prestressed concrete construction.
5 Concrete is not entirely impervious to moisture and contains soluble salts which may cause
efflorescence.
6. Concrete is liable to disintegrate by alkali and sulphate attack.
7. The lack of ductility inherent in concrete as a material is disadvantageous with respect to
earthquake resistant design.

REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD CONCRETE

In making sound and durable concrete the prime requirements are the following
(0) The aggregates should be hard and durable.
(&) The aggregates shall be properly graded in size from fine to coarse.
(m) Cement should be of sufficient quantity to produce the required water-tightness and strength.
(iv) The water used while mixing shall be free from organic material or any deleterious minerals.
(0) The quantity of water should be such as to produce the needed consistency.
(vi) Mixing should be done thoroughly so as to produce homogeneity.
(vi) Concrete should fill every part in the forms. This is done by ramming or puddling.
(vi) Until the concrete is thoroughly hard it is necessary to ensure that the temperature of
concrete is maintainer

Workability:

Workability is the diverse requirement of mixability, stability, transportability, place ability,

mobility, compact ability and finish ability of fresh concrete are collective referred as
Workability of concrete. In short is of doing work with concrete is the workability.
Workability is the property of concrete which determines the amount of internal work necessary
to produce full compaction. It is a measure with which concrete can be handled from the mixer
stage to its final fully compacted stage.

FACTORS AFFECTING WORKABILITY OF CONCRETE:

01. Water Content of the Concrete Mix:

Water content will have important influences on the workability in given volume of concrete.
The higher the water content per cubic meter of concrete, the higher will be the fluidity of
concrete, which affect the workability.
Water requirement is mainly associated with absorption by aggregates surface& filling up the
voids between aggregates.
• The strength of the concrete may get reduced.
• More quantity of water comes out from the surface of concrete resulting into bleeding.
• Cement slurry also escapes through the joints of formwork resulting into the loss of cement
from concrete.

02. The Size of Aggregates:

Workability is mainly governed by the maximum size of aggregates. Water and paste require,
will be not less if a chosen size of aggregates for concrete is bigger. Consequently, for a given
quantity of water content & paste, bigger size aggregate will give higher workability.
Note: On the site, the maximum size of aggregate to be used will depend upon the many factors
such as the handling, mixing and placing equipment, the thickness of section and quantity of
reinforcement. Later two are very important.

The shape of Aggregates:

Angular, flaky & elongated aggregate reduces the workability of concrete.
Rounded or sub-rounded aggregates increase the workability due to the reduction of surface area
for a given volume or weight. Therefore, an excess paste is available to give better lubricating
effect.
Rounded shape aggregate has less frictional resistance and gives a high workability as compared
to angular, flaky or elongated aggregates.

Note: River sand & gravel provide greater workability to concrete than crushed sand.
04. Surface Texture of Aggregates:
The roughly textured aggregates have more surface area than smoothly rounded aggregates of
the same volume. Smooth rounded or glassy aggregates will give better workability than roughly
textured aggregates. A reduction of inter particle frictional resistance offered by smooth
aggregates also contributes to higher workability.

05. The Porosity of Aggregates:

Porous and non-saturated aggregate will require more water than non-absorbent aggregates. For
the same degree of workability, latter will require less water. Overall, this factor is only of
secondary importance.

06. Grading of Aggregates:

Grading of aggregates has the greatest influence on workability. The better the grading of
aggregates, the less is the amount of void in concrete so well-graded aggregates should be used.
When total voids are less in concrete, the excess paste is available to give better lubricating
effect. With excess amount of concrete paste present in the mixture, it becomes cohesive and
fatty that prevents segregation of particles & least amount of compacting efforts is required to
compact the concrete. For a given workability, there is one value of coarse aggregate / Fine
aggregate ratio, which needs the lower water content.

07. Uses of Concrete Admixtures:

This is one of the commonly used methods to enhance the workability of concrete. Concrete
admixtures such as plasticizer and super plasticizers greatly improve the workability.
Air entraining agents are also used to increase the workability. Air entraining agents creates a
large number of very tiny air bubbles. These bubbles get distributed throughout the mass of
concrete and act as rollers and increase the workability.
Mineral admixtures like Pozzolanic materials are also used to improve the workability of
concrete.

08. Ambient Temperature:

In hot weather, if temperature increases, the evaporation rate of mixing water also increases and
hence fluid viscosity increases, too. This phenomenon affects the flowability of concrete and due
to fast hydration of concrete; it will gain strength earlier which decreases the workability of fresh
concrete.

Measurement of Workability:-
The followings tests for workability of concrete gives a measure of workability, which is
applicable specifically concerning some particular methods. They bear no relationship to any of
the common methods of placing and compacting concrete. So, the test results are only relative
and should not be given any absolute measurement. We need to understand that each test has
their importance, and as such there is no unique test to measure the workability of concrete in
total. The significant advantage is the simplicity of the procedure with an ability to detect
variation in the uniformity of a mix of given nominal proportion.
Types of tests for workability:-
• Slump Test
• Compacting Factor Test
• Flow Test
• Vee-Bee Consistometer Test.
• Kelly Ball Test

SLUMP TEST:-

The slump test is a means of assessing the consistency of fresh concrete. It is used, indirectly, as
a means of checking that the correct amount of water has been added to the mix.

The steel slump cone is placed on a solid, impermeable, level base and filled with the fresh
concrete in three equal layers. Each layer is rodded 25 times to ensure compaction. The third
layer is finished off level with the top of the cone. The cone is carefully lifted up, leaving a heap
of concrete that settles or ‘slumps’ slightly. The upturned slump cone is placed on the base to act
as a reference, and the difference in level between its top and the top of the concrete is measured
and recorded to the nearest 10mm to give the slump of the concrete.
When the cone is removed, the slump may take one of three forms. In a true slump the concrete
simply subsides, keeping more or less to shape. In a shear slump the top portion of the concrete
shears off and slips sideways. In a collapse slump the concrete collapses completely. Only a true
slump is of any use in the test. If a shear or collapse slump is achieved, a fresh sample should be
taken and the test repeated. A collapse slump will generally mean that the mix is too wet or that
it is a high workability mix, for which the flow test (see separate entry) is more appropriate.
Compacting Factor Test:-

The compacting factor test is designed primarily for use in the laboratory but it can also be used
in the field. It is more precise and sensitive than the slump test and is particularly useful for
concrete mixes of very low workability as are normally used when concrete is to be compacted
by vibration. Such dry concrete are insensitive to slump test.
The degree of compaction, called the compacting factor is measured by the density ratio i.e., the
ratio of the density actually achieved in the test to density of same concrete fully compacted. The
sample of concrete to be tested is placed in the upp r hopper up to the brim. The trap-door is
opened so that the concrete falls into the low r hopper. Then the trap-door of the lower hopper is
opened and the concrete is allowed to fall into the cylinder. In the case of a dry-mix, it is likely
that the concrete may not fall on opening the trap-door. In such a case, a slight poking by a rod
may be required to set the concrete in motion. The excess concrete remaining above the top level
of the cylinder is then cut off with the help of plane blades supplied with the apparatus. The
outside of the cylinder is wiped clean. The concrete is filled up exactly up to the top level of the
cylinder. It is weighed to the nearest 10 grams. This weight is known as ―Weight of partially
compacted concrete.
The cylinder is emptied and then refilled with the concrete from the same sample in layers
approximately 5 cm deep. The layers are heavily rammed or preferably vibrated so as to obtain
full compaction. The top surface of the fully compacted concrete is then carefully struck off level
with the top of the cylinder and weighed to the nearest 10 gm. This weight is known as Weight
of fully compacted concrete.
The compaction factor =Weight of partially compacted concrete Weight of fully /
compacted concrete.

FLOW TEST

This is a laboratory test, which gives an indication of the quality of concrete with respect to
consistency, cohesiveness a d the proneness to segregation. In this test, a standard mass of
concrete is subjected to joint. The spread or the flow of the concrete is measured and this flow is
related to workability.
It can be seen that the apparatus consists of flow table, about 76 cm. in diameter over which
concentric circles are marked. A mould made from smooth metal casting in the form of a frustum
of a cone is used with the following internal dimensions. The base is 25 cm. in diameter, upper
surface 17 cm. in diameter, and height of the cone is 12 cm. The table top is cleaned of all gritty
material and is wetted.
The mould is kept on the centre of the table, firmly held and is filled in two layers. Each layer is
rodded 25 times with a tamping rod 1.6 cm in diameter and 61 cm long rounded at the lower
tamping end. After the top layer is rodded evenly, the excess of concrete which has over flowed
the mould is removed. The mould is lifted vertically upward and the concrete stands on its own
without support. The table is then raised and dropped 12.5 mm 15 times in about 15 seconds. The
diameter of the spread concrete is measured in about 6 directions to the nearest 5 mm and the
average spread is noted. The flow of concrete is the percentage increase in the average diameter
of the spread concrete over the base diameter of the mould.

𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 – 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐

Flow per cent = 𝐗𝐗 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
The value could range anything from 0 to 150 per cent. A close look at the pattern of spread of
concrete can also give a good indication of the characteristics of concrete such as tendency for
segregation.

VEE-BEE CONSISTOMETER TEST

This is a good laboratory test to measure indirectly the workability of concrete. This test metal
cylindrical pot of the con istomeconsists of a vibrating table, a metal pot, a sheet metal cone, a
standard iron rod. Slump test as described earlier is performed, placing the slump cone inside the
sheetter. The glass disc attached to the swivel arm is turned and placed on the top of the concrete
in the pot. The electrical vibrator is then switched on and simultaneously a stop watch started.

The vibration is continued till such a time as the conical shape of the concrete disappears and the
concrete assumes a cylindrical shape. This can be judged by observing the glass disc from the
top for disappearance of transparency. Immediately when the concrete fully assumes a
cylindrical shape, the stop watch is switched off. The time required for the shape of concrete to
change from slump cone shape to cylindrical shape in seconds is known as Vee Bee Degree. This
method is very suitable for very dry concrete whose slump value cannot be measured by Slump
Test but the vibration is too vigorous for concrete with a slump greater than about 50 mm.

SETTING TIME OF CEMENT:-

The concrete setting time mostly depends upon the w/c ratio, temperature conditions, type of
cement, use of mineral admixture, use of plasticizer, in particular, retarding plasticizer. The
significance of setting parameter of concrete is more important for site engineers than setting
time of cement. For keeping the concrete we use retarding plasticizers, which increases setting
time and the duration up to which concrete remains in the plastic condition is of special interest.

The concrete setting time is determined by using a penetrometer test.

The test procedure involves,

1. Taking a sufficient quantity of fresh concrete mix sample and sieves it through 4.75 mm sieve.
2. The mortar sample passed through the sieve is collected.
3. This mortar is then compacted by rodding, tapping, rocking or by vibrating.
4. Level the surface and keep it covered to prevent the loss of moisture.
5. Remove bleeding water, if any, using a pipette. Insert a needle of appropriate size, depending
upon the degree of the setting of the mortar in the following manner.
6. Bring the bearing surface of the needle in contact with the mortar surface.
7. Gradually and uniformly apply a vertical force downwards on the apparatus until the needle
penetrates to a depth of 25 ± 1.5 on, as indicated by the scribe mark.
8. The time is taken to penetrate 25 mm depth could be about 10 seconds.
9. Record the force required to produce 25 mm penetration and the time of inserting from the to
water is added to the cement.
10. Calculate the penetration resistance by dividing the recorded force by the bearing area of the
[Link] is the penetration resistance.
• Plot a graph of penetration resistance as ordinate and elapsed time as abscissa.
• Test conducted must determine 6 penetration resistances.
• Continue the tests until one penetration resistance of at least 27.6 MPa is reached.
• Plot these penetration resistance values on the graph and connect each point.
• Now draw a horizontal line from penetration resistance equal to 3.5 MPa.
• The point of intersection of this with the smooth curve is read on the x-axis which gives the
initial setting time.
• Similarly, a horizontal line is drawn from the penetration resistance of 27.6 MPa and point it
cuts the smooth curve is read on the x-axis which gives the final set.

Effect of time and temp in workability:-

Temperature decreases the setting time by increasing hydration rate and that increase the early
age strength of the concrete. This is an advantage that less time will be required before removing
of form works on site, but this decrease the use of proper placement of concrete in the initial
stages.
It indicates that the temperature has a negative effect on the workability of concrete as well as
strength up to some extent. Temperature decreases the setting time by increasing hydration rate
and that increase the early age strength of the concrete.
This is an advantage that less time will be required before removing of form works on site, but
this decrease the use of proper placement of concrete in the initial stages. And if concrete is not
properly laid, then strength distribution will not remain the same throughout the cross-section.
SEGREGATION:-

The tendency of separation of coarse aggregates grains from the concrete mass is called
segregation.

BLEEDING:-

The tendency of water to rise to the surface of freshly laid concrete is known as bleeding.

MIXING AND VIBRATION OF CONCRETE:

Mixing is the uniform incorporation of the ingredients within the concrete mix and vibration
usually means the mechanical process to assist in the removal of any entrapped air. The air
entrapment causes a honeycomb effect which weakens the concrete,
There are calculations and processes for concrete to allow for movement, which often translates
to vibration due to friction or the dissimilarity of materials, a serious concern as it would be the
cause forstructural fatigue and failure.

The stages of concrete production are:

1. Batching or measurement of materials

2. Mixing
3. Transporting
4. Placing
5. Compacting
6. Curing
7. Finishing

Batching of Materials:

For good quality concrete a proper and accurate quantity of all the ingredients should be used.
The aggregates, cement and water should be measured wit h an accuracy of 3 per cent of batch
quantity and the admixtures by 5 per cent of the batch quantity. There are two prevalent methods
of batching materials, the volume batching and the weigh batching. The factors affecting the
choice of batching method are the size of job, required production rate, and required standards of
batching performance. For most important works weigh batching is recommended.

a) Volume Batching
b) Weigh Batching

Mixing:
1. Hand Mixing
2. Machine Mixing
a) Tilting Mixers
b) Non-tilting Mixer
c) Reversing Drum Mixer
d) Pan-type or Stirring Mixer
e) Transit Mixer
Charging the Mixer and Mixing Time.

The order of feeding the ingredients into the mixer is as follows:

About 25 per cent of water required for mixing is first introduced into the mixer drum to prevent
any sticking of cement on the blades and bottom of the drum. Then the ingredients are
discharged through the skip. In the skip the sequence of loading should be to add first half the
coarse aggregate then half the fine aggregate and over this total cement and then the balance
aggregates. After discharging the ingredients into the drum the balance water is introduced. The
mixing time is counted from the instant complete water is fed into the mixer.

The speed of the mixers is generally 15 to 20 rpm. For proper mixing, the number of revolutions
per minute required by the drum are 25 to 30. Time of mixing also depends on capacity of mixer.

A poor quality of concrete is obtained if the mixing time is reduced. On the other hand if the
mixing time is increased it is uneconomical. However, it is found that if the mixing time is
increased to 2 minutes the compressive strength of concrete produced is enhanced and beyond
this time the improvement in compressive strength is insignificant. A prolonged mixing may
cause segregation. Also, due to longer mixing periods the water may get absorbed by the
aggregates or evaporate resulting in loss of workability and strength.

Transporting:

Concrete should be transported to the place of deposition at the earliest without the loss of
homogeneity obtained at the time of mixing. A maximum of 2 hours from the time of mixing is
permitted if trucks with agitator and 1 hour if trucks without agitators are used for transporting
concrete. Also it should be ensured that segregation does not take place during transportation and
placement. The methods adopted for transporting concrete depend upon the size and importance
of the job, the distance of the deposition place from the mixing place, and the nature of the
terrain. Some of the methods of transporting concrete are as below:

a. Mortar Pan
b. Wheel Barrow
c. Chutes
d. Dumper
e. Bucket and Ropeway
f. Belt conveyor
g. Skip and Hoist
h. Pumping
Placing:
To achieve quality concrete it should be placed with utmost care securing the homogeneity
achieved during mixing and the avoidance of segregation in transporting. Research has shown
that a delayed placing of concrete results in a gain in ultimate compressive strength provided the
concrete can be adequately compacted. For dry mixes in hot weather delay of half to one hour is
allowed whereas for wet mixes in cold weather it may be several hours.

Compaction:

After concrete is placed at the desired location, the next step in the process of concrete
production is its compaction. Compaction consolidates fresh concrete within the moulds or
frameworks and around embedded parts and reinforcement steel. Considerable quantity of air is
entrapped in concrete during its production and there is possible partial segregation also. Both of
these adversely affect the quality of concrete. Compaction of the concrete is the process to get rid
of the entrapped air and voids, elimination of segregation occurred and to form a homogeneous
dense mass. It has been found that 5 per cent voids in hardened concrete reduce the strength by
over 30 per cent and 10 per cent voids reduce the strength by over 50 per cent. Therefore, the
density and consequently the strength and durability of concrete largely depend upon the degree
of compaction. For maximum strength driest possible concrete should be compacted 100 percent.

The compaction of concrete can be achieved by the following methods.

1. Hand Compaction
2. Compaction by Vibration
a. Needle Vibrator:
b. Formwork Vibrator
3. Compaction by Spinning
4. Compaction by Jolting
5. Compaction by Rolling

Curing:

Cement gains strength and hardness because of the chemical action between cement and water.
This chemical reaction requires moisture, favourable temperature and time referred to as the
curing period. Curing of freshly placed concrete is very important for optimum strength and
durability. The major part of the strength in the initial period is contributed by the clinker
compound C3S and partly by C2S, and is completed in about three weeks. The later strength
contributed by C2S is gradual and takes long time. As such sufficient water should be made
available to concrete to allow it to gain full strength. The process of keeping concrete damp for
this purpose is known as curing. The object is to prevent the loss of moisture from concrete due
to evaporation or any other reason, supply additional moisture or heat and moisture to accelerate
the gain of strength. Curing must be done for at least three weeks and in no case for less than ten
days.
Approximately 14 litres of water is required to hydrate each bag of cement. Soon after the
concrete is placed, the increase in strength is very rapid (3 to 7 days) and continues slowly
thereafter for an indefinite period. Concrete moist cured for 7 days is about 50 per cent stronger
than that which is exposed to dry air for the entire period. If the concrete is kept damp for one
month, the strength is about double than that of concrete exposed only to dry air.

Methods of Curing:

Concrete may be kept moist by a number of ways. The methods consist in either supplying
additional moisture to concrete during early hardening period by ponding, spraying, sprinkling,
etc. or by preventing loss of moisture from concrete by sealing the surface of concrete by
membrane formed by curing compounds. Following are some of the prevalent methods of
curing.

1. Water Curing
2. Steam Curing
3. Curing by Infra Red Radiation:
4. Electrical Curing
5. Chemical Curing.

Finishing:

Concrete is basically used because of its high compressive strength. However, the finish of the
ultimate product is not that pleasant. In past couple of decades efforts have been made to develop
surface finishes to give a better appearance to concrete surfaces and are as follows.

1. Formwork Finishes
2. Surface Treatments
3. Applied Finishes.

QUALITY OF MIXING WATER:-

The common specifications regarding quality of mixing water is water should be fit for drinking.
Such water should have inorganic solid less than 1000 ppm. This content lead to a solid quantity
0.05% of mass of cement when w/c ratio is provided 0.5 resulting small effect on strength.
HARDENED CONCRETE:

The water–cement ratio is the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of cement used in
a concrete mix. A lower ratio leads to higher strength and durability, but may make the mix
difficult to work with and form. Workability can be resolved with the use of plasticizers or super-
plasticizers.
A maximum of 0.5 ratio when concrete is exposed to freezing and thawing in a moist condition
or to de-icing chemicals, and a maximum of 0.45 ratio for concrete in a severe or very severe
sulphate condition.
However, a mix with a ratio of 0.35 may not mix thoroughly, and may not flow well enough to
be placed. More water is therefore used than is technically necessary to react with cement.
Water–cement ratios of 0.45 to 0.60 are more typically used. For higher-strength concrete, lower
ratios are used, along with a plasticizer to increase flow ability.

Nature of strength of concrete:-

The strength can be defined as the ability to resist force. With-regard to concrete for structural
purposes it can be defined as the unit force required to cause rupture. Strength is a good index of
most of the other properties of practical importance. In general stronger concretes are stiffer,
more water tight and more resistant to weathering etc.

Rupture of concrete may be caused by applied tensile stress, shearing stress or by compressive
stress or a combination of two of the above stresses. Concrete being a brittle material is much
weaker in tension and shear than compression and failures of concrete specimens under
compressive load are essentially shear failures on oblique planes as shown in fig.

It is called as shear or cone failure. As the resistance to failure is due to both cohesion and
internal friction, the angle of rupture is not 45° (plane of maximum shear stress), but is a function
of the angle of internal friction. It can be shown mathematically that the angle ϕ which the plane
of failure makes with the axis of loading is equal to (45° – ϕ/2) as shown in fig.
The angle of internal friction ϕ of concrete being of the order of 20°, the angle of inclination of
the cone of failure in the conventional test specimen is approximately 35° as shown in fig.

Maturity of concrete:-

Concrete maturity is an index value that represents the progression of concrete curing. It is based
on an equation that takes into account concrete temperature, time, and strength gain. Concrete
maturity is an accurate way to determine real-time strength values of curing concrete.

Tension Vs. Compression of Concrete:-

Concrete has enormous compressive strength, the ability to withstand heavy weights or forces on
it. It also gains strength as it ages. Concrete will solidify in a few hours and harden or set in a
few days, but continues to gain strength for at least 28 days. Some very thick concrete structures,
like dams, will continue to gain strength for months or years.

Concrete has almost no tensile strength, the ability to withstand pressing or stretching. Put a
board between two supports and press down on the centre. It will bend. The top of the board is
under compression, the bottom which bends is under tension. Concrete can resist the
compression, but will break under the tension. Concrete cracks in roads and slabs are largely due
to tension; different weights in different areas produce tensile forces.

The tension to compression ratio for concrete is about 10 to 15 percent. That is, it can withstand
about 10 times the pushing force or compression of the pulling force or tension. Both strengths
increase with age, but the ratio is steady. Portland cement concrete less than a year old has
compression strength of 1,000 pounds per square inch (psi) and tension strength of 200 psi.
Concrete more than a year old has compression psi of 2,000 pounds and tension psi of 400.

Factors affecting strength of concrete:

Concrete strength is affected by many factors, such as quality of raw materials, water/cement
ratio, coarse/fine aggregate ratio, age of concrete, compaction of concrete, temperature, relative
humidity and curing of concrete.
Relation between tensile and compressive strength of concrete:-

The theoretical compressive strength of concrete is eight times larger than its tensile strength.
This implies a fixed relation between the compressive and tensile strength of concrete. In fact
there is a close relation but not a direct proportionality. The ratio of tensile to compressive
strength is lower for higher compressive strengths.

This may be due to the following two reasons:

(a) Formation of inferior quality gel due to improper curing.

(b) Development of more shrinkage cracks due to improper curing. The uses of pozzolanic
materials have shown the increase in tensile strength.
TESTING OF HARDENED CONCRETE:

The compressive strength of concrete is considered the basic character of the concrete.
Consequently, it is known as the characteristic compressive strength of concrete (fck) which is
defined as that value below which not more than five percent of test results are expected to fall
based on IS: 456-2000. In this definition the test results are based on 150 mm cube cured in
water under temp. of 27 ± 2°C for 28 days and tested in the most saturated condition under direct
compression.

Other strength like, direct tensile stress, flexural stress, shear stress and bond stress also are
directly proportional to the compressive stress. Higher is the compressive stress, higher is other
stresses also. Not only stresses, other properties for example modulus of elasticity, abrasion and
impact resistances, durability are also taken to be related to the compressive strength, hence, the
compressive strength is an index of overall quality of concrete.

Factors Affecting Compressive Strength:-

Among the materials and mix variables, water -cement ratio is the most important parameter
governing the compressive strength. Besides W/C ratio, following factors also affect the
compressive strength.

I. The characteristics of cement.

II. The characteristics and properties of aggregates.
III. The degree of compaction
IV. The efficiency of curing
V. Age at the time of testing.
VI. Conditions of testing.

TENSILE STRENGTH:

• Tensile strength of concrete under direct tension is very small and generally neglected in
normal design practice. Although the value ranges from 8 to 12% of its compressive strength.
An average value 10% is the proper choice. The direct tension method suffers the problem like
holding the specimen properly in the testing machine and the application of uniaxial tensile load
not being free of eccentricity.
• The tensile strength can be calculated indirectly by loading a concrete cylinder to the
compressive force along the two opposite ends (with its axis horizontal)
• Due to uniform tensile stress acting horizontally along the length of cylinder, the cylinder splits
into two halves. The magnitude of this tensile stress (acting in a direction perpendicular to the
line of action of applied compression) is given byThe indirect tensile stress is known as splitting
tensile strength.

FLEXURAL STRENGTH:

• The maximum tensile stress resisted by the plain concrete in flexure (bending) is called flexural
strength (or modulus of rupture) expressed in N/mm 2 or kg/m2.
• The most common plain concrete subjected to flexure is a highway/runway pavement. The
strength of pavement concrete is evaluated by means of bending on beam specimen.
• The flexural strength (modulus of rupture) is determined by testing standard test specimens of
150 mm x 150 mm x 700 mm over a span of 600 mm or 100 mm x 100 mm x 500 mm over a
span of 400 min. under symmetrical two point loading.

SHEAR STRENGTH:

• Shear strength is the capacity of concrete to resist the sliding of the section over the adjacent
section. A good amount of shear strength capacity is possessed by concrete depending upon the
grade of concrete and percentage of tensile reinforcement in the section.
• It is difficult to obtain shear strength of concrete but I.S. code suggests the value for different
grade of concrete.

PULL OUT TEST OF CONCRETE:

The pullout test produces a well defined in the concrete and measure a static strength property
of concrete. The equipment is simple to assemble and operate. The compressive strength can be
considered as proportional to the ultimate pullout force. The reliability of the test is reported as
good.

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF CONCRETE (NDT ON CONCRETE):-

Non destructive test is a method of testing existing concrete structures to assess the strength and
durability of concrete structure. In the non destructive method of testing, without loading the
specimen to failure (i.e. without destructing the concrete) we can measure strength of concrete.
Now days this method has become a part of quality control process. This method of testing also
helps us to investigate crack depth, micro cracks and deterioration of concrete.
Non destructive testing of concrete is a very simple method of testing but it requires skilled and
experienced persons having some special knowledge to interpret and analyze test results.
DIFFERENT METHODS OF NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF CONCRETE:-

Various non-destructive methods of testing concrete have been developed to analyze properties
of hardened concrete, which are given below.

1. SURFACE HARDNESS TEST

These are of indentation type, include the Williams testing pistol and impact hammers, and are
used only for estimation of concrete strength.

2. REBOUND HAMMER TEST

The rebound hammer test measures the elastic rebound of concrete and is primarily used for
estimation of concrete strength and for comparative investigation.

3. PENETRATION AND PULLOUT TECHNIQUES

These include the use of the simbi hammer, spit pins, the Windsor probe, and the pullout test.
These measure the penetration and pullout resistance of concrete and are used for strength
estimation, but they can also be used for comparative studies.

4. DYNAMIC OR VIBRATION TESTS

These include resonant frequency and mechanical sonic and ultrasonic pulse velocity methods.
These are used to evaluate durability and uniformity of concrete and to estimate its strength and
elastic properties.
 5. COMBINED METHODS

The combined methods involving ultrasonic pulse velocity and rebound hammer have been used
to estimate strength of concrete.

6. RADIOACTIVE AND NUCLEAR METHODS

These include the X-ray and Gamma ray penetration tests for measurement of density and
thickness of concrete. Also, the neutron scattering and neutron activation methods are used for
moisture and cement content determination.

7. MAGNETIC AND ELECTRICAL METHODS

The magnetic methods are primarily concerned with determining cover of reinforcement in
concrete, whereas the electrical methods, including microwave absorption techniques, have been
used to measure moisture content and thickness of concrete.

8. ACOUSTIC EMISSION TECHNIQUES

These have been used to study the initiation and growth of cracks in concrete.

HOW TO PROTECT CONCRETE FROM SULPHATE ATTACK?

USE OF SULPHATE RESISTING CEMENT
The most efficient method of resisting the sulphate attack is to use cement with the low C3A
content. It has been found that a C3A content of 7% gives a rough division between cement of
good and poor performance in sulphate waters.
QUALITY CONCRETE
A well designed, placed and compacted concrete which is dense and impermeable exhibits a
higher resistance to sulphate attack. Similarly, a concrete with low water/cement ratio also
demonstrates a higher resistance to sulphate attack.
USE OF AIR-ENTRAINED ADMIXTURE
Use of air-entrainment to the extent of about 6% has beneficial effect on the sulphate resisting
qualities of concrete. The beneficial effect is possibly due to reduction of segregation,
improvement in workability, reduction in bleeding and in general better impermeability of
concrete.
USE OF POZZOLANA
Incorporation of or replacing a part of cement by a pozzolanic material reduces the sulphate
attack. Admixing of Pozzolana converts the leachable calcium hydroxide into non-leachable
cementitious product. This pozzolanic action is responsible for impermeability of concrete.
Secondly the removal of calcium hydroxide reduces the susceptibility of concrete to attack by
magnesium sulphate.
HIGH PRESSURE STEAM CURING
High pressure steam curing improves the resistance of concrete to sulphate attack. This
improvement is due to the change of C3AH6 into a less reactive phase and also to the removal or
reduction of calcium hydroxide by the reaction of silica which is invariably mixed when high
pressure steam curing method is adopted.
USE OF HIGH ALUMINA CEMENT
The cause of great resistance shown by high alumina cement to the action of sulphate is still not
fully understood. However, it is attributed in part to the absence of any free calcium hydroxide in
the set cement, in contrast to Portland cement. High alumina cement contains approximately
40% alumina, a compound very susceptible to sulphate attack, when in normal Portland cement.
But this percentage of alumina present in high alumina cement behaves in a different way. The
primary cause of resistance is attributed to formation of protective films which inhibit the
penetration or diffusion of sulphate ions into the interior. It should be remembered that high
alumina cement may not show higher resistance to sulphate attack at higher temperature.
ELASTICITY, CREEP, SHRINKAGE:

Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete can be defined as the slope of the line drawn from stress of
zero to a compressive stress of 0.45f’c. As concrete is a heterogeneous material. The strength of
concrete is dependent on the relative proportion and modulus of elasticity of the aggregate.

Dynamic modulus is the ratio of stress to strain under vibratory conditions (calculated from data
obtained from either free or forced vibration tests, in shear, compression, or elongation). It is a
property of visco elastic materials.

Dynamic Modulus:-

The value of modulus of elasticity Ec determined by actual loading of concrete is known as static
modulus of elasticity. This method of testing is known as destructive method as the specimen is
stressed or loaded till its failure. The static modulus of elasticity does not represent the true
elastic behaviour of concrete due to the phenomenon of creep. At higher stresses the modulus of
elasticity is affected more seriously.
Thus a non-destructive method of testing known as dynamic method is adopted for determining
the modulus of elasticity. In this case no stress is applied on the specimen. The modulus of
elasticity is determined by subjecting the specimen to longitudinal vibration at their natural
frequency that is why this is known as dynamic modulus.

Poisson's ratio:-

Poisson's ratio is the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain in a material subjected to
loading. Poisson's ratio varies between 0.1 for high strength concrete and 0.2 for weak mixes. It
is normally taken as 0.15 for strength design and 0.2 for serviceability criteria.

Creep:-

Creep in concrete is defined as the deformation of structure under sustained load. Basically, long
term pressure or stress on concrete can make it change shape. This deformation usually occurs in
the direction the force is being applied. Like a concrete column getting more compressed, or a
beam bending. Creep does not necessarily cause concrete to fail or break apart. When a load is
applied to concrete, it experiences an instantaneous elastic strain which develops into creep strain
if the load is sustained.

Creep is factored in when concrete structures are designed.

Factors Affecting Creep:-

These are the factors which affects creep of concrete.

1. Aggregate
2. Mix Proportions
3. Age of concrete

The magnitude of creep strain is one to three times the value of the instantaneous elastic strain, it
is proportional to cement-paste content and, thus, inversely proportional to aggregate volumetric
content. The magnitude of creep is dependent upon the magnitude of the applied stress, the age
and strength of the concrete, properties of aggregates and cementitious materials, amount of
cement paste, size and shape of concrete specimen, volume to surface ratio, amount of steel
reinforcement, curing conditions, and environmental conditions.

1. Influence of Aggregate:

Aggregate undergoes very little creep. It is really the paste which is responsible for the creep.
However, the aggregate influences the creep of concrete through a restraining effect on the
magnitude of creep.
The paste which is creeping under load is restrained by aggregate which do not creep. The
stronger the aggregate the more is the restraining effect and hence the less is the magnitude of
creep. An increase from 65 to 75 % of volumetric content of the aggregate will decrease the
creep by 10 %.

The modulus of elasticity of aggregate is one of the important factors influencing creep. It can be
easily imagined that the higher the modulus of elasticity the less is the creep. Light weight
aggregate shows substantially higher creep than normal weight aggregate.

2. Influence of Mix Proportions:

The amount of paste content and its quality is one of the most important factors influencing
creep. A poorer paste structure undergoes higher creep. Therefore, it can be said that creep
increases with increase in water/cement ratio. In other words, it can also be said that creep is
inversely proportional to the strength of concrete. Broadly speaking, all other factors which are
affecting the water/cement ratio are also affecting the creep.

3. Influence of Age:

Age at which a concrete member is loaded will have a predominant effect on the magnitude of
creep.
This can be easily understood from the fact that the quality of gel improves with time. Such gel
creeps less, whereas a young gel under load being not so stronger creeps more. What is said
above is not a very accurate statement because of the fact that the moisture content of the
concrete being different at different age also influences the magnitude of creep.
Unlike brittle fracture, creep deformation does not occur suddenly upon the application of stress.
Instead, strain accumulates as a result of long-term stress. Therefore, creep is a "time-dependent"
deformation. It works on the principle of Hooke's law (stress is directly proportional to strain).

Effects of Creep on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete:-

• In reinforced concrete beams, creep increases the deflection with time and may be a critical
consideration in design.
• In eccentrically loaded columns, creep increases the deflection and can load to buckling.
• In case of statically indeterminate structures and column and beam junctions creep may relieve
the stress concentration induced by shrinkage, temperatures changes or movement of support.
Creep property of concrete will be useful in all concrete structures to reduce the internal stresses
due to non-uniform load or restrained shrinkage.
• In mass concrete structures such as dams, on account of differential temperature conditions at
the interior and surface, creep is harmful and by itself may be a cause of cracking in the interior
of dams. Therefore, all precautions and steps must be taken to see that increase in temperature
does not take place in the interior of mass concrete structure.
• Loss of pre stress due to creep of concrete in pre stressed concrete structure.
• Because of rapid construction techniques, concrete members will experience loads that can be
as large as the design loads at very early age; these can cause deflections due to cracking and
early age low elastic modulus. So, creep has a significant effect on both the structural integrity
and the economic impact that it will produce if predicted wrong.

Shrinkage:-

The volumetric changes of concrete structures due to the loss of moisture by evaporation is
known as concrete shrinkage or shrinkage of concrete. It is a time-dependent deformation which
reduces the volume of concrete without the impact of external forces.

Types of Shrinkage in Concrete:

To understand this aspect more closely, shrinkage can be classified in the following way:
(a) Plastic Shrinkage in concrete
(b) Drying Shrinkage in concrete
(c) Autogeneous Shrinkage in concrete
(d) Carbonation Shrinkage in concrete

The Types of shrinkage are explained as below:

a. Plastic Shrinkage:

Plastic shrinkage is contraction in volume due to water movement from the concrete while still in
the plastic state, or before it sets. This movement of water can be during the hydration process or
from the environmental conditions leading to evaporation of water that resides on the surface on
the wet concrete. So, the more the concrete bleeds, the greater the plastic shrinkage should be.
Plastic shrinkage is proportional to cement content and, therefore, inversely proportional to the
w/c ratio.
Plastic shrinkage in concrete can be reduced mainly by preventing the rapid loss of water from
surface. This can be done by covering the surface with polyethylene sheeting immediately on
finishing operation; by fog spray that keeps the surface moist; or by working at night. Use of
small quantity of aluminium powder is also suggested to offset the effect of plastic shrinkage.
Similarly, expansive cement or shrinkage compensating cement also can be used for controlling
the shrinkage during the setting of concrete.

b. Drying Shrinkage:

Just as the hydration of cement is an everlasting process, the drying shrinkage is also an
everlasting process when concrete is subjected to drying conditions. The drying shrinkage of
concrete is analogous to the mechanism of drying of timber specimen. The loss of free water
contained in hardened concrete, does not result in any appreciable dimension change. It is the
loss of water held in gel pores that causes the change in the volume. Under drying conditions, the
gel water is lost progressively over a long time, as long as the concrete is kept in drying
conditions. Cement paste shrinks more than mortar and mortar shrinks more than concrete.
Concrete made with smaller size aggregate shrinks more than concrete made with bigger size
aggregate. The magnitude of drying shrinkage is also a function of the fineness of gel. The finer
the gel the more is the shrinkage.

c. Autogeneous Shrinkage:

Autogeneous shrinkage, also known as “basic shrinkage,” is the shrinkage due to chemical
reactions between cement with water, known as hydration, and do not include environmental
effects such as temperature and moisture changes. Its magnitude is usually ignored in concretes
with w/c more than 0.40.

In a conservative system i.e. where no moisture movement to or from the paste is permitted,
when temperature is constant some shrinkage may occur. The shrinkage of such a conservative
system is known as autogeneous shrinkage. Autogeneous shrinkage is of minor importance and
is not applicable in practice to many situations except that of mass of concrete in the interior of a
concrete dam.

d. Carbonation Shrinkage:

Carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere reacts in the presence of water with hydrated cement.
Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] gets converted to calcium carbonate and also some other cement
compounds are decomposed. Such a complete decomposition of calcium compound in hydrated
cement is chemically possible even at the low pressure of carbon dioxide in normal atmosphere.
Carbonation penetrates beyond the exposed surface of concrete very slowly. The rate of
penetration of carbon dioxide depends also on the moisture content of the concrete and the
relative humidity of the ambient medium. Carbonation is accompanied by an increase in weight
of the concrete and by shrinkage.
Carbonation shrinkage is probably caused by the dissolution of crystals of calcium hydroxide
and deposition of calcium carbonate in its place. As the new product is less in volume than the
product replaced, shrinkage takes place. Carbonation of concrete also results in increased
strength and reduced permeability, possibly because water released by carbonation promotes the
process of hydration and also calcium carbonate reduces the voids within the cement paste. As
the magnitude of carbonation shrinkage is very small when compared to long term drying
shrinkage, this aspect is not of much significance.
MIX DESIGN:

The various factors affecting the choice of concrete mix design are:
1. Compressive strength of concrete
 Concrete compressive strength considered as the most important concrete property. It
influences many other describable properties of the hardened concrete.
 The mean compressive strength (fcm) required at a specific age, usually 28 days,
determines the nominal water-cement ratio of the mix.
 ISO 456-200, British Standard, and Eurocode utilize the term mean compressive
strength which is slightly greater than characteristic compressive strength. However,
ACI Code do not use such term.
 Other factors which influences the concrete compressive strength at given time and
cured at a specified temperature is compaction degree.
 Concrete compressive strength is inversely proportional to the water-cement ratio.
Target mean strength of concrete for mix design of concrete = Characteristic compressive
strength (fck) + 1.65× Standard Deviation (σ).