ALLAMA IQBAL

OPEN
UNIVERSITY

STUDENT NAME
Memona jabbar
STUDENT ID
. 0000730353
LEVEL B. ED
SEMESTER Autumn 2024
COUSE CODE
8611
ASSIGNMENT NO. 01
 ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS

QUESTION NUMBER 01:

Justify the statement that “critical thinking is important for teachers and learners
in the 21st century”. Support your arguments with logic. (20)

QUESTION NUMBER 02:

How can you apply any one of the theories of critical thinking in the secondary
classroom of Pakistan? (20)

QUESTION NUMBER 03:

How can a teacher effectively use dialogue, debate and discussion in classroom
to develop higher order thinking skills? (20)

QUESTION NUMBER 04:

Why is it important for teachers to become reflective practitioners? How does it

help in personal and professional development? (20)

QUESTION NUMBER 05:

Differentiate between Kolb’s model of reflective practice from Peter’s DATA

Model. (20)
 QUESTION NUMBER 01

Justify the statement that “critical thinking is important for

teachers and learners in the 21st century”. Support your
arguments with logic.

Answer:

Critical thinking is a cognitive skill that transcends academic disciplines; it is the

foundation for making informed decisions, solving complex problems, and
navigating the complexities of our modern age. In this paper, we delve into the
significance of critical thinking in education, its impact on cognitive
development, and strategies for nurturing it effectively.

Defining the Importance of Critical Thinking in Education

Critical thinking is a higher-order cognitive skill that involves evaluating

information, analyzing its validity and relevance, and making sound decisions
based on evidence and reasoning. It is a dynamic and essential ability that
empowers individuals to engage with information, solve problems, and make
well-informed choices.

The Impact of Critical Thinking in Education

The impact of critical thinking in education is far-reaching and profound:

1. Problem Solving: Critical thinking equips students with the skills to

identify, analyze, and solve complex problems effectively.
2. Informed Decision-Making: It enables students to make informed
decisions, both academically and in their personal lives.
3. Cognitive Development: Critical thinking fosters cognitive development,
enhancing analytical and reasoning abilities.
4. Research and Inquiry: It promotes a spirit of inquiry and a capacity to
conduct meaningful research.
5. Effective Communication: Critical thinkers can communicate their ideas
and arguments clearly and persuasively.
6. Creativity: Critical thinking is essential for fostering creativity by
encouraging students to explore innovative solutions.
7. Resilience: It develops resilience in the face of challenges and setbacks, as
critical thinkers are better equipped to adapt.

Nurturing Critical Thinking in Education

Fostering critical thinking effectively requires a purposeful approach:

1. Critical Thinking Curriculum: Develop a curriculum that integrates

critical thinking exercises, questions, and assignments across subjects.
2. Questioning Strategies: Encourage students to ask questions, challenge
assumptions, and explore answers critically.
3. Problem-Based Learning: Incorporate problem-based learning
approaches that require students to apply critical thinking to real-world
challenges.
4. Socratic Method: Implement the Socratic method, which involves open-
ended, dialogic questioning to stimulate critical thought.
 5. Debate and Discussion: Organize debates and discussions that encourage
students to analyze, defend, and critique ideas.
6. Multidisciplinary Learning: Encourage students to explore connections
between different subjects, fostering holistic thinking.

Challenges and Considerations

While the importance of critical thinking in education is clear, challenges exist:

1. Assessment: Assessing critical thinking can be complex, as it involves

qualitative aspects that are challenging to measure.
2. Teacher Preparedness: Educators may require training to effectively
integrate critical thinking into their teaching.
3. Curricular Alignment: Aligning critical thinking with standardized
curricula can be a challenge in some educational systems.
4. Student Engagement: Encouraging students to become active critical
thinkers may require strategies to increase engagement.

The Future of Critical Thinking in Education

The importance of critical thinking in education is poised for growth:

1. Digital Literacy: As the digital age progresses, students must also develop
digital literacy and the ability to critically assess online information.
2. Complex Problem-Solving: The world faces increasingly complex
challenges, and the ability to engage in critical problem-solving is more
vital than ever.
3. Global Citizenship: Critical thinking is integral to fostering global
citizenship, as it encourages students to consider diverse perspectives and
global issues.
 4. Innovation and Entrepreneurship: Critical thinking is central to
innovation and entrepreneurship, both of which are essential in the 21st
century.

Conclusion

The importance of critical thinking in education cannot be overstated. It is a

foundational skill that empowers students to navigate the complexities of our
rapidly changing world, make informed decisions, and contribute positively to
society. By recognizing the significance of critical thinking in education, we
prepare students to become analytical, adaptable, and resilient individuals.
Critical thinking is not limited to academic pursuits; it is a life skill that transcends
disciplines and is essential for success in the modern age.
 QUESTION NUMBER 02

How can you apply any one of the theories of critical thinking in
the secondary classroom of Pakistan?

Answer:

Critical thinking involves analyzing and evaluating information carefully to make

thoughtful, reasoned decisions. Questioning assumptions, recognizing biases, and
considering multiple perspectives before reaching conclusions is essential.
This approach differs significantly from rote memorization, which is solely about
recalling information without questioning its source or context. Instead, critical
thinking invites active engagement with content, encouraging learners to
interpret, analyze, and apply information to real-world situations.
One key benefit of critical thinking is its role in enhancing problem-solving
capabilities. By breaking down information into manageable parts, individuals
can identify patterns, understand relationships, and evaluate the significance of
various elements. For example, when presented with conflicting data, a critical
thinker needs to choose more than one source but assesses the validity of each,
weighing their reliability and relevance. This process enables them to make
informed decisions based on evidence rather than assumptions or incomplete
understanding.
A practical example can be observed in a student researching climate change.
Instead of merely compiling a list of statistics, they might evaluate the credibility
of their sources, critically examine varying opinions, and construct an argument
supported by evidence.

For instance, they could compare data from scientific journals with reports from
advocacy organizations, discerning the reliability of each and how it shapes
public understanding. This analytical approach fosters deeper comprehension and
cultivates skills to navigate complex academic, professional, and personal issues.

Critical thinking prepares individuals to handle nuanced, multifaceted challenges

confidently and clearly by emphasizing active interpretation and evaluation. It
shifts the focus from merely knowing facts to understanding their implications,
ultimately equipping learners with the tools to approach problems thoughtfully
and effectively.

Why is Critical Thinking Important in Education?

Incorporating critical thinking into education profoundly impacts students’

academic achievements, personal development, and future readiness. It equips
them with the skills to navigate a complex, information-driven world.

Education that prioritizes critical thinking enhances learning by fostering the

ability to analyze, evaluate, and synthesize information. It also builds a
foundation for thoughtful, independent decision-making.

Encourages Independent Thinking

Critical thinking helps students develop the confidence and ability to question
information rather than accept it at face value. This independence enables them
to assess the credibility of sources, challenge assumptions, and draw conclusions.
When students engage critically, they move beyond passive knowledge
absorption and become active participants in their learning journey.

For instance, a student reading about historical events might examine how
different authors present the same occurrence. They comprehensively understand
the topic by comparing narratives, identifying biases, and analyzing motivations.
This process deepens their grasp of history and sharpens their ability to scrutinize
other information they encounter.

A 2018 study by the Education Testing Service revealed that only 39% of college
graduates demonstrate proficiency in critical thinking. This finding highlights a
significant gap in higher education outcomes and emphasizes the need to integrate
critical thinking skills into curricula early.

Enhances Academic Performance

Critical thinking significantly improves students’ ability to process and

understand complex ideas. When students learn to break down concepts, identify
relationships, and apply logic, their performance across subjects improves. They
are better equipped to approach problems holistically, connect theories with real-
world applications, and articulate well-reasoned conclusions.

Consider a history student tasked with analyzing primary sources. Rather than
merely memorizing dates and events, they evaluate the context, compare differing
accounts, and explore the socio-political factors influencing historical decisions.
This analytical approach fosters deeper comprehension and allows them to
present nuanced insights, elevating their academic work.

A science student conducting a lab experiment might hypothesize, test variables,

and critically interpret results to form evidence-based conclusions. This method
reinforces their understanding of scientific principles while cultivating
transferable skills like problem-solving and logical reasoning.

Prepares Students for the Workplace

Critical thinking is consistently identified as one of the most sought-after skills

by employers. Whether in problem-solving, collaboration, or innovation, the
ability to think critically enables individuals to adapt and excel in professional
environments. Workplace challenges often involve ambiguous or multifaceted
issues requiring analysis, creativity, and sound judgment.

A project manager, for instance, must evaluate competing proposals, anticipate

potential risks, and devise strategies that align with organizational goals.
Employees with critical thinking skills are better equipped to handle these
demands and contribute effectively to their teams and organizations.

According to the National Association of Colleges and Employers, 80% of

employers rank critical thinking as a top priority when evaluating job candidates.
This highlights the increasing value of these skills in an evolving job market
where adaptability and innovation are paramount.

Promotes Lifelong Learning

Critical thinkers are naturally curious and continually seek to learn and adapt.
This mindset extends beyond the classroom, encouraging a lifetime of exploration
and self-improvement. By questioning established norms, seeking diverse
perspectives, and embracing change, lifelong learners remain resilient in a rapidly
evolving world.

For example, a graduate who develops critical thinking skills during their
education may approach career transitions or technological advancements with a
problem-solving mindset. Instead of fearing change, they analyze opportunities,
assess risks, and pursue informed decisions. This adaptability enhances personal
growth and fosters innovation and leadership in their professional lives.

In a real-life example, a software engineer facing the emergence of new

programming languages might critically evaluate their relevance, invest in
upskilling, and apply their knowledge creatively to design solutions. This
approach ensures they remain competitive and capable in their field.

Fosters Personal Empowerment

Beyond academic and professional contexts, critical thinking empowers

individuals to navigate daily challenges and make well-informed choices. From
understanding financial options to evaluating news reports, critical thinking
provides the tools to discern fact from fiction and act responsibly.

For instance, a consumer deciding on a major purchase might research product

reviews, consider expert opinions, and weigh long-term value over immediate
gratification. This ability to analyze options and prioritize based on evidence
leads to more confident and satisfying decisions.

Building a Foundation for Success

Students are equipped with tools that extend far beyond the classroom by
emphasizing critical thinking in education. They become independent learners,
capable professionals, and engaged citizens who contribute thoughtfully to their
communities. Incorporating strategies like questioning, collaborative projects,
and problem-solving exercises ensures these skills are taught and deeply
ingrained.

Critical thinking is not just an academic practice but a transformative approach

to understanding and engaging with the world. As educators, parents, and
policymakers, fostering these skills prepares the next generation to face
challenges with clarity, creativity, and confidence—paving the way for a more
thoughtful and informed society.

Teaching Strategies to Foster Critical Thinking

Educators are pivotal in helping students develop critical thinking skills necessary
for academic success and lifelong learning. These strategies go beyond traditional
teaching methods, emphasizing active engagement, exploration, and
collaboration. Here are some effective approaches:

Socratic Questioning

Socratic questioning remains one of the most powerful tools for empowering
critical thinking in the classroom. By encouraging students to engage with open-
ended questions, teachers prompt deeper exploration of ideas and a more nuanced
understanding of concepts. This approach requires students to articulate their
thoughts, evaluate evidence, and refine their reasoning.

A literature teacher might ask, “What motivations drive the protagonist’s actions?
How do these choices reflect the historical or cultural context of the time?” Such
questions push students beyond comprehension, analyzing character motivations,
historical influences, and societal implications.
Socratic questioning develops analytical skills by challenging students to justify
their answers with evidence. This method encourages active participation and
fosters a learning environment where curiosity thrives. Instead of simply
absorbing information, students are guided to construct their understanding,
making the learning process more meaningful.

Problem-Based Learning (PBL)

Problem-based learning places students at the center of real-world

challenges, encouraging them to research, collaborate, and propose solutions.
This hands-on knowledge bridges the theoretical and practical application gap,
making learning relevant and engaging.

In a science class, students might be tasked with designing a model for sustainable
energy use in their school. To complete the project, they would research
renewable energy technologies, analyze environmental data, and consider
economic feasibility. This process compels them to integrate information from
multiple sources and think critically about trade-offs and constraints.

PBL enhances critical thinking and builds problem-solving and teamwork skills.
Students learn to approach challenges methodically, breaking down complex
problems into manageable parts and seeking innovative solutions.

Collaborative Learning

Collaborative learning environments encourage students to collaborate, share

ideas, and evaluate diverse perspectives. Group discussions, projects, and peer
reviews expose students to various viewpoints, enhancing their ability to assess
information and construct balanced arguments critically.

A report published in the Journal of Educational Psychology found that students

in collaborative settings were 25% more likely to demonstrate critical thinking
skills than those in individual learning environments. This increase is attributed
to the exchange of ideas and constructive feedback inherent in group work.

In a history class, students could divide into groups to debate the reasons for a
historical conflict. Each group might represent a different perspective, requiring
them to research and present arguments while addressing counterarguments
posed by their peers.

Collaborative learning builds communication and teamwork skills while fostering

an appreciation for diverse perspectives. It also creates a supportive environment
where students feel encouraged to question and refine their understanding.

Incorporating Technology

Digital tools have become invaluable in making learning more dynamic and
interactive. Simulations, interactive quizzes, discussion forums, and debate
platforms are examples of how technology can enhance critical thinking.

Debate platforms allow students to analyze arguments and counterarguments in

real-time. For instance, during a unit on environmental policy, students could
engage in an online debate, presenting data to support their positions while
critiquing opposing views.

Technology allows students to engage actively with content, offering immediate

feedback and fostering independent exploration. Simulation tools can replicate
real-world scenarios, helping students apply their knowledge to practical
problems in a risk-free environment.

Real-World Application of These Strategies

When these teaching methods are implemented effectively, the impact extends
beyond the classroom. For instance, at a middle school in Oregon, a curriculum
emphasizing problem-based learning and collaborative projects resulted in a 20%
increase in student participation. Teachers reported that students became more
confident in their ability to analyze complex topics and articulate their ideas
clearly.
Similarly, in a pilot program using technology to enhance critical thinking, high
school students showed a marked improvement in their ability to evaluate the
credibility of online information. They developed stronger analytical and
decision-making skills by participating in digital discussions and interactive
simulations.
Fostering critical thinking in students requires intentional teaching strategies that
prioritize active participation, collaboration, and real-world problem-solving.
Socratic questioning encourages thoughtful dialogue, problem-based learning
bridges theory and practice, collaborative environments nurture diverse
perspectives, and technology makes learning dynamic and accessible. By
implementing these approaches, educators can equip students with the tools to
connect to an increasingly complex world confidently and clearly. These
strategies do more than teach content—they inspire a mindset of inquiry and
adaptability that prepares students for lifelong success.
Challenges in Teaching Critical Thinking
Despite critical thinking’s many benefits, integrating it into classrooms takes time
and effort. From rigid curricula to resource limitations, these hurdles can impede
students’ development of critical thinking skills. Recognizing these barriers and
addressing them strategically is essential for fostering a learning environment that
prioritizes analytical and evaluative skills.

Curriculum Constraints

One of the most significant obstacles in teaching critical thinking is the

dominance of standardized testing in educational systems. These assessments
often prioritize rote memorization and recall over analytical skills, leaving little
room for activities that foster deep thinking. Teachers may experience pressure
to “teach to the test,” focusing on meeting benchmarks rather than nurturing
intellectual curiosity.

A typical standardized exam in mathematics may require students to solve

equations using predetermined formulas. While this approach tests procedural
knowledge, it rarely encourages students to explore why those formulas work or
how they can be applied creatively to real-world problems.

Teachers can integrate critical thinking exercises into existing frameworks to

address this issue. For instance, a math teacher could incorporate word problems
that require students to analyze scenarios and determine the most appropriate
solution. Similarly, discussions about character motivations or thematic elements
can be added to standard lesson plans in literature classes. These small
adaptations make room for critical thinking without compromising curriculum
requirements.
 QUESTION NUMBER 03

How can a teacher effectively use dialogue, debate and discussion

in classroom to develop higher order thinking skills?

Answer:

Debates, dialogues, and discussions are three effective structures for getting
students to talk with each other and think deeply about the content of your course,
particularly if you’re exploring complex, challenging, or controversial topics. But
each structure has its own goal and process. Depending on your learning
objectives, class environment, and course content, one structure might make
better sense for you and your students.

Strategies & Examples

Consider the Goals of the Activity. While all three activity structures aim to
engage students’ oral communication, the goals of each differ (Nagda, Gurin,
Rodriguez, & Maxwell, 2008). You might find that one goal is better suited for
your instructional purposes or the topic you are examining.

 In a DEBATE, students are expected to argue or defend a position,

drawing on evidence to strengthen their claim; the goal is to prove
incomplete or wrong the argument of the opposing side. For
example, Dan Shepardson, Professor Emeritus in Geosciences at Purdue
University, has his students work in groups to develop position
statements on climate change and debate them. He lets students know that
they do not actually have to agree with or accept the position they take for
this activity, but that they must create the best argument possible
supporting this position based on the evidence.
  In contrast, a DIALOGUE is meant to provide clarity and understanding,
often drawing on our own personal experience, to unearth conflict or
broaden perspective taking; the goal is to find common ground among the
discussants with a focus on the process, not the content. A dialogue might
be useful, for example, if you have your students working in groups for a
class project focused on a real-world problem and you notice the students
are struggling to work together. Structuring a dialogue for the group
members to engage in where they are asked to suspend judgements on
each other’s perspectives, actively listen to each other’s experience of
working in the group, and asking questions could help with developing a
better understanding of the existing conflicts.

 Finally, a DISCUSSION, like a dialogue, is meant to provide clarity and

understanding but directed towards course content, with our personal
experience seen as separate. Read how Rachel Mordecai in the English
department shares how she facilitates discussions to guide her students in
making textually grounded interpretations.

Consider the Role Listening Plays in Each Structure. Because each structure
draws on our students’ oral communication skills, active listening plays an
important role (Nagda, Gurin, Rodriguez, & Maxwell, 2008).
However, how students listen during the activity differs and you might find that
one approach to listening makes better sense for what you want to accomplish.

 In a DEBATE, students are listening for flaws in the other side’s

argument so they can develop a counterargument; the role listening plays
is to identify weaknesses.

 In DIALOGUE, students listen to identify connections, hear different

perspectives, and to find new ways of understanding; listening during a
 dialogue helps students learn from mistakes or identify their own
assumptions and biases.

 In a DISCUSSION, students listen to share their own perspectives or

elaborate on a previously presented perspective to come to a common
understanding.

Consider the Process. Since each structure has its own goal, it also has its own
process for students to follow. As you select the structure that makes sense for
your learning goals, consider how you will communicate the process to your
students.

 In a DEBATE, students often prepare their arguments by reading or

conducting research, presenting them, and debriefing as to which side
made the more compelling argument. Harvard University provides a
high-level outline for how to structure and prepare students for a debate in
class.

 Facilitating a DIALOGUE involves creating a place for students to

discuss a prompt or question with the understanding that there is no “right”
answer and includes an emphasis on self-reflection. University of
Victoria’s Facilitating Dialogue in the Classroom resource, while
intended for a K-12 audience, provides helpful facilitation guidance.

 Structuring a DISCUSSION can take many forms, but often involves

prompts developed in advance by the instructor or students that stimulate
critical thinking about a topic. See our How Do I Structure Discussions
for Deeper Learning? web page for advice on developing prompts and
possible discussion structures to use in class.
After the activity, you might also provide an opportunity for students to reflect
on the experience. These reflection opportunities could include exit tickets or
a critical incident questionnaire that students complete individually and hand
in as they leave class.
 QUESTION NUMBER 04

Why is it important for teachers to become reflective practitioners?

How does it help in personal and professional development?

Answer:

Reflective practice, in my opinion, is just another name for self-awareness and

mindful introspection. The technical definition is ‘the process of critically
reviewing and analysing one’s experiences, actions, and decisions in a particular
field to identify areas for improvement and enhance professional development’ —
but all that just means, know yourself well enough to make the necessary changes
to improve your practices, thoughts, and actions.
Assuming you are being honest, it can only be a positive practice in all walks of
life. Regardless of the career we are in, reflection allows us, professional
practitioners, to get a deeper understanding of our work, enhance our problem-
solving skills, and help us continuously learn and grow.
Before I get into the benefits and applications of reflective practice — here are
some things to consider. Despite its numerous benefits one major drawback is that,
constantly reflecting on our life/actions/practices can be time-consuming and
emotionally draining. So, it is important that we allocate a specific time (I do it
before bed) and process to it (I journal, so I can write it, process it and forget it —
allows for a good night’s sleep!). The other issue with reflective practice is that it
requires us to be absolutely honest and critical with ourselves — even about our
most embarrassing traits. So, if you are not one that can admit to your own flaws,
reflective practice may be daunting for you.
If you can learn to develop a thick skin and deal with the above-mentioned
inconveniences, and are keen to expedite your career growth then, please keep
reading!
Reflective practice has benefits in any career, but its impact is tenfold in jobs that
are customer/client/people facing, in my opinion — only because the outcome for
customers makes a great parameter for assessing the effectiveness of your
reflection. So, these are people in teaching, nursing, coaching, business.
Reviewing and reflecting regularly helps professionals learn from their mistakes,
improve their performance, and enhance their skills.
For example: In nursing, reflective practice is essential because it helps nurses
evaluate their actions and decisions to enhance patient care. By reflecting on their
experiences, nurses can identify areas for improvement and enhance their skills,
which can lead to better patient outcomes. Similarly, reflective practice for
teachers is critical because it helps teachers evaluate their teaching strategies,
identify areas for improvement, and enhance student learning. According to some
research, reflective practice is an essential component of effective teaching
because it helps teachers develop a deeper understanding of their students’ needs,
enhance their instructional strategies, and promote continuous learning and
growth.
Additionally, people in social work, coaching, and business can use reflective
practice to improve their skills and aim for better outcomes for their clientele. In
social work, it enhances communication skills and promotes cultural competence.
In coaching reflective practice helps identify areas for improvement and promotes
client well-being. In business, reflective practice helps professionals enhance their
problem-solving skills, identify areas for improvement, and promote
organizational growth.
Here are some simple reflective practice strategies that you can apply to improve
professionally:
1. Regular Self-Reflection: Take some time on a regular basis to reflect on your
work experiences. Think about what went well, what could have been done better,
and what you learned from the experience. This can be done at the end of the day
or week.
2. Write a Reflective Journal: Keep a reflective journal where you can record
your thoughts and reflections on your work experiences. Writing down your
reflections can help you clarify your thinking and identify areas for improvement.
3. Seek Feedback: Ask for feedback from colleagues, supervisors, and clients on
your work. Consider their feedback and use it to identify areas for improvement.
4. Peer Reflection: Reflect with a peer who works in the same field. Discuss your
experiences, share feedback, and collaborate to identify strategies for
improvement.
5. Attend Professional Development Programs: Attend workshops, seminars,
and training programs that promote reflective practice in your field. These
programs can provide you with new insights, skills, and strategies for enhancing
your practice.
6. Use Online Resources: Use online resources, such as blogs, podcasts, and
webinars, to learn from experts in your field. These resources can provide you
with new perspectives and ideas for enhancing your practice.
7. Take Breaks: I cannot emphasise this point enough! Take regular breaks during
the workday to reflect on your work and recharge. Reflecting during breaks can
help you stay focused and engaged in your work. It is also a good way to manage
your stress and emotions throughout the day.
In conclusion, reflective practice is an essential practice we need to hold onto. It
helps us develop a deeper understanding of our work, enhance our problem-
solving skills, and promote continuous learning and growth. Reflective practice is
also a great tool to keep track of our strengths, areas for improvement, stress levels
and emotions. Basically, a great way to become more self-aware and make
informed choices in our life and careers. Therefore, teaching this practice at a
young age can help the next generation tremendously. I really would like to see
reflective practice introduced at school level where it can have a positive impact
on young minds. If nothing else, this practice could help the adolescent minds to
be more comfortable with their shortcomings and teach them that it is possible to
learn and grow!
 QUESTION NUMBER 05

Differentiate between Kolb’s model of reflective practice from

Peter’s DATA Model.

Answer:

The model gave rise to related terms such as Kolb’s experiential learning
theory (ELT), and Kolb’s learning styles inventory (LSI). In his publications -
notably his 1984 book ‘Experiential Learning: Experience as The Source Of
Learning And Development’ Kolb acknowledges the early work on experiential
learning by others in the 1900’s, including Rogers, Jung, and Piaget.
In turn, Kolb’s learning styles model and experiential learning theory are
today acknowledged by academics, teachers, managers and trainers as truly
seminal works; fundamental concepts towards our understanding and explaining
human learning behaviour, and towards helping others to learn.
 See also Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences and VAK learnings styles
models, which assist in understanding and using Kolb’s learning styles
concepts.
In addition to personal business interests (Kolb is founder and chairman
of Experience Based Learning Systems), David Kolb is still (at the time of
writing, 2005) Professor of Organisational Development at Case Western
Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, where he teaches and researches in the
fields of learning and development, adult development, experiential learning,
learning style, and notably ‘learning-focused institutional development in higher
education’.
A note about Learning Styles in young people’s education:

 Towards the end of the first decade of the 2000s, a lobby seems to have
grown among certain educationalists and educational researchers, which
can be summarised very briefly as follows: that in terms of substantial
 large-scale scientific research into young people’s education, ‘Learning
Styles’ theories, models, instruments, etc., remain largely unproven
methodologies.
 Moreover, Learning Styles objectors and opponents assert that heavy
reliance upon Learning Styles theory in developing and conducting young
people’s education is of questionable benefit, and may in some cases be
counter-productive.
Despite this, (and this is my personal view, not the view of the ‘anti-Learning
Styles lobby’), many teachers and educators continue to find value and benefit by
using Learning Styles theory in one way or another, and as often applies in such
situations, there is likely to be usage which is appropriate and other usage which
is not.
 Accordingly - especially if you are working with young people - use
systems and methods with care. It is wrong to apply any methodology
blindly and unquestioningly, and wrong not to review and assess the
effectiveness of methods used.
That said, Learning Styles theories such as Kolb’s model and VAK are included
on this website for very broad purposes; these materials form a part of a much
bigger range of concepts and other content concerning personality, self-
awareness, self-development, and the development of mutual understanding and
teams, etc., especially for the use in adult careers, work, business, management,
human resources, and commercial training. See further notes about Learning
Styles detractors and considerations below.
ELT Model
Kolb’s learning theory sets out four distinct learning styles (or preferences),
which are based on a four-stage learning cycle. (which might also be interpreted
as a ‘training cycle’).
  In this respect, Kolb’s model is particularly elegant since it offers both a
way to understand individual people’s different learning styles, and also
an explanation of a cycle of experiential learning that applies to us all.
 Kolb includes this ‘cycle of learning as a central principle in his
experiential learning theory, typically expressed as the four-stage cycle of
learning, in which ’immediate or concrete experiences’ provide a basis
for ’observations and reflections .
 These ‘observations and reflections’ are assimilated and distilled
into ’abstract concepts’ producing new implications for action which can
be ’actively tested’ in turn creating new experiences.
Kolb says that ideally (and by inference not always) this process represents a
learning cycle or spiral where the learner ‘touches all the bases’, ie., a cycle of
experiencing, reflecting, thinking, and acting. Immediate or concrete experiences
lead to observations and reflections. These reflections are then assimilated
(absorbed and translated) into abstract concepts with implications for action,
which the person can actively test and experiment with, which in turn enable the
creation of new experiences.
Kolb’s model, therefore, works on two levels - a four-stage cycle:

1. Concrete Experience - (CE)

2. Reflective Observation - (RO)
3. Abstract Conceptualization - (AC)
4. Active Experimentation - (AE)

and a four-type definition of learning styles, (each representing the combination

of two preferred styles, rather like a two-by-two matrix of the four-stage cycle
styles, as illustrated below), for which Kolb used the terms:

1. Diverging (CE/RO)
2. Assimilating (AC/RO)
 3. Converging (AC/AE)
4. Accommodating (CE/AE)
Diagrams
Here are free diagrams interpreting Kolb’s learning styles model. They are all
essentially the same thing with slight differences in presentation, available each
in doc or PDF file formats:
 Basic - ‘compass’ diagram - Basic Kolb learning styles diagram (doc
file) or as a pdf file
 Improved diagram, emphasising cycle - Improved diagram illustrating
Kolb’s learning cycle and learning types (doc) - or as a pdf
 Improved diagram, colour version - Improved colour diagram of Kolb’s
learning cycle and learning styles (doc file) - or Kolb colour diagram PDF

See also the personality styles and models section for help with understanding
how Kolb’s theory correlates with other personality models and psychometrics
(personality testing).

Learning Styles

Kolb explains that different people naturally prefer a certain single different
learning style. Various factors influence a person’s preferred style: notably in his
experiential learning theory model (ELT) Kolb defined three stages of a
person’s development and suggests that our propensity to reconcile and
successfully integrate the four different learning styles improves as we mature
through our development stages.

The development stages that Kolb identified are:

1. Acquisition - birth to adolescence - development of basic abilities and

‘cognitive structures’
2. Specialisation - schooling, early work and personal experiences of
adulthood - the development of a particular ‘specialised learning style’
shaped by ‘social, educational, and organisational socialisation’
3. Integration - mid-career through to later life - the expression of non-
dominant learning style in work and personal life.

A typical presentation of Kolb’s two continuums is that the east-west axis is

called the Processing Continuum (how we approach a task), and the north-south
axis is called the Perception Continuum (our emotional response, or how we think
or feel about it).
The word ‘dialectically’ is not widely understood, and yet carries an essential
meaning, namely ‘conflicting’ (its ancient Greek root means ‘debate’ - and I
thank P Stern for helping clarify this precise meaning).

 Kolb meant by this that we cannot do both at the same time, and to an
extent, our urge to want to do both creates conflict, which we resolve
through choice when confronted with a new learning situation.
 We internally decide whether we wish to do or watch, and at the same
time we decide whether to think or feel.

The result of these two decisions produces (and helps to form throughout our
lives) the preferred learning style, hence the two-by-two matrix below. We
choose a way of ‘grasping the experience’, which defines our approach to it, and
we choose a way to ‘transform the experience’ into something meaningful and
usable, which defines our emotional response to the experience.

Matrix View of Kolb’s Learning Styles

It’s often easier to see the construction of Kolb’s learning styles in terms of a two-
by-two matrix. The diagram also highlights Kolb’s terminology for the four
learning styles; diverging, assimilating, and converging, accommodating:

doing (Active watching (Reflective

Experimentation - AE) Observation - RO)
feeling (Concrete accommodating diverging (CE/RO)
Experience - CE) (CE/AE)
thinking (Abstract converging (AC/AE) assimilating
Conceptualization - AC) (AC/RO)
Thus, for example, a person with a dominant learning style of ’doing’ rather than
‘watching’ the task, and ’feeling’ rather than ‘thinking’ about the experience,
will have a learning style that combines and represents those processes, namely
an ’Accommodating’ learning style, in Kolb’s terminology.

Definitions and Descriptions

Knowing a person’s (and your own) learning style enables learning to be

orientated according to the preferred method. That said, everyone responds to
and needs the stimulus of all types of learning styles to one extent or another -
it’s a matter of using emphasis that fits best with the given situation and a person’s
learning style preferences.

 Diverging (feeling and watching - CE/RO) - These people are able to

look at things from different perspectives. They are sensitive. They prefer
to watch rather than do, tending to gather information and use imagination
to solve problems. They are best at viewing concrete situations from
several different viewpoints. Kolb called this style ‘Diverging’ because
these people perform better in situations that require ideas-generation, for
example, brainstorming. People with a Diverging learning styles have
broad cultural interests and like to gather information. They are interested
in people, tend to be imaginative and emotional, and tend to be strong in
the arts. People with the Diverging style prefer to work in groups, to listen
with an open mind and to receive personal feedback.
 Assimilating (watching and thinking - AC/RO) - The Assimilating
learning preference is for a concise, logical approach. Ideas and concepts
are more important than people. These people require a good clear
explanation rather than a practical opportunity. They excel at
understanding wide-ranging information and organising it in a clear logical
format. People with an Assimilating learning style are less focused on
people and more interested in ideas and abstract concepts. People with this
style are more attracted to logically sound theories than approaches based
 on practical value. These learning style people is important for
effectiveness in information and science careers. In formal learning
situations, people with this style prefer readings, lectures, exploring
analytical models, and having time to think things through.
 Converging (doing and thinking - AC/AE) - People with a Converging
learning style can solve problems and will use their learning to find
solutions to practical issues. They prefer technical tasks, and are less
concerned with people and interpersonal aspects. People with a
Converging learning style are best at finding practical uses for ideas and
theories. They can solve problems and make decisions by finding solutions
to questions and problems.
 Accommodating (doing and feeling - CE/AE) - The Accommodating
learning style is ‘hands-on’, and relies on intuition rather than logic. These
people use other people’s analysis and prefer to take a practical,
experiential approach. They are attracted to new challenges and
experiences, and to carrying out plans. They commonly act on ‘gut’ instinct
rather than logical analysis. People with an Accommodating learning style
will tend to rely on others for information than carry out their own analysis.
This learning style is prevalent and useful in roles requiring action and
initiative.