DESIGN OF MULT-STOREY BUILDING WITH TIMBER USING

MANUAL AND TEKLA SOFTWARE: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS

BY

IFEAMALUME CHIMDIUTO KPOKUOCHUKWU

NAU/2017224036

A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO

THE

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
NNAMDI AZIKIWE UNIVERSITY AWKA, ANAMBRA STATE NIGERIA.

MAY 2023

i
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this project was carried out by IFEAMALUME CHIMDIUTO
KPOKUOCHUKWU, with Registration Number: 2017224036, in partial fulfillment
for the award of Bachelor’s Degree In Engineering(B.ENG),in the Department of
Civil Engineering, Faculty Of Engineering Nnamdi Azikiwe University Awka,
Anambra State Nigeria.

____________________________________________ __________________
IFEAMALUME CHIMDIUTO KPOKUOCHUKWU DATE,

2017224036

ii
 APPROVAL

This research work is presented to the Department of civil Engineering, Nnamdi

Azikiwe university Awka for approval in partial fulfillment for the award of
Bachelor’s Degree In Engineering(B.ENG), in the Department of Civil Engineering.

___________________________ __________________
Engr Prof. Ezeagu AKaolisa DATE

(Project Supervisor)

___________________________ _________________
Engr Prof. Ezeagu AKaolisa DATE

(Head of Department)

____________________________ __________________
Engr. Prof. Chuka Solomon Nwigbo DATE

(Dean Faculty of Engineering)

___________________________ __________________
Engr. Prof. D.O Onwuka
(External Examiner ) DATE

iii
 DEDICATION
This research is dedicated to the almighty God for his grace, wisdom, guidance
strength provisions throughout the period of this work.

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I sincerely appreciate God Almighty who looked upon me in mercy and sent help to
me.

My gratitude goes to my ever listening project supervisor, Engr Prof Ezeagu

Akaolisa always ready to help. Also to my sub supervisor Engr Frankline C.
Uzodimma and The entire lectures and entire staff of the Department, I say may God
bless you all beyond what money can buy.

To all my course mates and friends who made their input towards the success of the
work.

v
 ABSTRACT
This research was undertaken to evaluate the difference in the computational
results obtained from software aided design and manual design method of
designing multi-storey timber building. To accomplish this an office building plan,
storing 30 offices was taken for the design. The Nigerian timber specie chosen was
Danta specie, a hardwood of N2 strength class and for the CAD design, a timber of
the hardwood class having a strength class of D50 was chosen. The design code
employed for both method was Eurocode 5. The analysis of the main structural
elements of the building, the joist, beam and columns, were analyzed and designed
providing the required sections.The analysis and the result showed that the value of
the structural analysis in the manual design are higher thereby providing higher
sizes of sections and the cost analysis proved the CAD design to be more cost
effective.

vi
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE……………………………………………………………………………………. I
CERTIFICATION …………………..……………………………………………………… …II
APPROVAL……………………………………………………………………………………. III
DEDICATION …………………………………………………………………………………..IV
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ………………………………………………………………….….V
ABSTRACT ……………………………………………………………………………….……VI
TABLE OF CONTENT………………………………………………………………………..VII
LIST OF TABLES ……………………………………………………………………………..VII
LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………………………………... IX
CHAPTER ONE……………………………………………………………… ………………....1
INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………………………….1
1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY ………………………………………………………………1
1.2 PROBLEM OF STATEMENT ……………………………………………………………...1
1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES…………………………………………………………………... 4
1.4 SCOPE OF STUDY………………………………………………………………………… 4
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY………………………………………………………………..4
CHAPTER TWO…………………………………………………………………………..... 6
LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………………………….………………….. 6
2.1 TIMBER AS A CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL ………………………………………6
2.1.2 BENEFITS OF TIMBER TO THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY........................... 7
2.2DESIGN OF TIMBER STRUCTURES AND BUILDINGS……………………………10
2.4 DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES ……………………………………………………………..14
2.5 DESIGN OF TIMBER STRUCTURES TO EUROCODES ……………………………16
2.6 LIMITATIONS OF TIMBER TACKLED BY EUROCODE 5………………………… 18
2.7 COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN DESIGNER ……………………………………………20
CHAPTER THREE ………………………………………………………………………….23
MATERIALS AND METHODS(ANALYSIS) ……………………………………………..23
SITE DESCRIPTION ……………………………………………………………………….23
3.1.2 SITE PREPARATION………………………………………………………………... 24

vii
3.2 DESIGN BUILDING ……………………………………………………………………25
DESIGN OF FOUNDATION (EN 1992-1-1:EUROCODE 2) ……………………………...26
PAD FOOTING ……………………………………………………………………………..26
DESIGN ANALYSIS OF BEAMS AT ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE ………………………29
BENDING ………………………………………………………………………………… ..29
COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN ……………………………………………………………..36
CHAPTER FOUR ……………………………………………………………………….....41
DESIGN …………………………………………………………………………………….41
4.0 INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………… ….41
4.1 FLOOR JOIST DESIGN (EUROCODE -5:2004 IS EMPLOYED) …………………….42
4.2 BEAM DESIGN……………………………………………………………………. …...68
DESIGN LOADING………………………………………………………………………... 68
4.2.1 BEAMS SUPPORTING WALLS AND FLOOR …………………………………….70
4.2.2 BEAMS SUPPORTING WALLS, FLOOR AMD BEAM…………………………… 86
4.3 DESIGN OF TIMBER COLUMN ……………………………………………………..109
4.4 DESIGN OF FOUNDATION (PAD FOOTING) ………………………………………143
PAD FOOTING FOR (CB-1) ………………………………………………………………143
4.5.1 ROOF (DESIGNTRUSSES)………………………………………………………….150
GEOMETRY ……………………………………………………………………………….150
ANALYSIS AND RESULT………………………………………………………………. .154
FORCES ……………………………………………………………………………………154
4.5.2 DESIGN RESULTS FROM TEKLA (MATERIALS) ………………………………155
MATERIAL LISTING……………………………………………………………………. .155
STRUCTURE ……………………………………………………………………………...155
TIMBER BEAMS…………………………………………………………………………..155
TIMBER COLUMS……………………………………………………………………….. 155
4.6 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE TWO METHODS………………………….. 156
4.6.1 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF MEMBERS……………………………………… 156
4.6.2 COST ANALYSIS …………………………………………………………………..158
4.7 DISSCUSSION ………………………………………………………………………..159
CHAPTER FIVE …………………………………………………………………………..162
5.1 CONCLUSION ………………………………………………………………………..162
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS………………………………………………………………162
REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………………. 164
APPENDIX………………………………………………………………………………...165

viii
 LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………41

Table 4.2…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………43

Table 4.3…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………51

Table 4.4…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………58

Table 4.5…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………72

Table 4.6…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………109

Table 4.7…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………151

Table 4.8…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………154

Table 4.9…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………158

Table 4.10…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………159

ix
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3.1 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………37

Figure 3.2…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….37

Figure 3.3……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………38

Figure 3.4……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………39

Figure 3. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………40

Figure 4.1 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………42

Figure 4.2……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………49

Figure 4.3 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 49

Figure 4.4…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 56

Figure 4.5……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………56

Figure 4.6……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………63

Figure 4.7……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………63

Figure 4.8 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………69

Figure 4.9 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 70

Figure 4.10 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 73

Figure 4.11 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………78

Figure 4.12…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 79

Figure 4.13 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………83

Figure 4.14 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………84

Figure 4.1 5…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 85

Figure 4.16…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 89

Figure 4.17……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………90

Figure 4.18…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 91

Figure 4.I 9 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………96

Figure 4.20 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………96

Figure 4.21…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 97

x
Figure 4.22……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………102

Figure 4.23…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 103

Figure 4.24 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 108

Figure 4.25 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………108

Figure 4.26 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………144

Figure 4.27…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 147

Figure 4.28…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 150

Figure 4.29…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 151

Figure 4.30…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 157

Figure 4.31…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 157

Figure 4.32…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 158

Figure 4.33…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 160

xi
xii
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

.

. Timber, as a structural material, possesses distinct characteristics compared to steel,

reinforced concrete, or other composites. It is a natural material originating from

biological sources, exhibiting highly variable properties. Wood is orthotropic,

meaning its properties vary in different directions. Additionally, wood is

hygroscopic, indicating that its moisture content continually changes with the

relative humidity of the surrounding environment. Unlike the well-established

procedures used for manufacturing concrete or steel, where specific grades can be

obtained with controlled variability, timber selection involves verifying grades

through non-destructive strength grading of sawn timber. This process involves

sorting existing materials that have formed over an extended period and often under

diverse conditions, based on statistical relationships. Sawn timber is produced from

a wide range of logs obtained from various trees, often grown in different cultural

conditions and with long rotation periods.

Timber has a long history of use in construction predating the development of

concrete and steel as structural components, dating back centuries. As time

progressed, the use of timber in construction improved, leading to the dominance of

modern engineered timber products in our present-day society. These engineered

1
timber products enable structural engineers to achieve the performance and

efficiency required in the 21st-century construction industry. The term "timber"

refers to the structural product derived from wood, which can be categorized as

either "softwood" or "hardwood." Softwood is obtained from coniferous trees, while

hardwood comes from broad-leaved trees. The terms "softwood" and "hardwood"

are botanical distinctions and do not necessarily indicate the density or hardness of

the wood. Softwood is commonly used in timber structures due to its accessibility,

efficient utilization, relatively low cost, and a constant supply from regenerated

forest areas with high growth rates. Hardwoods, on the other hand, are typically

utilized in exposed frameworks and cladding where durability, specific aesthetics

The strength of sawn timber depends on factors such as its nature, width, size,

member shape, moisture content, and length of loading, as well as strength-reducing

characteristics like grain slope, knots, fissures, and wane. Strength grading methods

have been developed to differentiate timber using visual force grading methods or

machine strength grading methods. Timbers with similar strength properties are

grouped into sets with resistance groups described in BS EN 338:2009. This

simplifies the design and development process by allowing projects to be based on

specified strength class limits without needing to classify and source a particular

2
 mixture of species and grades. The strength groups are described as 'C' (coniferous)

for softwoods and 'D' (deciduous) for hardwoods.

.
1.2 Problem Statement

The increasing construction costs present a challenge for engineers to produce

economically sound designs while maintaining standards. An economical design

holds significant value in all fields of engineering and is highly desirable for

implementing construction projects. Using manual design methods often yields

different results compared to structural design software such as Tekla, Stadpro, and

Prota Structure.

1.3 Aim and Objectives

This research aims to achieve the following objectives:

1. Outline the design procedures for the main structural elements using Eurocode 5.

2. Outline the design procedures for the main structural elements using Tekla

software.

3. Highlight the deviations between the results obtained from manual design and

Tekla software using Eurocode 5, specifically in terms of their economic viability.

3
 1.4 Scope of Study

This research will focus on the design methods of Eurocode 5 and Tekla software

.
for the structural elements in a multistory timber structure. To achieve the research
.
objectives, the following scopes will be considered:

1. The same architectural drawing will be used for both design methods to

compare the required timber sections, revealing which approach is more

economical.

2. The differences in design procedures for structural elements using Eurocode

5 and Tekla software will be examined.

3. A comparison will be made between the design results of Eurocode 5 and

Tekla software in terms of the required timber sections and connections.

1.4 Significance of the Study

This holds substantial significance as it sheds light on the outcomes obtained from

comparing software aided design with manual design techniques for timber

1. provides engineers, especially those involved in consultancy, with valuable

insights into the potential results achieved through software aided design and

manual design of timber structures

4
 2. Assist engineers in making informed decisions regarding the preferred

approach for designing timber structures, enabling them to choose a more

effective method.
.

. 3. Help to bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical

application for civil engineering students and researchers, offering them

valuable resources to understand the practical implications of design

methodologies for timber structures.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Timber as a Construction Material

Timber is a rigid fibrous material originating from plants, refers to wood that is

specifically processed for use in construction. In the field of construction, timber is

often used interchangeably with the term "wood." Timber is categorized into two

5
 main types: hardwood and softwood. Hardwood is sourced from broad-leaved trees

like Iroko, Mahogany, and Danta, which belong to the angiosperm family. On the

other hand, softwood is obtained from coniferous trees that have needle-shaped
.

. leaves. Common examples of softwood trees include Scots Pine, Norway Spruce,

and Douglas Fir. (Abimaje and Adams 2014)

Timber, when used in construction, refers to wood that is suitable for carpentry,

joinery, or manufacturing purposes. This includes both standing trees and felled trees

that can be transformed for the aforementioned uses. Throughout human history,

timber has played a vital role. In ancient times, it served as a primary resource for

building shelters such as huts, crafting weapons like spears and bows, and facilitating

transportation through canoes, ships, and log bridges. Even today, timber remains

an essential material for structural purposes. Thanks to advancements in technology,

development, and engineering, innovative methods have emerged for working with

timber. (aguwa james,2016)

In recent years, there has been a growing trend in the building industry towards

incorporating timber as a primary material in the construction of tall buildings. This

shift is fueled by multiple factors, including the emergence of new engineered timber

products and the enticing economic advantages of using prefabricated timber

components and composite building systems. However, what truly motivates

architects, building owners, government entities, and other stakeholders to embrace

6
 timber construction is the profound understanding of its potential sustainability

benefits. The desire for environmentally friendly and sustainable architecture has

become a driving force behind the increasing preference for timber in high-rise
.

. buildings. Ramage et al, (2017),

Timber stands as the most significant renewable resource within the realm of

building materials. As a building material, timber possesses inherent characteristics

that determine its application in construction.

2.1.2 Benefits of Timber to the Construction Industry

The following are some of the reasons for utilizing timber in building construction

(Atlantic Cladding, 2018):

1. Ecology and Sustainability: Timber is a truly sustainable and renewable

building material. It can be easily replaced due to the practice of replanting

new trees whenever timber is harvested. This ensures a continuous availability

of timber.

2. Low Production Energy: Converting trees into timber for construction

requires minimal energy, resulting in low embodied energy in timber.

3. Excellent Insulation: Timber possesses natural insulating properties,

allowing for more space for insulation compared to brick buildings. It acts as

a natural thermal insulator.

7
 4. Ease of Work: Timber is a versatile material that can be used in various ways

and is easy to install.

5. Design Flexibility: There are no limitations to the design and size possibilities
.

. when using timber in construction.

6. Durability and Easy Maintenance: Treated timber is durable, easy to

maintain, and allows for quick building times.

7. Fire Retardant: Certain types of treated timber are fire retardant, delaying

the ignition time and slowing down the burning process.

In addition to the immediate performance benefits of timber construction, its

popularity is driven by the growing awareness of climate change and environmental

consequences. Government policies supporting timber construction encompass

planning, forestry, sustainable development, and climate change. Using local timber

supports the economy, woodland management, and increases the demand for timber

products. Furthermore, the origin of the timber can generate additional interest in a

building's design (Davis, 2016).

Regarding types of timber construction, there have been advancements over time.

Light timber frame construction, typically used in low- and mid-rise residential

buildings, involves smaller-section stud members forming wall and floor assemblies.
8
 On the other hand, heavy timber frame construction, utilized in mid- to high-rise

residential and commercial applications, incorporates larger-section engineered

timber products for the building superstructure. Heavy timber frame construction
.

. allows for greater design flexibility, including longer unsupported spans, open-plan

areas, and taller structures (Barber & Gerald, 2019).

Timber possesses various physical properties as a construction material. It exhibits

thermal properties such as minimal expansion with heat, high specific heat, and

sound absorption capabilities. Wood is also an excellent electrical insulator,

especially when dry, and possesses remarkable mechanical strength. Aesthetic

properties make wood a decorative material, and its oxidation characteristics differ

from metals. Working with wood is easy in terms of repair and maintenance, and the

variation in types of woods allows for suitability based on specific needs (Prof. Dr.

Ramadan Ozen).

2.2 Design of Timber Structures and Buildings

Timber has the potential to play a vital role in creating energy-efficient and resource-

conscious structures. This aligns perfectly with the principles of sustainable building

design. However, it is important to use timber appropriately, as its mere inclusion

does not automatically ensure a sustainable outcome.

9
 When utilized incorrectly, timber can actually lead to less sustainable results

compared to using steel or concrete in building design and construction.

Nevertheless, timber offers significant advantages beyond its impact on embodied

.

. carbon, including reduced construction time and minimized labor costs. (Matthew

Caldwell 2021)

1)Timber can be easily and accurately machined into precise elements.

2)Large timber components are comparatively lightweight.

3)Timber can be efficiently transported and quickly assembled.

4)Construction time on-site is drastically reduced.

5)The labor force required for erecting timber structures is relatively small.

6)The lower weight of timber structures saves materials in foundations, facilitates

construction on challenging sites, or allows for additional stories

As one of the fastest-growing economies in the world, Nigeria is faced with

numerous ongoing projects, both technological and infrastructural, undertaken by

governments and the private sector. These projects range from small-scale to large-

scale, all aiming to meet the high demand caused by the country's large population

and the significant rate of rural-urban migration (Ede and Okundaye, 2014). Despite

the efforts and massive investments made, the ultimate goal of providing affordable

housing for the masses remains a challenge. Therefore, there is a need to explore
10
 new ideas that promote the adoption of locally available building materials, leading

to more affordable rural and urban structures accessible to the masses.

. This project aims to explore the feasibility of using timber as a reliable alternative

to labor-intensive and environmentally unfriendly concrete technology, which has

been predominantly used in residential building construction in Nigeria. This is

particularly crucial for low-cost housing programs aimed at addressing the acute

housing deficit (Ede and Okundaye, 2014).

2.3 Building with Nigerian Timber

In Nigerian timber markets, there is a wide range of timber species available.
However, some of these species have not yet been characterized and graded for easy
professional application in structures by Nigerian engineers. This lack of
standardization has resulted in less emphasis on the design and construction of
timber structures, as the strength properties of these species are not well-known.
Additionally, there is a general belief that timber structures are not durable and are

prone to fire destruction. However, when properly designed and constructed, timber
structures can be aesthetically pleasing and durable.

To address this issue, twenty timber species have been characterized and graded
according to the Nigerian grading rule, providing a basis for their professional
application. In terms of lengths, internationally accepted spans for timber start at
1.80m and increase in increments of 0.50m. This results in a series of lengths such
11
 as 1.80m, 2.10m, 2.40m, 2.70m, 3.00m, 3.30m, 3.60m, 3.90m, 4.20m, 4.50m,
4.80m, 5.10m, 5.40m, 5.70m, 6.00m, 6.30m, and so on. Among these lengths,
rectangular-shaped types are commonly found in commercial quantities, such as
planks, in Nigeria. (Aguwa James 2016)
.

.
Moving on to the Nigerian code of practice for timber design, NCP2 (1973), it is
primarily based on BS 5268 (2002). However, replacing BS 5268 (2002) with
Eurocode 5 (ECS) has posed a major challenge in timber design using NCP2 (1973).
Eurocode 5, based on a limit state format, offers more comprehensive guidelines for
timber design. Unlike materials like steel and concrete, the properties of timber
materials are not designed or produced using predefined recipes. Instead, quality
control procedures known as grading are employed to ensure that timber fulfills
specific requirements. Grading involves the classification of timber and certain
manufactured products, such as plywood, according to their quality.

Estimating the exact quantity of wood and non-wood forest products in Nigeria is
not easily accomplished. However, the flexible use of timber in constructing
buildings, particularly in roof fabrication, has made it popular. This popularity stems
from the fact that Nigeria spends significant resources on importing steel, even for
the fabrication of long-span trusses in sophisticated structures. Yet, timber can
achieve economy, strength, durability, aesthetic appeal, and time-saving benefits.
Therefore, promoting the development of timber constructions can address the
competitive challenges posed by modern architecture.

In Nigeria, traditional houses are predominantly found in rural areas, and their
construction materials are determined by the local environment. Mud, wood, straw,
palm fronds, and raffia matting are the primary building materials used in traditional
Nigerian houses. Straw and raffia palm mats are commonly employed for roofing in

12
 the southern regions and some parts of the non-Muslim north. The Ijaw people,
particularly those living near water areas, construct their houses using strong
bamboo sticks and wood directly on top of the water.

.
According to CO. Osasona (2015), two major types of traditional timber buildings
are prevalent in Nigeria: Wattle-and

According to CO. Osasona (2015), the two primary traditional timber buildings in
Nigeria are Wattle-and-daub construction and Riverine architecture. Wattle-and-
daub construction, prevalent in Eastern Nigeria, involves reinforcing a lattice of
wooden strips and coating it with a sticky material made of wet soil, clay, sand,
animal dung, and straw. Riverine architecture, found among the Ijaw people in
Nigeria, consists of buildings constructed solely from timber materials, except for
the roofing, which may be made of corrugated iron sheets (CO. Osasona, 2015).

The Nigerian construction industry is predominantly using heavy weight materials

like concrete blocks and steel for residential buildings, resulting in high costs due to
the increasing cost of obtaining concrete materials. This situation is mainly because
alternative building materials are not being adequately explored. There is a need to
encourage stakeholders to consider other building materials that can compete with
concrete in terms of cost, sustainability, maintenance, and client satisfaction. This
will not only provide viable alternatives but also create healthy competition in the
construction industry (Ede, A.N et al, 2014).

2.4 Design Philosophies

In designing buildings, countries typically adhere to specific design standards or
codes of practice, which are based on various design philosophies.

13
 A design philosophy refers to a set of assumptions and procedures used to address
the requirements of serviceability, safety, economy, and functionality of a structure.
Different design philosophies have been introduced from various parts of the world.
Some of the design philosophies used by engineers include:
.

1. Working stress method (WSM) / Load Factor Method (LFM)

2. Limit State Method (LSM)
3. Probabilistic Design Method (PDM)

Working Stress Method: The working stress method, also known as the allowable or

permissible stress method, is used to determine the strength of a timber structure. It

involves evaluating the stresses induced under working conditions and comparing

them to the permissible or admissible stress limits. The permissible stresses are

calculated by multiplying the grade stress for the timber by various modifying

factors. Hence, the equation can be expressed as follows:

σm.// = Σ_m. grade x K₁ x K₂ x K₃ x K₄ x K₅ (1)

where:

σm.// = calculated bending stress parallel to the grain

Σm. grade = grade bending stress parallel to the grain

K₁ = modification factor for moisture content of the timber

K₂ = modification factor for duration of the load

K₃ = modification factor for shape of the cross-section

14
 K₄ = modification factor for the depth of the section

K₅ = modification factor for load sharing.

. Ultimate Load Method: The ultimate load method, also known as the load factor

method or ultimate strength method, involves determining the ultimate load stresses

by multiplying the working stress by a factor of safety. This is then compared to the

ultimate capacity of the timber sections at yield. Plastic methods are employed to

determine the timber section capacities. The relationship can be expressed as:

Working Load X Factor of Safety ≤ Ultimate Strength of timber at failure.

Limit State Design: In limit state design, the load at structural collapse is divided by

a selected margin of safety to determine the ultimate capacity of the structure. The

ultimate design load is determined by multiplying the working load by a second

selected safety margin. The ultimate design load should be less than or equal to the

ultimate capacity of the structure. Hence, the condition can be expressed as:

Ultimate design load ≤ ultimate capacity.

15
 Additionally, the working (characteristic) load is multiplied by a partial factor of

safety, while the failure/collapse load is multiplied by a partial safety factor.

Probability Design: When using probability design, the designer no longer thinks of
.

. each variable as a single value. Instead, each variable is viewed as a probability

distribution, and the design is adjusted to account for random variability and improve

quality. Potential issues and variations can be predicted and addressed during the

early design stages, minimizing potential costs.

2.5 Design of Timber Structures To Eurocodes

The design of timber structures in accordance with Eurocodes is abbreviated as EN

1995 or informally known as BCS. It provides guidelines for designing buildings

and civil engineering works using the limit state design philosophy. EN 1995 was

approved by the European Committee for Standardization (CEN) on April 16, 2004.

It applies to civil engineering works constructed with solid timber or wood-based

structural products (e.g., LVL) and wood-based panels joined together with

adhesives or mechanical fasteners. The standard is divided into several parts, with

EN 1995-1-1 specifically covering general design rules for timber structures and

specific design rules for buildings. The contents of EN 1995-1-1 include general

principles, basis of design, materials, durability, - Basis of Structural Analysis

a) Ultimate Limit States

b) Serviceability Limit States

16
 c) Connection with Metal Fasteners

d) Components and Assemblies

e) Structural Detailing and ControlPart 1-2: General-Structural Fire Design

a. EN 1995-1-2 addresses the design of timber structures for fire exposure.

b. It should be used in conjunction with EN 1995-1-1 and EN 1991-1-1-

2: 2002.

c. EN 1995-1-2 focuses on passive methods of fire protection and

identifies differences from normal temperature design.

d. Active methods of fire protection is not covered.

Part 2: Bridges

EN 1995-2 provides general design rules for structural parts of bridges.

a. It covers timber and wood-based materials used in bridge structures.

b. The design rules apply to structural members that are crucial for the

bridge's reliability.

2.6 LIMITATIONS OF TIMBER TACKLED BY EUROCODE 5

Timber is a versatile and sustainable material that has been used in construction for

centuries. However, it also has certain limitations that need to be considered in

structural design. Eurocode, a set of European standards for structural design, has

addressed these limitations to ensure safe and efficient use of timber in construction.

17
 Here are some common limitations of timber in construction and how Eurocode has

tackled them:

. 1. Strength and Load-Bearing Capacity: Timber has lower strength compared to

materials like steel and concrete. It is susceptible to bending, compression, and

tension failures. Eurocode addresses this limitation by providing design rules and

equations that consider the strength properties of timber, such as characteristic

values for different timber grades, load duration factors, and partial safety factors.

These factors ensure that the designed timber structures can withstand the expected

loads and maintain the required safety margins. (section 2 .3, pg. 15)

2. Moisture and Durability: Timber is susceptible to decay, rot, and insect attacks

when exposed to moisture for extended periods. Eurocode emphasizes the need for

proper detailing, protection, and treatment of timber elements to enhance durability.

It provides guidelines on moisture content limits, timber treatment methods, and

appropriate design measures to prevent or control moisture ingress and ensure the

long-term performance of timber structures. (cl 2.3.2, pg22)

3. Fire Resistance: Timber is a combustible material and can lose its load-bearing

capacity when exposed to fire. Eurocode addresses this limitation by providing fire

design rules and performance requirements for timber structures. It defines fire
18
 resistance classes for different timber elements and specifies fire protection

measures, such as the use of fire-resistant coatings or the inclusion of additional

layers of fire-resistant materials, to ensure the desired fire performance. Eurocode 5

.

. (EN 1995-1-2, cl 3.2)

4. Dimensional Stability: Timber has the tendency to shrink, swell, and warp due to

changes in moisture content and environmental conditions. Eurocode provides

guidelines for accounting for these dimensional changes in structural design. It

specifies design values for timber deformation properties, recommends appropriate

moisture content assumptions, and advises on detailing techniques to minimize the

adverse effects of dimensional changes on the structural integrity of timber elements.

Eurocode 5 (EN 1995-1-2, cl 4.2)

5. Connections and Joints: Timber structures heavily rely on connections and joints

for transferring loads and maintaining overall stability. Eurocode offers design

provisions for timber connections and joints, including design equations,

recommended fastener types, and detailing guidelines. It ensures that the

connections are adequately designed to resist the applied loads and maintain the

structural integrity of the timber system. Eurocode 5 (EN 1995-1-2, cl 6.2)

19
 Overall, Eurocode has played a crucial role in addressing the limitations of timber

in construction by providing comprehensive design rules and guidelines. It enables

engineers and architects to effectively utilize timber as a reliable and safe

.

. construction material while considering its unique properties and challenges.

2.7 COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN OF TIMBER USING TEKLA

STRUCTURAL DESIGNER
The following can be done using tekla structural designer in the design of timber

1. 3D Modeling of Timber Structures:

Tekla Structural Designer allows engineers to create detailed 3D models of timber

structures. Various timber elements such as beams, columns, and custom

components can be accurately represented in the model.

2. Material Properties and Design Loads:

Engineers can input specific material properties for the timber, such as density,

strength, and stiffness.

Design loads, including dead loads, live loads, and other applicable loads, can be

assigned to the timber elements.

3. CAD Design Tools for Timber Elements:

20
Tekla Structural Designer provides specialized CAD design tools for timber beams,

columns, and other timber components.

Engineers can define cross-sections, lengths, and orientations of the timber elements

using intuitive design interfaces.

4. Design Checks and Compliance:

The software performs design checks on the timber elements based on the specified

material properties and design loads.

Structural capacity, deflection limits, and stability requirements are evaluated to

ensure compliance with design standards.

5. Timber Connection Design:

Tekla Structural Designer supports the detailed design of timber connections.

Engineers can define connection types, specify fasteners or connectors, and ensure

proper load transfer between timber members.

6. Generation of Drawings and Reports:

The software enables the generation of accurate drawings and reports for timber

structures.

Detailed drawings, including plans, elevations, and sections, can be produced,

along with comprehensive design reports.

21
 7. Compliance with Local Design Codes:

It is essential to complement the CAD design process in Tekla Structural Designer

with local design codes and standards. Engineers should ensure that the timber
.

. designs adhere to specific requirements and best practices in timber construction.

By utilizing Tekla Structural Designer for CAD design of timber structures,

engineers can benefit from enhanced efficiency, accuracy, and documentation

capabilities. The software streamlines the design process, facilitates collaboration,

and helps deliver structurally sound timber designs.

CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS(ANALYSIS)

SITE DESCRIPTION
Awka is a city located in southeastern Nigeria. It is the capital of Anambra State
and is situated approximately 400 kilometers (250 miles) southeast of Abuja, the
country's capital, and about 175 kilometers (110 miles) northwest of Port Harcourt,
a major port city in Nigeria. The geographic coordinates of Awka are approximately
6.2100° N latitude and 7.0700° E longitude.
22
 The terrain in and around Awka is generally characterized by low-lying plains and
undulating hills. The city is located within the tropical rainforest zone, which
influences its climate and weather patterns.

. The prevailing wind speed in Awka can vary throughout the year. However, the
.
region experiences a predominant easterly wind flow, particularly during the dry
season. These winds are often influenced by the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ) and the Harmattan, a dry and dusty trade wind that blows from the Sahara
Desert during the winter months.

Awka has a tropical climate with distinct wet and dry seasons. The city experiences
a wet season that typically spans from April to October, characterized by higher
rainfall and increased humidity. The dry season typically occurs between November
and March and is characterized by lower rainfall and drier conditions. The rainy
season is characterized by frequent rainfall, while the dry season is relatively rain-
free.

The average annual rainfall in Awka is approximately 1,800 to 2,000 millimeters

(70 to 80 inches), with the highest precipitation occurring during the peak of the
rainy season. The months of July and August generally receive the highest rainfall,
while December and January tend to be drier.

In terms of temperature, Awka experiences high average temperatures throughout

the year. The average daily temperature ranges between 26°C (79°F) and 31°C
(88°F) in the hottest months, while the cooler months see average temperatures
ranging from 22°C (72°F) to 28°C (82°F).

The average daily humidity in Awka varies between 65% and 85%, depending on
the season. During the rainy season, humidity levels tend to be higher due to the

23
 increased moisture in the air, while the dry season experiences lower humidity
levels.

Regarding average daily pressure, Awka generally experiences standard

. atmospheric pressure, which is around 1013 hPa (hectopascals) or 29.92 inches of
.
mercury (inHg).

It's important to note that these climate and weather conditions can vary from year
to year, and specific weather patterns may be subject to change. It's always advisable
to refer to up-to-date weather forecasts and local meteorological sources for the most
accurate and current information.

3.1.2 Site Preparation:Prior to commencing construction, a comprehensive soil

analysis is conducted to assess the suitability of the site for building erection. This
includes a thorough examination of the soil's bearing strata, bearing capacity, and
settlement rate.

3.1.3 Setting Out:

To establish the precise location of the building's foundation, temporary pegs are
driven into the ground at the four corners where the footings will be constructed.
The building's layout is established using batter boards, consisting of two vertical
stakes (measuring 50mm x 100mm x 100mm) driven into the ground at each corner.
These stakes are positioned at least 1m beyond the corner foundation lines to prevent
disturbance during excavation. A horizontal board (measuring 25mm x

24
150mm) is then securely fastened to the vertical stakes, ensuring the tops of all batter
boards are aligned at the same level. The highest corner serves as the datum batter
board, with all other batter boards leveled accordingly.

With the batter boards in place, taut strings are stretched between them to mark the
precise positions. To ensure the string position on the batter boards, nails are driven
into the boards as reference points for future string replacements if necessary.
Intermediate points of the footings are marked using a steel tape and plumb bob. The
measurements are initiated from the corners and progressed along the strings. Any
inaccuracies in the initial stake placement can be rectified at this stage. Sequentially,
the positions of all footings are determined based on the marked points.

3.2 Design Building:

The design encompasses three-story medium-rise timber structure featuring

30rooms, along with lobbies, offices, a janitor's room, a lounge.

The dimension of the building is 21.2 x 20.2 meters, it has total surface area of
300.177 square meters. The total building height is 9.45 meter excluding roof height
which is divided over three storey height of 3.15 meters with a clear height of
3meters.

The ground condition is okay; the soil has a safe bearing capacity. The foundation
will be designed based on the bearing capacity of the soil

25
 The building will be constructed with large size prefabricated assemblies. The roof
of trussed rafter roof and the structure rests on a reinforced concrete foundation. The
foundation employed is pad footing.

. 3.1 DESIGN OF FOUNDATION (EN I992-1-1: EUROCODE 2)

.
PAD FOOTING

Foundations are designed to withstand the maximum axial load transferred by

the column to the soil bearing layer.

Loads from the super structure are calculated in the ultimate limit state and
converted to the serviceability state. The shape of the foundation pad (base) is
square

Shear failure could arise:

(a) at the face of the column

(b) at a distance d from the face of the column
(c) punching failure of the slab
FACE SHEAR (CL. 6.4.5, EC 2)
Design shear stress at the column perimeter,𝜈Ed, is 𝜈𝐸𝐷
Effective depth d,
d = h − cover − diameter of bar (2)
𝑉𝐸𝐷 .
𝜈𝐸𝐷 = 𝛽 (3)
𝑈0 𝑑

VRd, max = 0.5νfcd (4)

ν = 0.6[1 − (fck/250)] (5)
𝑓𝑐𝑘
fcd =𝛼𝑐𝑐 (6)
𝛾𝑐

fcd > νEd OK

26
 TRANSVERSE SHEAR (CL. 6.4.4, EC 2)
From above, design shear force on footing, VEd
.

. 𝑉𝐸𝐷
Earth pressure , PE = (7)
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

Ultimate load at 1d area is,

Area = ∆VEd = PE (l1 × [l1 − l]) (8)
Applied shear force is
VEd,red = VEd − ∆VEd (9)
Design transverse shear stress, VEd, is
𝑉𝐸𝑑,𝑟𝑒𝑑
VEd = (10)
𝑏𝑑

where b = width of footing = 0.9m

fck = 30 N mm−2
CRd,c = 0.18/γc = 0.18/1.5 = 0.12 N mm−2
200
𝐾 =1+√ = (11)
𝑑

𝜋𝑑 2⁄
4
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 =1000 ×
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝐴𝑠𝑙,𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑙,𝑥
𝜌1 =√𝜌1𝑦 𝜌1𝑥 =√ × (12)
𝑏𝑑 𝑏𝑑

σcp = 0
νmin = 0.035k3/2fck1/2
Design shear resistance of concrete, VRd,c, is given by
VRd,c = [CRd, ck(100ρ1fck)1/3 + k1σcp] × (2d/a) ≥ [vmin + k1σcp] × (2d/a) (13)
VEd < VRd, c

27
 PUNCHING SHEAR
punching shear is Checked at 2d from face of column.
Basic control perimeter, u1, is
u1 = column perimeter + 2π(2d) (14)
.

. Area within critical perimeter,

A = 4 × h(2 × d) + h2 + π (2 × d)2 (15)
Ultimate load on shaded area, ∆VEd = 𝜌E × A (16)
Applied shear force, VEd, red = VEd − ∆VEd
Punching shear stress,
VEd 2
VEd = < VRd, (17)
𝑈1 𝑑

Design of flexural members

Flexural members are often called horizontal members which include beams of

different types

Flexural members in a timber structure includes

1. Floor joist

2. Beam

Design of flexural members The design of flexural members principally involves

consideration of the following actions which are discussed next:

1. Bending

2. Deflection

3. Vibration

4. Lateral buckling
28
 5. Shear

6. Bearing

DESIGN ANALYSIS OF BEAMS AT ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE

.

. BENDING (CL. 6.1.6, EC 5)

Bending moment
𝑓𝑑 𝑙
Md,y = (18)
8

Design bending strength about Y-Y axis

𝑓𝑚,𝑘
Fm,y,d = Kh.Ksys.Kmond. (19)
𝑌𝑚

If members are not to fail in bending, the following conditions should be satisfied:

𝛿𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝛿𝑚,𝑧,𝑑
+ Km ≤1 (20)
𝐹𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝐹𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

where

σm,y,d and σm,z,d = design bending stresses about axes y–y and z–z

fm, y, d and fm, z, = design bending strengths

km = is a factor that allows for the redistribution of

secondary bending stresses and assumes the following values:

– for rectangular or square sections; km = 0.7

– for other cross-sections; km = 1.0

It should be noted that in EC 5, the x–x axis is the axis along the member and that

axes y–y and z–z are the major and minor axes respectively. These definitions are

consistent with the other structural Eurocodes.

29
 For beams with rectangular cross-sections
𝑴𝒀 𝑴𝒀
σ m,y,d = = 𝒃𝒉𝟐⁄
(21)
𝑾𝒀
𝟔.

𝑴𝒛 𝑴𝒀
. σ m,z,d = = 𝒉𝒃𝟐⁄
(22)
𝑾𝒀𝒁
. 𝟔.

Where
My, d and Mz, d. = design bending moments about y–y (major axis)
and z–z (minor axis)
Wy and Wz = elastic modulus about y–y and z–z
B = is the breadth of beam
H = is the depth of beam
The following are the necessary checks to be satisfied:
The sectional properties is obtained from a value equal or higher than the sectional
modulus required from the expression below
𝑀𝑑,𝑦
𝑊𝑦,𝑟𝑒𝑞 ≥ (23)
𝛿𝑚,𝑦,𝑑

DESIGN ANALYSIS OF BEAMS AT SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE

DEFLECTION (CL. 7.2, EC 5) To prevent the possibility of damage to surfacing

materials, ceilings, partitions and finishes, and to the functional needs as well as

aesthetic requirements, EC 5 recommends various limiting values of deflection for

beams (see Table 7.2, EC 5).

The following deflection values are to be calculated:

A) instanteneous deflection due to permanent action, UinstG (from table 2.3, EC 5)

YG for serviceability limit state = 1.0
Factored permanent load, G = YG Gk
30
 Uinst,G = bending deflection + shear deflection
5 𝑓𝑑 𝑙 3 12 𝐹𝑑 𝐿
× + × (24)
384 𝐸𝐼 5 𝐸𝐴

B) instantaneous deflection due to variable action, UinstQ

. YG for serviceability state = 1.0
.
Factored variable load, Q = YQQk
Instantaneous deflection due to variable load, UinstQ is given by

UinstQ = bending deflection + shear deflection

5 𝑓𝑑 𝑙 3 12 𝐹𝑑 𝐿
× + × (25)
384 𝐸𝐼 5 𝐸𝐴

(C.) Final deflection due to permanent actions (table 3.2, EC5)

For solid timber timbers subject to service class load
Medium – term loading, Kdef = 0.6
Final deflection due to permanent actions
Ufin, G1 is given by
Ufin,G = UinG (1+ Kdef) (26)
(Cl, 2.4.1,Ec 2/cl 6) Ѱ2 = 0.3
Final deflection due to variable action, Ufin, Q, is given by
Ufin,Q, = UinsQ1I (1 + Ѱ2 Kdef) (27)
D) check for final deflection
Total deflection, Ufin = UfinG + UfinQ
Permissible final deflection assuming the floor support bristle finishes). Wfin; is
1
Wfin = X span
250

For deflection to be satisfied the value of Wfin should be greater than the value of
Ufin

31
 Wfin > Ufin
LATERAL BUCKLING (CL 6.3.3, EC 5)
Critical stress is given bt the expression
0.78𝑏2
. 𝜎m,crit = 𝐸0,05 (29)
ℎ𝑙𝑒𝑓
.
The relative slenderness ratio is given by
𝑓𝑚,𝑘
𝜆𝑟𝑒𝑙,𝑚= √ (30)
𝜎 𝑚,𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡

since 𝜆𝑟𝑒𝑙,𝑚 < 0.75, 𝑘𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 = 1

𝑓𝑚,𝑘
𝑘𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑚,𝑦𝑑 = 𝑘𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 (Kh.Ksys.Kmod. ) (31)
𝑌𝑚

𝜎 𝑀𝑦,𝑑 1641 (32)

𝑚,𝑑= =
𝑏ℎ2⁄ 100×2252⁄
6 6

For a flexural member in timber structures, lateral buckling is satisfied when

𝜎𝑚,𝑑 ≤ 𝑘𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑚,𝑑
SHEAR (CL. 6.1.7 & 6.5, EC 5)
Design shear strength is
𝑓𝑦,𝑘
Fv,d = KsysKmod (33)
𝛾𝑚

Maximum shear force is

VEd = 𝑣𝑎 =
Design shear stress at Neural axis is
1.5 𝑉𝑑
𝜏d = (34)
𝐴

For shear to be satisfied for a flexural member of timber , the design shear strength

must be greater than the design shear stress

BEARING (CL. 6.1.5, EC 5)

32
 Design compressive stress
A) Design bearing force is
F9o,d = 𝑣𝑎 = max 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡
𝐹90,𝑑
𝜎c,90,d = (35)
. 𝑏𝑙
.

B) Design compressive strength

Design compressive strength parallel to grain fc,90, d is given by
𝑓𝑐,90,𝑘
Fc,90,d = Ksys Kmod (36)
𝛾𝑚
Bearing capacity

l = size of wall
h = height of beam
b = breadth of beam
𝑙 ℎ
Kc,90 = (2.38 − ) (1 + ) (37)
250 12𝑙

Kc, FG90,d > 𝜎c90,d

DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS

Compression members in a timber structure includes
1. Column /posts
2. Studs in framing
3. Struts in truss members

Geometric properties
The geometric properties of the compression members are determined using the below
expressions
Effective length= 1.0 X h
Area =bXh
Where ,h=
33
 𝒃𝒉𝟑
I = 𝟏𝟐 (38)
𝒃𝒉𝟐
Z= (39)
𝟔

𝑰
𝑳 =𝒍𝒚𝒚 = 𝒍𝒛𝒛 = √𝑨 (40)
.

. Effective slenderness ratio

𝑳𝒆
𝝀= (41)
𝒊

𝜆. 𝑦 𝑓
𝜆. 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 =𝜆, 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑧 = √ 𝑬c,0,k (42)
𝝅 𝟎.𝟎𝟓

𝜆. 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 > 0.3

BUCKLING (CL. 6.3.2, EC 5)
Design compressive stress
𝑵
𝝈, 𝒄,𝟎,𝒅 = 𝑨 (43)

Applied bending moment 𝑀 is

𝑀 = (𝑁 × 𝐷) (44)

Design Bending strength fm,d is

𝑓𝑚,𝑘
fm,d = Kh Kmod. (45)
𝑌𝑚

Design compression strength fc,0, d is

k𝐶,0,𝑘
fc,0,d =Kmod. (46)
𝑌𝑚

Design bending stress about the y–y axis, σm,y,d

𝑴𝒀
σ m,y,d = (47)
𝒁𝒀

Design bending stress about the z–z axis, σm, z, d = 0.

𝑘𝑦 = 𝑘𝑧 = 0.5(1 + βc(λrel,y − 0.3) + λ2rel,y) (48)
1
𝑘𝑐𝑦 = 𝑘𝑐𝑧 = .
(49)
2
𝑘𝑦 +√𝑘𝑦 −𝜆2 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦

34
 𝜎𝑐,0,𝑑 𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝜎
+ + 𝑘𝑚 𝑓𝑚,𝑧,𝑑 ≤ 1 (50)
𝑘𝐶,𝑦, 𝑓𝐶,0,𝑑 𝑓𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

LATERAL TORSIONAL STABILITY

𝟎.𝟕𝟖𝑏 2
.
σ crit = 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 (51)
ℎ𝑙𝑒𝑓
.
𝑓
𝜆. 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 =√ 𝛔 𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒕
m,k
(52)
.

Check lateral torsional stability

2
𝜎𝑚,𝑑 𝜎𝑐,0,𝑑
( ) + ≤1 (53)
𝒌𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝒌𝑐,𝑧 𝑓𝑐,0,𝑑

COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN OF TIMBER USING TEKLA

STRUCTURAL DESIGNER

The following can be done using tekla structural designer in the design of timber

1. 3D Modeling of Timber Structures:

The first approach to cad design of timber is the insertion of grid lines in both

axis directions to help in the placement of structural members. The windows

interface for gridding in tekla structural designer is given in the figure below

35
.

Table 3.1

Tekla Structural Designer allows engineers to create detailed 3D models of timber

structures. Various timber elements such as beams, columns, and custom

components can be accurately represented in the model.The full representation of

the main structural elements is shown below

Figure 3.2
2. Material Properties and Design Loads:
36
 Engineers can input specific material properties for the timber, such as density,

strength, and stiffness. Design loads, including dead loads, live loads, and other

applicable loads, can be assigned to the timber elements. The loading on each
.

. member is represented in the 3d view.

figure 3.3

3. CAD Design Tools for Timber Elements:

Tekla Structural Designer provides specialized CAD design tools for timber beams,

columns, and other timber components.

Engineers can define cross-sections, lengths, and orientations of the timber elements

using intuitive design interfaces.

37
.

Figure3.4
4. Design Checks and Compliance:

The software performs design checks on the timber elements based on the specified

material properties and design loads.

Structural capacity, deflection limits, and stability requirements are evaluated to

ensure compliance with design standards.

38
Figure 3.5
5. Generation of Drawings and Reports:

The software enables the generation of accurate drawings and reports for timber

structures. Detailed drawings, including plans, elevations, and sections, can be

produced, along with comprehensive design reports.

39
 CHAPTER FOUR

. DESIGN
.
4.0 INTRODUCTION
Design of builing structures is defined as the planning,determination of sizes ,and
arrangement of structural members so that external forces or loadfs on tnhe
Structure are transmitted to the foundation in the most economical manner consistent
with the purpose of the structure (V.O.oyenuga,2011)

The nigerian timber adoted has the following properties(Aguwa james,2016)

Table 4.1

Description Property
Name of timber Danta
Stenght class N2
Density 770kg/m3
Wood type Hardwood
Emean(N/mm2) 12675
Emin(N/mm2) 10302
Availability South east asnd south
south

40
 FLOOR JOISTS DESIGN (EUROCODE -5:2004 IS EMPLOYED)
The design of timber floor joist for offices using strength of class N2, given that
.

. i. The joists are spaced at 400mm centers

ii. The flooring is tongue and groove boarding with self-weight of
0.4KN/M2 and thickens of 25mm
iii. The ceiling is of asbestos ceiling board of 12mm and self-wt. of
0.2KN/M2
iv. The floor finish is of 37mm concrete topping panels.

Figure 4.1
PANELS:
Panel 1: This includes all panels with effective span of 2,150mm
Panel 2: This includes all panels with effective span of 3,125mm
Panel 3: This includes all panels with effective span of 4,000mm
Panel 4: This includes all panels with effective span of 5,000mm

41
 DESIGN LOADING
A). Permanent action (GK);
Tongue and groove boarding = 0.1KN/M2
. Asbestos Ceiling = 0.2KN/M2
.
Joist (Assumed) = 0.25KN/M2
Total permanent action (Gk) = 0.55KN/M2

B). Variable action, QK :

Imposed floor loads for offices (table 3, EN 1991-1-1) =1.50KN/M2

DESIGN ACTION
Total design load is
= 𝛾GGk +𝛾QQk =
= 1.35 x 0.55 + 1.5 x1.5 = 2.99KN/M2
Design load on joist, Fd
= Fd = joist spacing x effective span x load
Fd = 0.4 xl 2.15 x 2.99 = ~2.57KN

CACULATIONS
Design parameters
The grade of the seasoned Danta timber used is of N2 class
Characteristics strengths and modulus of elasticity for timber of strength
class N2
Values in Nmm-2 are given below
Table 4.2
Bending Compression Shear parallel to Modules of
strength perpendicular to grain (Fv,k) elasticity
(FM,K) grain (FC,90,K) (60, mean)
33.17 5.05 3.75 12675
42
 K3 = duration of loading = 1.0
K8 = loading sharing system = 1.1
300
. K7 = depth factor = (
ℎ
) 0.11
.

- The joist will be designed for service class 1 (clause 2.3.1.3, EC5)
- The joist will carry both variable and permanent load, critical load
duration class – medium term (table 1, EC5)
- Kmod (table 3.1, EC5) – 0.80
- Ym (Table 2.3 EC 5) – 1.3
- The joist is from part of a load sharing system hence (Ksys = 1.1)
- - assure Kh = 1

Bending (Cl 6.1.6, EC5)

Bending moment
𝑓𝑑 𝑙 2.57𝑥2.15
Md,y = = = 0.69KNM
8 8

Design bending strength about Y-Y axis

𝑓𝑚,𝑘 1.0×1.1×0.8×33.19
Fm,y,d = Kh.Ksys.Kmond. =
𝑌𝑚 1

1.0 × 1.1 × 0.8 × 33.19

1.3
Fm, yd. = 22.47N/mm2
Bending (Cl 6.1.6, EC 5)
𝛿𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝛿𝑚,𝑧,𝑑
+ Km ≤1
𝐹𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝐹𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

Km = 0.7 – for rectangular / square timber section

𝛿𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 0
+ 0.7 x ≤1
22.47 𝐹𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

43
 𝛿𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 ≤ 22.47𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑀𝑑,𝑦 0.691 × 106
𝑊𝑦,𝑟𝑒𝑞 ≥ =
𝛿𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 22.47

. = 30.75 × 103 𝑚𝑚3

.
From table for classification of Nigerian timber (Aguwa, 2016)
75mm X 100mm joist would be suitable
Wy = 125 X 103 mm3, Iy = 6.25 X 106 MM4, A = 7.50 X 103 mm2

Deflection (Cl 7.2 , EC5)

A). instatenous deflection due to permanent action, UinstG (from table 2.3,
EC 5) YG for serviceability limit state = 1.0
Factored permanent load, G = YG Gk = 1.0 X 0. 40
= 0.57N/m2
Factored permanent load per joist fd,G1 is
Fd,G = total load X joist spacing X span length
= 0.57 X 0.4 X 2.15 = 0.49KN
Uinst,G = bending deflection + sheer deflection
5 𝑓𝑑 𝑙 3 12 𝐹𝑑 𝐿
× + ×
384 𝐸𝐼 5 𝐸𝐴
5 (0.49 ×103 (2.15×103 )3 12 0.49 × 103 ×2.15×103
Uinst,G = ( )+ ×
384 12675 ×6.2 × 106 5 12675 ×7.5 ×103

0.80+ 0.027
= 1.07mm
B) instantaneous deflection due to variable action, UinstQ
YG for serviceability state = 1.0
Factored variable load, Q = YQQk = 1.0 X 1.5 = 1.5KN/M2
44
 Factored variable action per joist, Fd,Q
Fd, Q = total load X joist spacing X span length
= 1.5 X 0.4 X 2.15 = 1.29KN
.

.
Instantaneous deflection due to variable load, UinstQ is given by

UinstQ = bending deflection + sheer deflection

5 𝑓𝑑 𝑙 3 12 𝐹𝑑 𝐿
× + ×
384 𝐸𝐼 5 𝐸𝐴
5 1.29×103 (2.15×103 )3 12 1.29 × 103 ×2.15×103
( )+ ×
384 12675 ×6.2 × 106 5 12675 ×7.5 ×103

= 2.12 + 0.07
= 2.82mm
(C.) Final deflection due to permanent actions (table 3.2, EC5)
For solid timber timbers subject to service class land
Medium – term loading, Kdef = 0.6
Final deflection due to permanent actions
Ufin, G1 is given by
Ufin,G = UinG (1+ Kdef)= 1.07 X (1 + 0.6) = 1.642mm
(Cl, 2.4.1,Ec2/cl6) Ѱ2 = 0.3
Final deflection due to variable action, Ufin, Q, is given by
Ufin,Q, = UinsQ1I (1 + Ѱ2 Kdef)
= 2.82 ( 1 + 0.3 x 0.6) = 3.33mm

D) check for final deflection

Total deflection, Ufin = UfinG + UfinQ = 1.6 42+ 3.33

45
 = 4.97
Permissible final deflection assuming the floor support bristle finishes). Wfin;
is
1
.
Wfin = X span
250
.
1/250 X 2.15 x 103 = 8.6
8.6mm > 4.97 OK

Therefore, 75mm X 100mm Joist are adequate in deflection

LATERAL BUCKLING (CL 6.3.3, EC 5)
The check is unnecessary as the compressive edge cannot move
totally because the joist is attached to tongue and groove boarding.

SHEAR
Design shear strength is
𝑓𝑦,𝑘 3.75
Fv,d = KsysKmod − 1.1 × 0.8 ×
𝛾𝑚 1.3

Maximum shear force is

𝐹𝑑 2.57 ×103
VEd = = = 1.285 × 103 𝑁
2 2

Design shear stress at Neural axis is

1.5 𝑉𝑑 1.5 ×1.285×103
𝛾d = = = 0.257N/mm2 <fv,d OK
𝐴 7.5 ×103

BEARING
Design compressive stress
C) Design bearing force is
𝐹𝑑 2.57 ×103
FGo,d = = = =1.285 X 103
2 2

46
.
100mm
.
Figure 4.2
Taking the floor joist to span assumptously onto 10mm wide walls
as shown above, the bearing stress is given by:
𝐹90,𝑑 1.2 85×103
𝛿 c,90,d = = = 0.171N/mm2
𝑏𝑙 75×100

D) Design compressive strength

Design compressive strength parallel to grain fc,90, d is given by
𝑓𝑐,90,𝑘 5.05
Fc,90,d = Ksys Kmod = 1.1 × 0.8 ×
𝛾𝑚 1.3
2
= 3.42N/mm
Bearing capacity
The above diagram

b
a
𝑙
Figure 4.3 𝑙
From the above diagram
a = overhanging length = O for the structure
l = size of wall = 100mm
h = height of joist = 100mm
b = breadth of joist = 75mm

a = o, L = 100m and h = 100mm

since a<h/3

47
 𝑙 ℎ 100 100
Kc,90 = (2.38 − ) (1 + ) = (2.38 − ) (1 + 12 ×100) =
250 12𝑙 250
(1.98)(1.08)

= 2.13 < 4 OK
.

. Kc, FG90,d = 2.13 X 3.42 = 7.28N/mm2 𝛿 c90,d OK

CHECK ASSUMED SELF WEIGHT OF JOISTS

From the Nigerian timber classification table
Density of class N2 timber is 770kg/m2

𝑏ℎ𝑝𝑔
SW =
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔
(75×100×10−6 )×770×9.8××10−3
SW = = 0.14𝐾𝑁𝑚2
0.4

Assumed self-weight > actual self-weight. hence assumed self-weight is ok

Design load on joist, Fd

= Fd = joist spacing x effective span x load
Fd = 0.4 x3.125 x 2.99 = ~3.74KN

CACULATIONS
Design parameters
The grade of the seasoned Danta timber used is of N2 class
Characteristics strengths and modulus of elasticity for timer of strength class
N2
Values in Nmm-2 are given below

48
 Table 4.3
Bending Compression Shear parallel to Modules of
strength perpendicular to grain (Fv,k) elasticity
(FM,K) grain (FC,90,K) (60, mean)
. 33.17 5.05 3.75 12675
.

K3 = duration of loading = 1.0

K8 = loading sharing system = 1.1
300
K7 = depth factor = (
ℎ
) 0.11

- The joist will be designed for service class 1 (clause 2.3.1.3, EC5)
- The joist will carry both variable and permanent load, critical load
duration class – medium term (table 1, EC5)
- Kmod (table 3.1, EC5) – 0.80
- Ym (Table 2.3 EC 5) – 1.3
- The joist is from part of a load sharing system hence (Ksys = 1.1)
- - assure Kh = 1

Bending (Cl 6.1.6, EC5)

Bending moment
𝑓𝑑 𝑙 3.74𝑥3.125
Md,y = = = 1.46KNM
8 8

Design bending strength about Y-Y axis

𝑓𝑚,𝑘 1.0×1.1×0.8×33.19
Fm,y,d = Kh.Ksys.Kmond. =
𝑌𝑚 1.3

Fm, yd. = 22.47N/mm2

Bending (Cl 6.1.6, EC 5)

𝛿𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝛿𝑚,𝑧,𝑑
+ Km ≤1
𝐹𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝐹𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

49
 Km = 0.7 – for rectangular / square timber section
𝛿𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 0
+ 0.7 x ≤1
22.47 𝐹𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

𝛿𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 ≤ 22.47𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
.

. 𝑀𝑑,𝑦 1.46 × 106

𝑊𝑦,𝑟𝑒𝑞 ≥ =
𝛿𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 22.47
= 64.98 × 103 𝑚𝑚3
From table for classification of Nigerian timber (Aguwa, 2016)
75mm X 150mm joist would be suitable
Wy = 281X 103 mm3, Iy = 21.09 X 106 MM4, A = 11.3X 103 mm2

Deflection (Cl 7.2 , EC5)

A). instatenous deflection due to permanent action, UinstG (from table 2.3,
EC 5) YG for serviceability limit state = 1.0
Factored permanent load, G = YG Gk = 1.0 X 0. 57
= 0.57N/m2
Factored permanent load per joist fd,G1 is
Fd,G = total load X joist spacing X span length
= 0.57 X 0.4 X 3.125 = 0.71KN
Uinst,G = bending deflection + sheer deflection
5 𝑓𝑑 𝑙 3 12 𝐹𝑑 𝐿
× + ×
384 𝐸𝐼 5 𝐸𝐴
5 (0.71 ×103 (3.125×103 )3 12 0.71 × 103 ×3.125×103
Uinst,G = ( )+ ×
384 12675 ×21.09× 106 5 12675 ×11.3 ×103

= 1.09mm
B) instantaneous deflection due to variable action, UinstQ
YG for serviceability state = 1.0

50
 Factored variable load, Q = YQQk = 1.0 X 1.5 = 1.5KN/M2
Factored variable action per joist, Fd,Q
Fd, Q = total load X joist spacing X span length
. = 1.5 X 0.4 X 3.125 = 1.875KN
.

Instantaneous deflection due to variable load, UinstQ is given by

UinstQ = bending deflection + sheer deflection

5 𝑓𝑑 𝑙 3 12 𝐹𝑑 𝐿
× + ×
384 𝐸𝐼 5 𝐸𝐴
5 1.875×103 (3.125×103 )3 12 1.875 × 103 ×3.125×103
( )+ ×
384 12675 ×21.09 × 106 5 12675 ×11.3×103

=2.89mm
(C.) Final deflection due to permanent actions (table 3.2, EC5)
For solid timber timbers subject to service class land
Medium – term loading, Kdef = 0.6
Final deflection due to permanent actions
Ufin, G1 is given by
Ufin,G = UinG (1+ Kdef)= 1 .09X (1 + 0.6) = 1.744mm
(Cl, 2.4.1,Ec2/cl6) Ѱ2 = 0.3
Final deflection due to variable action, Ufin, Q, is given by
Ufin,Q, = UinsQ1I (1 + Ѱ2 Kdef)
= 2.89 (1 + 0.3 x 0.6) = 3.410mm

D) check for final deflection

Total deflection, Ufin = UfinG + UfinQ = 1.774 + 3.410

51
 = 5.18mm
Permissible final deflection assuming the floor support bristle finishes). Wfin;
is
1
.
Wfin = X span
250
.
1/250 X 3.125 x 103 = 8.6
8.6mm > 5.18 HENCE DEFLECTION OK

Therefore, 75mm X 150mm Joist are adequate in deflection

LATERAL BUCKLING (CL 6.3.3, EC 5)

The check is unnecessary as the compressive edge cannot move
totally because the joist is attached to tongue and groove boarding.
SHEAR
Design shear strength is
𝑓𝑦,𝑘 3.75
Fv,d = KsysKmod − 1.1 × 0.8 × = 2.53N/mm2
𝛾𝑚 1.3

Maximum shear force is

𝐹𝑑 3.74 ×103
VEd = = = 1.879 × 103 𝑁
2 2

Design shear stress at Neural axis is

1.5 𝑉𝑑 1.5 ×1.879×103
𝜏d = = = 0.25N/mm2 <fv,d OK
𝐴 11.3 ×103

BEARING
Design compressive stress
E) Design bearing force is
𝐹𝑑 3.74 ×103
F9o,d = = = =1.870 X 103
2 2

52
.

100mm

Figure 4.4

Taking the floor joist to span onto 100mm(assumed) wide walls as

shown above, the bearing stress is given by:
𝐹90,𝑑 1.870×103
𝛿 c,90,d = = = 0.166N/mm2
𝑏𝑙 75×150

F) Design compressive strength

Design compressive strength parallel to grain fc,90, d is given by
𝑓𝑐,90,𝑘 5.05
Fc,90,d = Ksys Kmod = 1.1 × 0.8 ×
𝛾𝑚 1.3
2
= 3.42N/mm
Bearing capacity
The above diagram

b
a
𝑙
𝑙
Figure 4.5
From the above diagram
53
 a = overhanging length = O for the structure
l = size of wall = 100mm
h = height of joist = 150mm
b = breadth of joist = 75mm
.
a = o, L = 100m and h = 100mm
.

since a<h/3

𝑙 ℎ 100 150
Kc,90 = (2.38 − ) (1 + ) = (2.38 − ) (1 + 12 ×100) =
250 12𝑙 250
(1.98)(1.125)

= 2.23 < 4 OK

Kc, FG90,d = 2.23 X 3.42 = 7.6N/mm2 > 𝛿 c90,d OK

CHECK ASSUMED SELF WEIGHT OF JOISTS

From the Nigerian timber classification table
Density of class N2 timber is 770kg/m2

𝑏ℎ𝑝𝑔
SW =
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔
(75×150×10−6 )×770×9.8××10−3
SW = = 0.21𝐾𝑁𝑚2
0.4

Assumed self-weight > actual self-weight. hence assumed self-weight is ok

Design load on joist, Fd

= Fd = joist spacing x effective span x load
Fd = 0.4 x4x 2.99 = ~4.78KN

CACULATIONS
Design parameters
The grade of the seasoned Danta timber used is of N2 class

54
 Characteristics strengths and modulus of elasticity for timer of strength class
N2
Values in Nmm-2 are given below
Table 4.4
.

. Bending Compression Shear parallel to Modules of

strength perpendicular to grain (Fv,k) elasticity
(FM,K) grain (FC,90,K) (60, mean)
33.17 5.05 3.75 12675

K3 = duration of loading = 1.0

K8 = loading sharing system = 1.1
300
K7 = depth factor = (
ℎ
) 0.11

- The joist will be designed for service class 1 (clause 2.3.1.3,

EC5)
- The joist will carry both variable and permanent load, critical
load duration class – medium term (table 1, EC5)
- Kmod (table 3.1, EC5) – 0.80
- Ym (Table 2.3 EC 5) – 1.3
- The joist is from part of a load sharing system hence (Ksys =
1.1)
- - assure Kh = 1

Bending (Cl 6.1.6, EC5)

Bending moment
𝑓𝑑 𝑙 4.78𝑥4
Md,y = = = 2.39KNM
8 8

Design bending strength about Y-Y axis

𝑓𝑚,𝑘 1.0×1.1×0.8×33.19
Fm,y,d = Kh.Ksys.Kmond. =
𝑌𝑚 1.3

Fm, yd. = 22.47N/mm2

55
 Bending (Cl 6.1.6, EC 5)
𝛿𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝛿𝑚,𝑧,𝑑
+ Km ≤1
𝐹𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝐹𝑚,𝑧,𝑑
.

.
Km = 0.7 – for rectangular / square timber section
𝛿𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 0
+ 0.7 x ≤1
22.47 𝐹𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

𝛿𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 ≤ 22.47𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑀𝑑,𝑦 2.39 × 106
𝑊𝑦,𝑟𝑒𝑞 ≥ =
𝛿𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 22.47
=106.4 × 103 𝑚𝑚3
From table for classification of Nigerian timber (Aguwa, 2016)
75mm X 150mm joist would be suitable

Wy = 281X 103 mm3, Iy = 21.09 X 106 MM4, A = 11.3X 103 mm2

Deflection (Cl 7.2 , EC5)
A). instatenous deflection due to permanent action, UinstG (from table 2.3,
EC 5) YG for serviceability limit state = 1.0
Factored permanent load, G = YG Gk = 1.0 X 0. 57
= 0.57N/m2
Factored permanent load per joist fd,G1 is
Fd,G = total load X joist spacing X span length
= 0.57 X 0.4 X 4 = 0.912KN
Uinst,G = bending deflection + sheer deflection
5 𝑓𝑑 𝑙 3 12 𝐹𝑑 𝐿
× + ×
384 𝐸𝐼 5 𝐸𝐴
5 (0.912 ×103 (3.125×103 )3 12 0.912 × 103 ×3.125×103
Uinst,G = ( )+ ×
384 12675 ×21.09× 106 5 12675 ×11.3 ×103

56
 = 1.40mm
B) instantaneous deflection due to variable action, UinstQ
YG for serviceability state = 1.0
. Factored variable load, Q = YQQk = 1.0 X 1.5 = 1.5KN/M2
.
Factored variable action per joist, Fd,Q
Fd, Q = total load X joist spacing X span length
= 1.5 X 0.4 X 4 = 2.4KN

Instantaneous deflection due to variable load, UinstQ is given by

UinstQ = bending deflection + sheer deflection

5 𝑓𝑑 𝑙 3 12 𝐹𝑑 𝐿
× + ×
384 𝐸𝐼 5 𝐸𝐴
5 2.4×103 (3.125×103 )3 12 2.4 × 103 ×3.125×103
( )+ ×
384 12675 ×21.09 × 106 5 12675 ×11.3×103

=3.69mm
(C.) Final deflection due to permanent actions (table 3.2, EC5)
For solid timber timbers subject to service class land
Medium – term loading, Kdef = 0.6
Final deflection due to permanent actions
Ufin, G1 is given by
Ufin,G = UinG (1+ Kdef)= 1.4X (1 + 0.6) = 2.24mm
(Cl, 2.4.1,Ec2/cl6) Ѱ2 = 0.3
Final deflection due to variable action, Ufin, Q, is given by
Ufin,Q, = UinsQ1I (1 + Ѱ2 Kdef)
= 3.69 (1 + 0.3 x 0.6) = 4.35mm

57
 D) check for final deflection
Total deflection, Ufin = UfinG + UfinQ = 2.24 + 4.35
. = 6.59mm
.
Permissible final deflection assuming the floor support bristle finishes). Wfin;
is
1
Wfin = X span
250

1/250 X 4 x 103 = 16mm

16mm > 6.59mm OK

Therefore, 75mm X 150mm Joist are adequate in deflection

LATERAL BUCKLING (CL 6.3.3, EC 5)

The check is unnecessary as the compressive edge cannot move
totally because the joist is attached to tongue and groove boarding.
SHEAR
Design shear strength is
𝑓𝑦,𝑘 3.75
Fv,d = KsysKmod − 1.1 × 0.8 ×
𝛾𝑚 1.3

Maximum shear force is

𝐹𝑑 4.78 ×103
VEd = = = 2.390 × 103 𝑁
2 2

Design shear stress at Neural axis is

1.5 𝑉𝑑 1.5 ×2.390×103
𝜏d = = = 0.317N/mm2 <fv,d OK
𝐴 11.3 ×103

BEARING
Design compressive stress
G) Design bearing force is
58
 𝐹𝑑 4.78 ×103
F9o,d = = = =2.390 X 103
2 2

100mm
Figure 4.6
Taking the floor joist to span onto 10mm(assumed) wide walls as shown
above, the bearing stress is given by:
𝐹90,𝑑 2.390×103
𝛿 c,90,d = = = 0.21N/mm2
𝑏𝑙 75×150

H) Design compressive strength

Design compressive strength parallel to grain fc,90, d is given by
𝑓𝑐,90,𝑘 5.05
Fc,90,d = Ksys Kmod = 1.1 × 0.8 ×
𝛾𝑚 1.3
2
= 3.42N/mm
Bearing capacity
The above diagram

b
a
𝑙
𝑙
Figure 4.7
From the above diagram
a = overhanging length = O for the structure
l = size of wall = 100mm
h = height of joist = 150mm
b = breadth of joist = 75mm

59
 a = o, L = 100m and h = 100mm

since a<h/3
.

. 𝑙 ℎ 100 150
Kc,90 = (2.38 − ) (1 + ) = (2.38 − ) (1 + 12 ×100) =
250 12𝑙 250
(1.98)(1.125)

= 2.23 < 4 OK

Kc, FG90,d = 2.23X 3.42 = 7.63N/mm2 > 𝛿 c90,d OK

CHECK ASSUMED SELF WEIGHT OF JOISTS

From the Nigerian timber classification table
Density of class N2 timber is 770kg/m2

𝑏ℎ𝑝𝑔
SW =
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔
(75×150×10−6 )×770×9.8××10−3
SW = = 0.21𝐾𝑁𝑚2
0.4

Assumed self-weight > actual self-weight. hence assumed self-weight is ok

Design load on joist, Fd

= Fd = joist spacing x effective span x load
Fd = 0.4 x6.175x 2.99 = ~7.39KN

CACULATIONS
Design parameters
The grade of the seasoned timber used is of N2 class
Characteristics strengths and modulus of elasticity for timer of strength class
N2

60
 Values in Nmm-2 are given below
Table 4.2
Bending Compression Shear parallel to Modules of
strength perpendicular to grain (Fv,k) elasticity
.
(FM,K) grain (FC,90,K) (60, mean)
.
33.17 5.05 3.75 12675

K3 = duration of loading = 1.0

K8 = loading sharing system = 1.1
300
K7 = depth factor = (
ℎ
) 0.11

- The joist will be designed for service class 1 (clause 2.3.1.3, EC5)
- The joist will carry both variable and permanent load, critical load
duration class – medium term (table 1, EC5)
- Kmod (table 3.1, EC5) – 0.80
- Ym (Table 2.3 EC 5) – 1.3
- The joist is from part of a load sharing system hence (Ksys = 1.1)
- - assure Kh = 1

Bending (Cl 6.1.6, EC5)

Bending moment
𝑓𝑑 𝑙 7.39𝑥6.175
Md,y = = = 5.704KM
8 8

Design bending strength about Y-Y axis

𝑓𝑚,𝑘 1.0×1.1×0.8×33.19
Fm,y,d = Kh.Ksys.Kmond. =
𝑌𝑚 1.3

Fm, yd. = 22.47N/mm2

61
 Bending (Cl 6.1.6, EC 5)
𝛿𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝛿𝑚,𝑧,𝑑
+ Km ≤1
𝐹𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝐹𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

Km = 0.7 – for rectangular / square timber section

.
𝛿𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 0
. + 0.7 x ≤1
22.47 𝐹𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

𝛿𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 ≤ 22.47𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑀𝑑,𝑦 5.704 × 106
𝑊𝑦,𝑟𝑒𝑞 ≥ =
𝛿𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 22.47
=253.84 × 103 𝑚𝑚3
From table for classification of Nigerian timber (Aguwa, 2016)
75mm X 200mm joist would be suitable
Wy = 500X 103 mm3, Iy = 50.X 106 MM4, A = 15X 103 mm2

Serviceability:

Deflection (Cl 7.2 , EC5)

A). instatenous deflection due to permanent action, UinstG (from table 2.3,
EC 5) YG for serviceability limit state = 1.0
Factored permanent load, G = YG Gk = 1.0 X 0. 57
= 0.57N/m2
Factored permanent load per joist fd,G1 is
Fd,G = total load X joist spacing X span length
= 0.57 X 0.4 X 6.175 = 1.407KN
Uinst,G = bending deflection + sheer deflection
5 𝑓𝑑 𝑙 3 12 𝐹𝑑 𝐿
× + ×
384 𝐸𝐼 5 𝐸𝐴

62
 5 (1.407 ×103 (6.175×103 )3 12 1.407 × 103 ×6.175×103
Uinst,G = ( )+ × = 6.915mm
384 12675 ×50.0× 106 5 12675 ×15.1×103

B) instantaneous deflection due to variable action, UinstQ

.
YG for serviceability state = 1.0
.

Factored variable load, Q = YQQk = 1.0 X 1.5 = 1.5KN/M2

Factored variable action per joist, Fd,Q
Fd, Q = total load X joist spacing X span length
= 1.5 X 0.4 X 6.175 = 3.705KN

Instantaneous deflection due to variable load, UinstQ is given by

UinstQ = bending deflection + sheer deflection

5 𝑓𝑑 𝑙 3 12 𝐹𝑑 𝐿
× + ×
384 𝐸𝐼 5 𝐸𝐴
5 3.705×103 (6.175×103 )3 12 3.705 × 103 ×6.175×103
( )+ ×
384 12675 ×.50 × 106 5 12675 ×15.1×103

=18.210mm
(C.) Final deflection due to permanent actions (table 3.2, EC5)
For solid timber timbers subject to service class land
Medium – term loading, Kdef = 0.6
Final deflection due to permanent actions
Ufin, G1 is given by
Ufin,G = UinG (1+ Kdef)= 6.915X (1 + 0.6) = 11.064mm
(Cl, 2.4.1,Ec2/cl6) Ѱ2 = 0.3
Final deflection due to variable action, Ufin, Q, is given by
Ufin,Q, = UinsQ1I (1 + Ѱ2 Kdef)

63
 = 18.210(1 + 0.3 x 0.6) = 21.48mm

D) check for final deflection

. Total deflection, Ufin = UfinG + UfinQ = 11.064+ 13.06
.
= 24.76mm
Permissible final deflection assuming the floor support bristle finishes). Wfin;
is
1
Wfin = X span
250

1/250 X 6.175 x 103 = 24.7mm

16mm > 9mm OK

Therefore, 75mm X 125mm Joist are adequate in deflection

LATERAL BUCKLING (CL 6.3.3, EC 5)
The check is unnecessary as the compressive edge cannot move
totally because the joist is attached to tongue and groove boarding.
SHEAR
Design shear strength is
𝑓𝑦,𝑘 3.75
Fv,d = KsysKmod − 1.1 × 0.8 ×
𝛾𝑚 1.3

Maximum shear force is

𝐹𝑑 7.39 ×103
VEd = = = 3.69 × 103 𝑁
2 2

Design shear stress at Neural axis is

1.5 𝑉𝑑 1.5 ×3.69×103
𝜏d = = = 0.369N/mm2 <fv,d OK
𝐴 15 ×103

BEARING
Design compressive stress
I) Design bearing force is
64
 𝐹𝑑 7.39 ×103
F9o,d = = = =3.69 X 103
2 2

. figure 4.8
. 100mm

Taking the floor joist to span assumptously onto 10mm wide walls
as shown above, the bearing stress is given by:
𝐹90,𝑑 3.69×103
𝛿 c,90,d = = = 0.246N/mm2
𝑏𝑙 75×200

J) Design compressive strength

Design compressive strength parallel to grain fc,90, d is given by
𝑓𝑐,90,𝑘 5.05
Fc,90,d = Ksys Kmod = 1.1 × 0.8 ×
𝛾𝑚 1.3
2
= 3.42N/mm
Bearing capacity
The above diagram

b
a
𝑙
𝑙
Figure 4.9
From the above diagram
a = overhanging length = O for the structure
l = size of wall = 100mm
h = height of joist = 125mm
b = breadth of joist = 75mm

a = o, L = 100m and h = 100mm

since a<h/3

65
 𝑙 ℎ 100 200
Kc,90 = (2.38 − ) (1 + ) = (2.38 − ) (1 + 12 ×100) =
250 12𝑙 250
(1.98)(1.166)

. = 2.31 < 4 OK
. Kc, FG90,d = 2.31 X 3.42 = 7.90N/mm2 >δc90,d OK

CHECK ASSUMED SELF WEIGHT OF JOISTS

From the Nigerian timber classification table
Density of class N2 timber is 770kg/m2

𝑏ℎ𝑝𝑔
SW =
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔
(75×125×10−6 )×770×9.8××10−3
SW = = 0.17𝐾𝑁𝑚2
0.4

Assumed self-weight > actual self-weight. hence assumed self-weight is ok

4.2 BEAM DESIGN

DESIGN LOADING
A). Permanent action (GK);
Roof load (live and dead) = 1.50KN/m2
Timber wall board load = 0.30 KN/m2
Self weight of beam = 0.30 KN/m2
Total permanent action (Gk) = 2.1KN/M2

B). Variable action, QK :

Imposed floor loads for offices (table 3, EN 1991-1-1) =1.50KN/M2

DESIGN ACTION
Total design load is

66
 = 𝛾GGk +𝛾QQk =
= 1.35 x 2.1 + 1.5 x1.5 = 5.085KN/M2

CACULATIONS
Design parameters
The grade of the seasoned timber used is of N2 class
Characteristics strengths and modulus of elasticity for timer of strength class
N2
Values in Nmm-2 are given below
Table 4.5
Bending Compression Shear parallel to Modulus of
strength perpendicular to grain (Fv,k) elasticity
(FM,K) grain (FC,90,K) (60, mean)
33.17 5.05 3.75 12675

K3 = duration of loading = 1.0

K8 = loading sharing system = 1.1
300
K7 = depth factor = (
ℎ
) 0.11

- The beam will be designed for service class 1 (clause 2.3.1.3, EC5)
- The beam will carry both variable and permanent load, critical load
duration class – medium term (table 1, EC5)
- Kmod (table 3.1, EC5) – 0.80
- Ym (Table 2.3 EC 5) – 1.3
- The beam is from part of a load sharing system hence (Ksys = 1.1)
- - assure Kh = 1

BEAMS

67
 Design of beams will equivalent spans are similar according to Engr V.O
Oyenuga
the following beams will be designed to represent others:
a) Beams supporting walls and floor
.

. Beam A to represent beams that span from 1800mm – 2500mm

Beam b to represent beams that span from 3500mm – 4000mm
Beam c to represent beams that span from 5500mm – 6000mm
b) Beams supporting walls, floor and Beam

Beam d to represent beans that span from 1500mm – 2000mm

Beam e to represent beans that span from 3500mm – 4000mm
Beam f to represent beans that span from 4500mm – 5000m

4.2.1 Beams supporting walls and floor

BEAM A

Figure 4.10
Bending (Cl 6.1.6, EC5)
Bending moment
𝑤𝑙 2 5.085𝑥2.52
Md,y = = = 3.97KNM
8 8

Design bending strength about Y-Y axis

𝑓𝑚,𝑘 1.0×1.1×0.8×33.19
Fm,y,d = Kh.Ksys.Kmod. =
𝑌𝑚 1.3

Fm, yd. = 22.47N/mm2

Bending (Cl 6.1.6, EC 5)

68
 𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝜎𝑚,𝑧,𝑑
+ Km ≤1
𝐹𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝐹𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

Km = 0.7 – for rectangular / square timber section

𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 0
+ 0.7 x ≤1
.
22.47 𝐹𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

.
𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 ≤ 22.47𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑀𝑑,𝑦 3.97 × 106
𝑊𝑦,𝑟𝑒𝑞 ≥ =
𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 22.47
=176.68 × 103 𝑚𝑚3
From table for classification of Nigerian timber (Aguwa, 2016)
75mm X 150mm Beam would be suitable

Wy = 281X 103 mm3, Iy = 21.09 X 106 MM4, A = 11.3X 103 mm2

Deflection (Cl 7.2 , EC5)
A). instatenous deflection due to permanent action, UinstG (from table 2.3,
EC 5) YG for serviceability limit state = 1.0
Factored permanent load, G = YG Gk = 1.0 X 2.1
= 2.1kN/m2
Uinst,G = bending deflection + shear deflection
5 𝑓𝑑 𝑙 3 12 𝐹𝑑 𝐿
× + ×
384 𝐸𝐼 5 𝐸𝐴
5 (2.1 ×103 (2.5×103 )3 12 2.1 × 103 ×2.5×103
Uinst,G = ( 12675 ×21.09× 106 ) + ×
384 5 12675 ×11.3 ×103

= 1.68mm
B) instantaneous deflection due to variable action, UinstQ
YG for serviceability state = 1.0
Factored variable load, Q = YQQk = 1.0 X 1.5 = 1.5KN/M2
Instantaneous deflection due to variable load, UinstQ is given by

69
 UinstQ = bending deflection + sheer deflection
5 𝑓𝑑 𝑙 3 12 𝐹𝑑 𝐿
× + ×
384 𝐸𝐼 5 𝐸𝐴
5 1.5×103 (2.5×103 )3 12 1.5 × 103 ×2.5×103
. (12675 ×21.09 × 106) + ×
384 5 12675 ×11.3×103
.
=1.2mm
(C.) Final deflection due to permanent actions (table 3.2, EC5)
For solid timber timbers subject to service class land
Medium – term loading, Kdef = 0.6
Final deflection due to permanent actions
Ufin, G1 is given by
Ufin,G = UinG (1+ Kdef)= 1.68X (1 + 0.6) = 2.69mm
(Cl, 2.4.1,Ec2/cl6) Ѱ2 = 0.3
Final deflection due to variable action, Ufin, Q, is given by
Ufin,Q, = UinsQ1I (1 + Ѱ2 Kdef)
= 1.2 (1 + 0.3 x 0.6) = 1.42mm

D) check for final deflection

Total deflection, Ufin = UfinG + UfinQ = 2.69+ 1.42
= 4.11mm
Permissible final deflection assuming the floor support bristle finishes). Wfin;
is
1
Wfin = X span
250

1/250 X 2.5 x 103 = 10mm

10mm > 4.11mm OK

70
 Therefore, 75mm X 150mm beam are adequate in deflection
LATERAL BUCKLING (CL 6.3.3, EC 5)
𝑙𝑒𝑓 = 0.9𝑙 + 2ℎ = 0.9 × 2500 + 2 × 150 = 2550mm
. 0.78𝑏2 0.78×752
𝜎m,crit = 𝐸0,05 = × 5.4 × 103 = 61.94
. ℎ𝑙𝑒𝑓 150×2550

𝑓𝑚,𝑘 33.17
𝜆𝑟𝑒𝑙,𝑚= √ =√ =0.731
𝜎 𝑚,𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 61.94

since 𝜆 < 0.75, 𝑘𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 = 1

𝑓𝑚,𝑘 1.0×1.1×0.8×33.19
𝑘𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑚,𝑦𝑑 = 𝑘𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 (Kh.Ksys.Kmod. ) = 1.0 ( )
𝑌𝑚 1.3

= 22.4 N/mm

𝜎 𝑀𝑦,𝑑 3970
𝑚,𝑑= = =0.014𝑁/𝑚𝑚
𝑏ℎ2⁄ 75×1502⁄
6 6

since 𝜎𝑚,𝑑 ≤ 𝑘𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑚,𝑑 it is ok

SHEAR

Design shear strength is

𝑓𝑦,𝑘 3.75
Fv,d = KsysKmod − 1.1 × 0.8 × =2.54
𝛾𝑚 1.3

Maximum shear force is

𝑤𝑙 5.085 ×103 ×2.5
VEd = = = 6.356 × 103 𝑁
2 2

Design shear stress at Neural axis is

1.5 𝑉𝑑 1.5 ×6.356×103
𝜏d = = = 0.84N/mm2 <fv,d OK
𝐴 11.3 ×103

BEARING
Design compressive stress
K) Design bearing force is
71
 𝑤𝑙 5.085 ×103 ×2.5
F9o,d = = = 6.356 × 103 𝑁
2 2

.
Taking the beam to span onto 100mm(assumed) of nearby column as shown
above, the bearing stress is given by:
𝐹90,𝑑 6.356×103
𝜎c,90,d = = = 0.565N/mm2
𝑏𝑙 75×150

L) Design compressive strength

Design compressive strength parallel to grain fc,90, d is given by
𝑓𝑐,90,𝑘 5.05
Fc,90,d = Ksys Kmod = 1.1 × 0.8 ×
𝛾𝑚 1.3
2
= 3.42N/mm
Bearing capacity
The above diagram

b
a
𝑙
𝑙
Figure 4.11
From the above diagram
a = overhanging length = O for the structure
l = size of wall = 100mm
h = height of BEAM = 150mm
b = breadth of BEAM = 75mm

a = o, L = 100m and h = 100mm

since a<h/3

72
 𝑙 ℎ 100 150
Kc,90 = (2.38 − ) (1 + ) = (2.38 − ) (1 + 12 ×100) =
250 12𝑙 250
(1.98)(1.125)

= 2.23 < 4 OK
.

.
Kc, FG90,d = 2.23X 3.42 = 7.63N/mm2 > 𝜎c90,d OK

BEAM B

Figure 4.12

Bending (Cl 6.1.6, EC5)

Bending moment
𝑤𝑙 2 5.085𝑥42
Md,y = = = 10.17KNM
8 8

Design bending strength about Y-Y axis

𝑓𝑚,𝑘 1.0×1.1×0.8×33.19
Fm,y,d = Kh.Ksys.Kmod. =
𝑌𝑚 1.3

Fm, yd. = 22.47N/mm2

Bending (Cl 6.1.6, EC 5)

𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝜎𝑚,𝑧,𝑑
+ Km ≤1
𝐹𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝐹𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

Km = 0.7 – for rectangular / square timber section

𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 0
+ 0.7 x ≤1
22.47 𝐹𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

73
 𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 ≤ 22.47𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑀𝑑,𝑦 10.17 × 106
𝑊𝑦,𝑟𝑒𝑞 ≥ =
𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 22.47

. =452.60 × 103 𝑚𝑚3

.
From table for classification of Nigerian timber (Aguwa, 2016)
100mm X 200mm Beam would be suitable

Wy = 667X 103 mm3, Iy = 66.67 X 106 MM4, A = 20 X 103 mm2

Deflection (Cl 7.2 , EC5)

A). instatenous deflection due to permanent action, UinstG (from table 2.3,
EC 5) YG for serviceability limit state = 1.0
Factored permanent load, G = YG Gk = 1.0 X 2.1
= 2.1kN/m2
Uinst,G = bending deflection + shear deflection
5 𝑓𝑑 𝑙 3 12 𝐹𝑑 𝐿
× + ×
384 𝐸𝐼 5 𝐸𝐴
5 (2.1 ×103 (4×103 )3 12 2.1 × 103 ×4×103
Uinst,G = (12675 ×66.67× 106 ) + ×
384 5 12675 ×20 ×103

= 2.15mm
B) instantaneous deflection due to variable action, UinstQ
YG for serviceability state = 1.0
Factored variable load, Q = YQQk = 1.0 X 1.5 = 1.5KN/M2
Instantaneous deflection due to variable load, UinstQ is given by
UinstQ = bending deflection + sheer deflection

74
 5 𝑓𝑑 𝑙 3 12 𝐹𝑑 𝐿
× + ×
384 𝐸𝐼 5 𝐸𝐴
5 1.5×103 (4×103 )3 12 1.5 × 103 ×4×103
(12675 ×66.67.09 × 106 ) + ×
384 5 12675 ×20×103

. =1.53mm
.
(C.) Final deflection due to permanent actions (table 3.2, EC5)
For solid timber timbers subject to service class land
Medium – term loading, Kdef = 0.6
Final deflection due to permanent actions
Ufin, G1 is given by
Ufin,G = UinG (1+ Kdef)= 2.15X (1 + 0.6) = 3.44mm
(Cl, 2.4.1,Ec2/cl6) Ѱ2 = 0.3
Final deflection due to variable action, Ufin, Q, is given by
Ufin,Q, = UinsQ1I (1 + Ѱ2 Kdef)
= 1.53(1 + 0.3 x 0.6) = 1.80mm

D) check for final deflection

Total deflection, Ufin = UfinG + UfinQ = 3.44+ 1.80
= 5.24mm
Permissible final deflection assuming the floor support bristle finishes). Wfin;
is
1
Wfin = X span
250

1/250 X 4 x 103 = 16mm

16mm > 5.24mm OK

Therefore, 100mm X 200mm beam are adequate in deflection

75
 LATERAL BUCKLING (CL 6.3.3, EC 5)
𝑙𝑒𝑓 = 0.9𝑙 + 2ℎ = 0.9 × 4000 + 2 × 200 = 4000mm
0.78𝑏2 0.78×1002
𝜎m,crit = 𝐸0,05 = × 5.4 × 103 = 52.6
ℎ𝑙𝑒𝑓 200×4000
.

. 𝑓𝑚,𝑘 33.17
𝜆𝑟𝑒𝑙,𝑚= √ =√ =0.79
𝜎 𝑚,𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 52.6

since 𝜆𝑟𝑒𝑙,𝑚 > 0.75, 𝑘𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 = 1.5

𝑓𝑚,𝑘 1.0×1.1×0.8×33.19
𝑘𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑚,𝑦𝑑 = 𝑘𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 (Kh.Ksys.Kmod. ) = 1.5 ( )
𝑌𝑚 1.3

= 33.6N/mm

𝜎 𝑀𝑦,𝑑 10170
𝑚,𝑑= = =0.015𝑁/𝑚𝑚
𝑏ℎ2⁄ 100×2002⁄
6 6

since 𝜎𝑚,𝑑 ≤ 𝑘𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑚,𝑑 it is ok

The check is unnecessary as the compressive edge cannot move

totally because the Beam is attached to tongue and groove boarding.
SHEAR
Design shear strength is
𝑓𝑦,𝑘 3.75
Fv,d = KsysKmod − 1.1 × 0.8 × =2.54
𝛾𝑚 1.3

Maximum shear force is

𝑤𝑙 5.085 ×103 ×4
VEd = = = 10.17 × 103 𝑁
2 2

Design shear stress at Neural axis is

1.5 𝑉𝑑 1.5 ×10.17×103
𝜏d = = = 0.76N/mm2 <fv,d OK
𝐴 20 ×103

BEARING
Design compressive stress
M) Design bearing force is

76
 𝑤𝑙 5.085 ×103 ×4
F9o,d = = = 10.17 × 103 𝑁
2 2

.
100mm
Figure 4.13
Taking the beam to span onto 100mm(assumed) of nearby column as shown
above, the bearing stress is given by:
𝐹90,𝑑 10.17×103
𝜎c,90,d = = = 0.509N/mm2
𝑏𝑙 100×200

N) Design compressive strength

Design compressive strength parallel to grain fc,90, d is given by
𝑓𝑐,90,𝑘 5.05
Fc,90,d = Ksys Kmod = 1.1 × 0.8 ×
𝛾𝑚 1.3
2
= 3.42N/mm
Bearing capacity
The above diagram

b
a
𝑙
𝑙
Figure 4.14
From the above diagram
a = overhanging length = O for the structure
l = size of wall = 100mm
h = height of beam = 200mm
b = breadth of beam = 100mm

a = o, L = 100m and h = 100mm

77
 since a<h/3

𝑙 ℎ 100 200
Kc,90 = (2.38 − ) (1 + ) = (2.38 − ) (1 + 12 ×100) =
.
250 12𝑙 250
(1.98)(1.16)
.

= 2.296 < 4 OK

Kc, FG90,d = 2.23X 3.42 = 7.63N/mm2 > 𝜎c90,d OK

Beams supporting walls and floor

BEAM C
Figure 4.15

Bending (Cl 6.1.6, EC5)

Bending moment
𝑤𝑙 2 5.085𝑥62
Md,y = = = 22.885KNM
8 8

Design bending strength about Y-Y axis

𝑓𝑚,𝑘 1.0×1.1×0.8×33.19
Fm,y,d = Kh.Ksys.Kmod. =
𝑌𝑚 1.3

Fm, yd. = 22.47N/mm2

Bending (Cl 6.1.6, EC 5)

𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝜎𝑚,𝑧,𝑑
+ Km ≤1
𝐹𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝐹𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

Km = 0.7 – for rectangular / square timber section

78
 𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 0
+ 0.7 x ≤1
22.47 𝐹𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 ≤ 22.47𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑀𝑑,𝑦 22.885 × 106
. 𝑊𝑦,𝑟𝑒𝑞 ≥ =
𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 22.47
.

=1018.4 × 103 𝑚𝑚3

From table for classification of Nigerian timber (Aguwa, 2016)
100mm X 300mm Beam would be suitable

Wy = 1500X 103 mm3, Iy = 225 X 106 MM4, A = 30 X 103 mm2

Deflection (Cl 7.2 , EC5)
A). instatenous deflection due to permanent action, UinstG (from table 2.3,
EC 5) YG for serviceability limit state = 1.0
Factored permanent load, G = YG Gk = 1.0 X 2.1
= 2.1kN/m2
Uinst,G = bending deflection + shear deflection
5 𝑓𝑑 𝑙 3 12 𝐹𝑑 𝐿
× + ×
384 𝐸𝐼 5 𝐸𝐴
5 (2.1 ×103 (6×103 )3 12 2.1 × 103 ×6×103
Uinst,G = ( 12675 ×225× 106 ) + ×
384 5 12675 ×30 ×103

= 2.07mm
B) instantaneous deflection due to variable action, UinstQ
YG for serviceability state = 1.0
Factored variable load, Q = YQQk = 1.0 X 1.5 = 1.5KN/M2
Instantaneous deflection due to variable load, UinstQ is given by
UinstQ = bending deflection + sheer deflection
5 𝑓𝑑 𝑙 3 12 𝐹𝑑 𝐿
× + ×
384 𝐸𝐼 5 𝐸𝐴
79
 5 1.5×103 (6×103 )3 12 1.5 × 103 ×6×103
(12675 ×225 × 106) + ×
384 5 12675 ×30×103

=1.48mm
(C.) Final deflection due to permanent actions (table 3.2, EC5)
.
For solid timber timbers subject to service class land
.

Medium – term loading, Kdef = 0.6

Final deflection due to permanent actions
Ufin, G1 is given by
Ufin,G = UinG (1+ Kdef)= 2.07X (1 + 0.6) = 3.312mm
(Cl, 2.4.1,Ec2/cl6) Ѱ2 = 0.3
Final deflection due to variable action, Ufin, Q, is given by
Ufin,Q, = UinsQ1I (1 + Ѱ2 Kdef)
= 1.48(1 + 0.3 x 0.6) = 1.75mm

D) check for final deflection

Total deflection, Ufin = UfinG + UfinQ = 3.312+ 1.75
= 5.06mm

Permissible final deflection assuming the floor support bristle finishes). Wfin;
is
1
Wfin = X span
250

1/250 X 6 x 103 = 16mm

24mm > 5.06mm OK

Therefore, 100mm X 300mm beam are adequate in deflection

LATERAL BUCKLING (CL 6.3.3, EC 5)

80
 𝑙𝑒𝑓 = 0.9𝑙 + 2ℎ = 0.9 × 6000 + 2 × 300 = 6000mm
0.78𝑏2 0.78×1002
𝜎m,crit = 𝐸0,05 = × 5.4 × 103 = 36
ℎ𝑙𝑒𝑓 300×3900

𝑓𝑚,𝑘 33.17
. 𝜆𝑟𝑒𝑙,𝑚= √ =√ =0.95
𝜎 𝑚,𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 36
.

since 𝜆𝑟𝑒𝑙,𝑚 > 0.75, 𝑘𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 = 1.5

𝑓𝑚,𝑘 1.0×1.1×0.8×33.17
𝑘𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑚,𝑦𝑑 = 𝑘𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 (Kh.Ksys.Kmod. ) = 1.5 ( )
𝑌𝑚 1.3

= 33.68N/mm

𝜎 𝑀𝑦,𝑑 22885
𝑚,𝑑= = =0.0152𝑁/𝑚𝑚
𝑏ℎ2⁄ 100×3002⁄
6 6

since 𝜎𝑚,𝑑 ≤ 𝑘𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑚,𝑑 it is ok

The check is unnecessary as the compressive edge cannot move

totally because the Beam is attached to tongue and groove boarding.
SHEAR
Design shear strength is
𝑓𝑦,𝑘 3.75
Fv,d = KsysKmod − 1.1 × 0.8 × =2.54
𝛾𝑚 1.3

Maximum shear force is

𝑤𝑙 5.085 ×103 ×6
VEd = = = 17.55 × 103 𝑁
2 2

Design shear stress at Neural axis is

1.5 𝑉𝑑 1.5 ×17.55×103
𝜏d = = = 0.88N/mm2 <fv,d OK
𝐴 30 ×103

BEARING
Design compressive stress
O) Design bearing force is
𝑤𝑙 5.085 ×103 ×6
F9o,d = = = 15.255 × 103 𝑁
2 2

81
.

100mm
figure 4.16
Taking the beam to span onto 100mm(assumed) of nearby column as shown
above, the bearing stress is given by:
𝐹90,𝑑 10.17×103
𝜎c,90,d = = = 0.339N/mm2
𝑏𝑙 100×300

P) Design compressive strength

Design compressive strength parallel to grain fc,90, d is given by
𝑓𝑐,90,𝑘 5.05
Fc,90,d = Ksys Kmod = 1.1 × 0.8 ×
𝛾𝑚 1.3
2
= 3.42N/mm
Bearing capacity
The above diagram

b
a
𝑙
𝑙
Figure 4.17
From the above diagram
a = overhanging length = O for the structure
l = size of wall = 100mm
h = height of beam = 300mm
b = breadth of beam = 100mm
82
 a = o, L = 100m and h = 100mm

since a<h/3
.

. 𝑙 ℎ 100 300
Kc,90 = (2.38 − ) (1 + ) = (2.38 − ) (1 + 12 ×100) =
250 12𝑙 250
(1.98)(1.25)

= 2.475 < 4 OK

Kc, FG90,d = 2.475X 3.42 = 8.46N/mm2 > 𝜎c90,d OK

4.2.2 Beams supporting walls, floor and Beam

Beam D, to represent beans that span from 1500mm – 2000mm
Beam E, to represent beans that span from 3500mm – 4000mm
Beam F, to represent beans that span from 4500mm – 5000mm

BEAM D

Figure 4.18

Bending (Cl 6.1.6, EC5)

83
 Bending moment
Considering the point loads due to the joists, singly
𝑉𝑎 = 𝑣𝑏 = 13.77𝐾𝑁
. 22
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝑣𝑎 − (1.2𝑘𝑛 (0.6 + 0.2)𝑚 + 5.08x ) = 16.41𝑘𝑛𝑚
. 2
𝑀𝑑, 𝑦 = 16.41𝑘𝑛𝑚

Design bending strength about Y-Y axis

𝑓𝑚,𝑘 1.0×1.1×0.8×33.19
Fm,y,d = Kh.Ksys.Kmod. =
𝑌𝑚 1.3

Fm, yd. = 22.47N/mm2

Bending (Cl 6.1.6, EC 5)

𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝜎𝑚,𝑧,𝑑
+ Km ≤1
𝐹𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝐹𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

Km = 0.7 – for rectangular / square timber section

𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 0
+ 0.7 x ≤1
22.47 𝐹𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 ≤ 22.47𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑀𝑑,𝑦 16.41𝑘𝑛𝑚 × 106
𝑊𝑦,𝑟𝑒𝑞 ≥ =
𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 22.47
=730.30 × 103 𝑚𝑚3
From table for classification of Nigerian timber (Aguwa, 2016)
100mm X 225mm Beam would be suitable

Wy = 834X 103 mm3, Iy = 94.92X 106 MM4, A = 22.5X 103 mm2

84
 Deflection (Cl 7.2 , EC5)
A). instatenous deflection due to permanent action, UinstG (from table 2.3,
EC 5) YG for serviceability limit state = 1.0
.

. Factored permanent load, G = YG Gk = 1.0 X 2.1

= 2.1kN/m2
Uinst,G = bending deflection + shear deflection
5 𝑓𝑑 𝑙 3 12 𝐹𝑑 𝐿
× + ×
384 𝐸𝐼 5 𝐸𝐴
5 (2.1 ×103 (2×103 )3 12 2.1 × 103 ×2×103
Uinst,G = (12675 ×94.92× 106 ) + ×
384 5 12675 ×22.5 ×103

= 0.217mm
B) instantaneous deflection due to variable action, UinstQ
YG for serviceability state = 1.0
Factored variable load, Q = YQQk = 1.0 X 1.5 = 1.5KN/M2
Instantaneous deflection due to variable load, UinstQ is given by
UinstQ = bending deflection + sheer deflection
5 𝑓𝑑 𝑙 3 12 𝐹𝑑 𝐿
× + ×
384 𝐸𝐼 5 𝐸𝐴
5 1.5×103 (2×103 )3 12 1.5 × 103 ×2×103
(12675 ×94.92 × 106) + ×
384 5 12675 ×22.5×103

=0.357mm
(C.) Final deflection due to permanent actions (table 3.2, EC5)
For solid timber timbers subject to service class land
Medium – term loading, Kdef = 0.6
Final deflection due to permanent actions
Ufin, G1 is given by
Ufin,G = UinG (1+ Kdef)= 0.217X (1 + 0.6) = 0.3472mm
85
 (Cl, 2.4.1,Ec2/cl6) Ѱ2 = 0.3
Final deflection due to variable action, Ufin, Q, is given by
Ufin,Q, = UinsQ1I (1 + Ѱ2 Kdef)
. = 0.357(1 + 0.3 x 0.6) = 0.421mm
.

D) check for final deflection

Total deflection, Ufin = UfinG + UfinQ = 0.347+ 0.421
= 0.768mm
Permissible final deflection assuming the floor support bristle finishes). Wfin;
is
1
Wfin = X span
250

1/250 X 2 x 103 = 8mm

8mm > 0.768mm OK

Therefore, 100mm X 225mm beam are adequate in deflection

LATERAL BUCKLING (CL 6.3.3, EC 5)
𝑙𝑒𝑓 = 0.9𝑙 + 2ℎ = 0.9 × 2000 + 2 × 225 = 2150mm
0.78𝑏2 0.78×1002
𝜎m,crit = 𝐸0,05 = × 5.4 × 103 = 87.069𝑘𝑛𝑚
ℎ𝑙𝑒𝑓 225×2150

𝑓𝑚,𝑘 33.17
𝜆𝑟𝑒𝑙,𝑚= √ =√ =0.617
𝜎 𝑚,𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 87.069

since 𝜆𝑟𝑒𝑙,𝑚 < 0.75, 𝑘𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 = 1

𝑓𝑚,𝑘 1.0×1.1×0.8×33.19
𝑘𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑚,𝑦𝑑 = 𝑘𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 (Kh.Ksys.Kmod. ) = 1( )
𝑌𝑚 1.3

= 22.46N/mm

𝜎 𝑀𝑦,𝑑 1641
𝑚,𝑑= = =1.944×10−3
𝑏ℎ2⁄ 100×2252⁄
6 6

86
 since 𝜎𝑚,𝑑 ≤ 𝑘𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑚,𝑑 it is ok

The check is unnecessary as the compressive edge cannot move

totally because the Beam is attached to tongue and groove boarding.
.

. SHEAR
Design shear strength is
𝑓𝑦,𝑘 3.75
Fv,d = KsysKmod − 1.1 × 0.8 × =2.54
𝛾𝑚 1.3

Maximum shear force is

VEd = 𝑣𝑎 = 8.685 × 103 𝑁
Design shear stress at Neural axis is
1.5 𝑉𝑑 1.5 ×8.685×103
𝜏d = = = 0.579N/mm2 <fv,d OK
𝐴 22.5 ×103

BEARING
Design compressive stress
Q) Design bearing force is
F9o,d = 𝑣𝑎 = 8.685 × 103 𝑁

100mm
Figure 4.19
Taking the beam to span onto 100mm(assumed) of nearby column as shown
above, the bearing stress is given by:
𝐹90,𝑑 8.685×103
𝜎c,90,d = = = 0.386N/mm2
𝑏𝑙 100×225

R) Design compressive strength

Design compressive strength parallel to grain fc,90, d is given by

87
 𝑓𝑐,90,𝑘 5.05
Fc,90,d = Ksys Kmod = 1.1 × 0.8 ×
𝛾𝑚 1.3
2
= 3.42N/mm

Bearing capacity
. The above diagram
.

a
b
𝑙
𝑙
Figure 4.20
From the above diagram
a = overhanging length = O for the structure
l = size of wall = 100mm
h = height of beam = 225mm
b = breadth of beam = 100mm

a = o, L = 100m and h = 100mm

since a<h/3

𝑙 ℎ 100 225
Kc,90 = (2.38 − ) (1 + ) = (2.38 − ) (1 + 12 ×100) =
250 12𝑙 250
(1.98)(1.19)

= 2.35 < 4 OK

Kc, FG90,d = 2.35X 3.42 = 8.06N/mm2 > 𝜎c90,d OK

BEAM E

88
.

Figure 4.21
Bending (Cl 6.1.6, EC5)
Bending moment
Considering the point loads due to the joists, singly
𝑉𝑎 = 𝑣𝑏 = 23.7𝐾𝑁
42
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4𝑣𝑎 − (2.4𝑘𝑛 (4)𝑚 + 5.08x ) = 26.97𝑘𝑛𝑚
2
𝑀𝑑, 𝑦 = 44.52𝑘𝑛𝑚

Design bending strength about Y-Y axis

𝑓𝑚,𝑘 1.0×1.1×0.8×33.19
Fm,y,d = Kh.Ksys.Kmod. =
𝑌𝑚 1.3

Fm, yd. = 22.47N/mm2

Bending (Cl 6.1.6, EC 5)

𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝜎𝑚,𝑧,𝑑
+ Km ≤1
𝐹𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝐹𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

Km = 0.7 – for rectangular / square timber section

𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 0
+ 0.7 x ≤1
22.47 𝐹𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 ≤ 22.47𝑁/𝑚𝑚2

89
 𝑀𝑑,𝑦 44.52𝑘𝑛𝑚 × 106
𝑊𝑦,𝑟𝑒𝑞 ≥ =
𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 22.47
=1200.26 × 103 𝑚𝑚3

. From table for classification of Nigerian timber (Aguwa, 2016)

.
100mm X 300mm Beam would be suitable

Wy = 1500X 103 mm3, Iy = 225X 106 MM4, A = 30X 103 mm2

Deflection (Cl 7.2 , EC5)
A). instatenous deflection due to permanent action, UinstG (from table 2.3,
EC 5) YG for serviceability limit state = 1.0
Factored permanent load, G = YG Gk = 1.0 X 2.1
= 2.1kN/m2
Uinst,G = bending deflection + shear deflection
5 𝑓𝑑 𝑙 3 12 𝐹𝑑 𝐿
× + ×
384 𝐸𝐼 5 𝐸𝐴
5 (2.1 ×103 (4×103 )3 12 2.1 × 103 ×4×103
Uinst,G = ( 12675 ×225× 106 ) + ×
384 5 12675 ×30 ×103

= 0.614mm
B) instantaneous deflection due to variable action, UinstQ
YG for serviceability state = 1.0
Factored variable load, Q = YQQk = 1.0 X 1.5 = 1.5KN/M2
Instantaneous deflection due to variable load, UinstQ is given by
UinstQ = bending deflection + sheer deflection
5 𝑓𝑑 𝑙 3 12 𝐹𝑑 𝐿
× + ×
384 𝐸𝐼 5 𝐸𝐴
5 1.5×103 (4×103 )3 12 1.5 × 103 ×4×103
(12675 ×225 × 106) + ×
384 5 12675 ×30×103

=0.438mm
90
 (C.) Final deflection due to permanent actions (table 3.2, EC5)
For solid timber timbers subject to service class land
Medium – term loading, Kdef = 0.6
. Final deflection due to permanent actions
.
Ufin, G1 is given by
Ufin,G = UinG (1+ Kdef)= 0.614X (1 + 0.6) = 0.982mm
(Cl, 2.4.1,Ec2/cl6) Ѱ2 = 0.3
Final deflection due to variable action, Ufin, Q, is given by
Ufin,Q, = UinsQ1I (1 + Ѱ2 Kdef)
= 0.438(1 + 0.3 x 0.6) = 0.517mm

D) check for final deflection

Total deflection, Ufin = UfinG + UfinQ = 0.982+ 0.517
= 0.768mm
Permissible final deflection assuming the floor support bristle finishes). Wfin;
is
1
Wfin = X span
250

1/250 X 4 x 103 = 8mm

16mm > 0.768mm OK

Therefore, 100mm X 300mm beam are adequate in deflection

LATERAL BUCKLING (CL 6.3.3, EC 5)

𝑙𝑒𝑓 = 0.9𝑙 + 2ℎ = 0.9 × 4000 + 2 × 300 = 4200mm
0.78𝑏2 0.78×1002
𝜎m,crit = 𝐸0,05 = × 5.4 × 103 = 65.302𝑘𝑛𝑚
ℎ𝑙𝑒𝑓 300×2150

91
 𝑓𝑚,𝑘 33.17
𝜆𝑟𝑒𝑙,𝑚= √ =√ =0.712
𝜎 𝑚,𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 65.302

since 𝜆𝑟𝑒𝑙,𝑚 < 0.75, 𝑘𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 = 1

𝑓𝑚,𝑘 1.0×1.1×0.8×33.19
. 𝑘𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑚,𝑦𝑑 = 𝑘𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 (Kh.Ksys.Kmod. ) = 1( )
𝑌𝑚 1.3
.
= 22.46N/mm

𝜎 𝑀𝑦,𝑑 2697
𝑚,𝑑= = =1.798×10−3
𝑏ℎ2⁄ 100×3002⁄
6 6

since 𝜎𝑚,𝑑 ≤ 𝑘𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑚,𝑑 it is ok

The check is unnecessary as the compressive edge cannot move

totally because the Beam is attached to tongue and groove boarding.
SHEAR
Design shear strength is
𝑓𝑦,𝑘 3.75
Fv,d = KsysKmod − 1.1 × 0.8 × =2.54
𝛾𝑚 1.3

Maximum shear force is

VEd = 𝑣𝑎 = 23.7 × 103 𝑁
Design shear stress at Neural axis is
1.5 𝑉𝑑 1.5 ×23.7×103
𝜏d = = = 1.185N/mm2 <fv,d OK
𝐴 30×103

BEARING
Design compressive stress
S) Design bearing force is
F9o,d = 𝑣𝑎 = 23.7 × 103 𝑁

92
 100mm
Figure 4.22
Taking the beam to span onto 100mm(assumed) of nearby column as shown
above, the bearing stress is given by:
.

. 𝐹90,𝑑 23.7×103
𝜎c,90,d = = = 0.79N/mm2
𝑏𝑙 100×300

T) Design compressive strength

Design compressive strength parallel to grain fc,90, d is given by
𝑓𝑐,90,𝑘 5.05
Fc,90,d = Ksys Kmod = 1.1 × 0.8 ×
𝛾𝑚 1.3
2
= 3.42N/mm
Bearing capacity
The above diagram

b
a
𝑙
𝑙
Figure 4.22
From the above diagram
a = overhanging length = O for the structure
l = size of wall = 100mm
h = height of beam = 300mm
b = breadth of beam = 100mm

a = o, L = 100m and h = 100mm

since a<h/3

𝑙 ℎ 100 300
Kc,90 = (2.38 − ) (1 + ) = (2.38 − ) (1 + 12 ×100) =
250 12𝑙 250
(1.98)(1.25)

= 2.475 < 4 OK
93
 Kc, FG90,d = 2.35X 3.42 = 8.06N/mm2 > 𝜎c90,d OK

BEAM F
.

Figure 4.23
Bending (Cl 6.1.6, EC5)
Bending moment
Considering the point loads due to the joists, singly
𝑉𝑎 = 𝑣𝑏 = 55.855𝐾𝑁
32
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 3𝑣𝑎 − (3.7𝑘𝑛 (9.8)𝑚 + 5.08x ) = 86.83𝑘𝑛𝑚
2
𝑀𝑑, 𝑦 = 86.83𝑘𝑛𝑚

Design bending strength about Y-Y axis

𝑓𝑚,𝑘 1.0×1.1×0.8×33.19
Fm,y,d = Kh.Ksys.Kmod. =
𝑌𝑚 1.3

Fm, yd. = 22.47N/mm2

Bending (Cl 6.1.6, EC 5)

𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝜎𝑚,𝑧,𝑑
+ Km ≤1
𝐹𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝐹𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

94
 Km = 0.7 – for rectangular / square timber section
𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 0
+ 0.7 x ≤1
22.47 𝐹𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 ≤ 22.47𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
.

.
𝑀𝑑,𝑦 86.83𝑘𝑛𝑚 × 106
𝑊𝑦,𝑟𝑒𝑞 ≥ =
𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 22.47
=3864 × 103 𝑚𝑚3
From table for classification of Nigerian timber (Aguwa, 2016)
300mm X 300mm Beam would be suitable

Wy = 4500X 103 mm3, Iy = 675X 106 MM4, A = 90X 103 mm2

Deflection (Cl 7.2 , EC5)
A). instatenous deflection due to permanent action, UinstG (from table 2.3,
EC 5) YG for serviceability limit state = 1.0
Factored permanent load, G = YG Gk = 1.0 X 2.1
= 2.1kN/m2
Uinst,G = bending deflection + shear deflection
5 𝑓𝑑 𝑙 3 12 𝐹𝑑 𝐿
× + ×
384 𝐸𝐼 5 𝐸𝐴
5 (2.1 ×103 (6×103 )3 12 2.1 × 103 ×6×103
Uinst,G = ( 12675 ×675× 106 ) + ×
384 5 12675 ×90 ×103

= 0.69mm
B) instantaneous deflection due to variable action, UinstQ
YG for serviceability state = 1.0
Factored variable load, Q = YQQk = 1.0 X 1.5 = 1.5KN/M2
Instantaneous deflection due to variable load, UinstQ is given by
UinstQ = bending deflection + sheer deflection

95
 5 𝑓𝑑 𝑙 3 12 𝐹𝑑 𝐿
× + ×
384 𝐸𝐼 5 𝐸𝐴
5 1.5×103 (4×103 )3 12 1.5 × 103 ×4×103
(12675 ×225 × 106) + ×
384 5 12675 ×30×103

. =0.493mm
.
(C.) Final deflection due to permanent actions (table 3.2, EC5)
For solid timber timbers subject to service class land
Medium – term loading, Kdef = 0.6
Final deflection due to permanent actions
Ufin, G1 is given by
Ufin,G = UinG (1+ Kdef)= 0.69X (1 + 0.6) = 1.104mm
(Cl, 2.4.1,Ec2/cl6) Ѱ2 = 0.3
Final deflection due to variable action, Ufin, Q, is given by
Ufin,Q, = UinsQ1I (1 + Ѱ2 Kdef)
= 0.493(1 + 0.3 x 0.6) = 0.581mm

D) check for final deflection

Total deflection, Ufin = UfinG + UfinQ = 1.104+ 0.581
= 1.685mm
Permissible final deflection assuming the floor support bristle finishes). Wfin;
is
1
Wfin = X span
250

1/250 X 6 x 103 = 24mm

16mm > 1.685mm OK

Therefore, 300mm X 300mm beam are adequate in deflection

96
 LATERAL BUCKLING (CL 6.3.3, EC 5)
𝑙𝑒𝑓 = 0.9𝑙 + 2ℎ = 0.9 × 6000 + 2 × 300 = 6000mm
0.78𝑏2 0.78×3002
𝜎m,crit = 𝐸0,05 = × 5.4 × 103 = 210.6𝑘𝑛𝑚
ℎ𝑙𝑒𝑓 300×6000
.

. 𝑓𝑚,𝑘 33.17
𝜆𝑟𝑒𝑙,𝑚= √ =√ =0.39
𝜎 𝑚,𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 210.6

since 𝜆𝑟𝑒𝑙,𝑚 < 0.75, 𝑘𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 = 1

𝑓𝑚,𝑘 1.0×1.1×0.8×33.19
𝑘𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑚,𝑦𝑑 = 𝑘𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 (Kh.Ksys.Kmod. ) = 1( )
𝑌𝑚 1.3

= 22.46N/mm

𝜎 𝑀𝑦,𝑑 8650
𝑚,𝑑= = =1.92×10−3
𝑏ℎ2⁄ 300×3002⁄
6 6

since 𝜎𝑚,𝑑 ≤ 𝑘𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑚,𝑑 it is ok

The check is unnecessary as the compressive edge cannot move

totally because the Beam is attached to tongue and groove boarding.
SHEAR
Design shear strength is
𝑓𝑦,𝑘 3.75
Fv,d = KsysKmod − 1.1 × 0.8 × =2.54
𝛾𝑚 1.3

Maximum shear force is

VEd = 𝑣𝑎 = 55.85 × 103 𝑁
Design shear stress at Neural axis is
1.5 𝑉𝑑 1.5 ×55.85×103
𝜏d = = = 2.792N/mm2 <fv,d OK
𝐴 30×103

BEARING
Design compressive stress
U) Design bearing force is

97
 F9o,d = 𝑣𝑎 = 55.85 × 103 𝑁

. 100mm
Figure 4.24
Taking the beam to span onto 100mm(assumed) of nearby column as shown
above, the bearing stress is given by:
𝐹90,𝑑 55.85×103
𝜎c,90,d = = = 0.62N/mm2
𝑏𝑙 300×300

V) Design compressive strength

Design compressive strength parallel to grain fc,90, d is given by
𝑓𝑐,90,𝑘 5.05
Fc,90,d = Ksys Kmod = 1.1 × 0.8 ×
𝛾𝑚 1.3
2
= 3.42N/mm
Bearing capacity
The above diagram

b
a
𝑙
𝑙
Figure 4.25
From the above diagram
a = overhanging length = O for the structure
l = size of wall = 100mm
h = height of beam = 300mm
b = breadth of beam = 300mm

a = o, L = 100m and h = 100mm

98
 since a<h/3

𝑙 ℎ 100 300
Kc,90 = (2.38 − ) (1 + ) = (2.38 − ) (1 + 12 ×100) =
250 12𝑙 250
(1.98)(1.25)
.

= 2.475 < 4 OK

Kc, FG90,d = 2.475X 3.42 = 8.46N/mm2 > 𝜎c90,d OK

Table 4.6

4.3 DESIGN OF TIMBER COLUMN

Bending Compression Modules of
parallel to grain parallel to grain elasticity
(FM,K) (FC,0,K) (min)

33.17 17.91 10302

ROOF -2nd FLOOR

A) COLUMN C-1/F-1/E-8/I-8
Applied axial action
Axial loads (x-x) =17.55KN
Axial loads (y-y) =6.356KN
Self-wt. =0.1 X0.1 X3.15 X7.5=0.238KN X1.35=0.321KN
TOTAL LOAD =17.55+6.356+0.321= 24.233KN
L=3.15m
Effective length= 1.0 X3150=3150mm
B=h=150mm
99
 Area =150 X150= 22500mm2
𝒃𝒉𝟑 𝟏𝟓𝟎×𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟑
I= = = 42.1875×106mm4
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐

𝒃𝒉𝟐 𝟏𝟓𝟎×𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟐
Z= = = 56.25×104mm4
. 𝟔 𝟔
.
𝑰 𝟒𝟐.𝟏𝟖𝟕𝟓×106
𝑳 =𝒍𝒚𝒚 = 𝒍𝒛𝒛 = √ = √ =43.3mm
𝑨 22500

Effective slenderness ratio

𝑳𝒆 𝟑𝟏𝟓𝟎
𝝀= = = 72.74
𝒊 𝟒𝟑.𝟑

𝜆. 𝑦 𝑓 72.74 𝟏𝟕.𝟗𝟏
𝜆. 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 =𝜆, 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑧 = √ 𝑬c,0,k = √ =0.9mm
𝝅 𝟎.𝟎𝟓 𝝅 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟎𝟐

𝜆. 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 > 0.3

BUCKLING (CL. 6.3.2, EC 5)
Design compressive stress
𝑵 𝟐𝟑.𝟐𝟑×103
𝝈, 𝒄,𝟎,𝒅 = = = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟑𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝑨 𝟐𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎

Applied bending moment 𝑀 is

𝑀 = (23.23 × 75) = 1742.5𝐾𝑁𝑚𝑚

Design Bending strength fm,d is

𝑓𝑚,𝑘 1.0×0.8×33.19
fm,d = Kh Kmod. = = 28.67𝑁𝑚𝑚−2
𝑌𝑚 1.3

Design compression strength fc,0, d is

k𝐶,0,𝑘 0.8×17.91
fc,0,d =Kmod. = = 11.02𝑁𝑚𝑚−2
𝑌𝑚 1.3

Design bending stress about the y–y axis, σm,y,d

𝑴𝒀 𝟏𝟕𝟒𝟐𝟐x 103
σ m,y,d = = = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟗𝟕𝑵𝒎𝒎−𝟐
𝒁𝒀 𝟓𝟔𝟐.𝟓x104

Design bending stress about the z–z axis, σm, z, d = 0.

100
 𝑘𝑦 = 𝑘𝑧 = 0.5(1 + βc(λrel,y − 0.3) + λ2rel,y)
𝑘𝑦 = 0.5(1 + 0.2(0.9 − 0.3) + 0.92) = 0.965
1 1
𝑘𝑐𝑦 = 𝑘𝑐𝑧 = = = 0.76
𝑘𝑦 +√𝑘𝑦 2 −𝜆2 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦
. 𝑂.965+√0.9652 −0.92 . .
.

𝜎𝑐,0,𝑑 𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝜎𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

+ + 𝑘𝑚 ≤1
𝑘𝐶,𝑦, 𝑓𝐶,0,𝑑 𝑓𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝑓𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

1.03 3.097 0
+ + 0.7 x ≤1
0.76x11.02 11.02 𝐹𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

0.136 + 0.281= 0.417 <1 ok

Therefore 150 × 150 column is adequate in buckling.
LATERAL TORSIONAL STABILITY
lef = l = 3150 mm

𝟎.𝟕𝟖𝑏2 0.78x1502
σ crit = 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = x10302 = 382.64
ℎ𝑙𝑒𝑓 150x3150

𝑓m,k 33.17
𝜆. 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 =√ =√ = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟗𝟒
𝛔. 𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒕 𝟑𝟖𝟐.𝟔𝟒

Since λrel,m < 0.75, kcrit = 1

Check lateral torsional stability

2
𝜎𝑚,𝑑 𝜎𝑐,0,𝑑
(𝒌 ) +𝒌 ≤1
𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝑐,𝑧 𝑓𝑐,0,𝑑

3.092 2 1.03
(1x28.67) + = 0.13 < 1 𝑜𝑘
0.76x11.02

Hence the column is also adequate in lateral torsional buckling.

101
 B) COLUMN A-2/ J-2 /A-7/J-7
Applied axial action
Axial loads (x-x) =23.75KN
Axial loads (y-y) =10.17KN
.

. Self-wt. =0.15 X0.15 X3.15 X7.5=0.238KN X1.35=0.72KN

TOTAL LOAD =23.75+10.17+0.72= 34.64KN

Geometric properties
L=3.15m
Effective length= 1.0 X3150=3150mm
B=h=150mm
Area =150 X150= 22500mm2
𝒃𝒉𝟑 𝟏𝟓𝟎×𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟑
I= = = 42.1875×106mm4
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐

𝒃𝒉𝟐 𝟏𝟓𝟎×𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟐
W= = = 56.25×104mm4
𝟔 𝟔

𝑰 𝟒𝟐.𝟏𝟖𝟕𝟓×106
𝑳 =𝒍𝒚𝒚 = 𝒍𝒛𝒛 = √ = √ =43.3mm
𝑨 22500

Effective slenderness ratio

𝑳𝒆 𝟑𝟏𝟓𝟎
𝝀= = = 72.74
𝒊 𝟒𝟑.𝟑

𝜆. 𝑦 𝑓 72.74 𝟏𝟕.𝟗𝟏
𝜆. 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 =𝜆, 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑧 = √ 𝑬c,0,k = √ =0.9mm
𝝅 𝟎.𝟎𝟓 𝝅 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟎𝟐

𝜆. 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 > 0.3

BUCKLING (CL. 6.3.2, EC 5)

Design compressive stress

102
 𝑵 𝟑𝟒.𝟔𝟒×103
𝝈, 𝒄,𝟎,𝒅 = = = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟑𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝑨 𝟐𝟐.𝟓×103

Applied bending moment 𝑀 is

.

.
𝑀 = (34.64 × 75) = 2598𝐾𝑁𝑚𝑚

Design Bending strength Fm, d is

𝑓𝑚,𝑘 1.0×0.8×33.19
fm,d = Kh Kmod. = = 28.67𝑁𝑚𝑚−2
𝑌𝑚 1.3

Design compression strength fc,0, d is

k𝐶,0,𝑘 0.8×17.91
fc,0,d =Kmod. = = 11.02𝑁𝑚𝑚−2
𝑌𝑚 1.3

Design bending stress about the y–y axis, σm,y,d

𝑴𝒀 𝟐𝟓𝟗𝟖𝟎 x 103
σ m,y,d = = = 𝟒. 𝟔𝟐𝑵𝒎𝒎−𝟐
𝒁𝒀 𝟓𝟔𝟐.𝟓x104

Design bending stress about the z–z axis, σm, z, d = 0.

𝑘𝑦 = 𝑘𝑧 = 0.5(1 + βc(λrel,y − 0.3) + λ2rel,y)
𝑘𝑦 = 0.5(1 + 0.2(0.9 − 0.3) + 0.92) = 0.965
1 1
𝑘𝑐𝑦 = 𝑘𝑐𝑧 = = = 0.76
𝑘𝑦 +√𝑘𝑦 2
−𝜆2
. 𝑂.965+√0.9652 −0.92 . .
𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦

𝜎𝑐,0,𝑑 𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝜎𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

+ + 𝑘𝑚 ≤1
𝑘𝐶,𝑦, 𝑓𝐶,0,𝑑 𝑓𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝑓𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

1.53 4.62 0
+ + 0.7 x ≤1
0.76x11.02 28.67 𝐹𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

0.182+ 0.161= 0.343 <1 ok

Therefore 150 × 150 column is adequate in buckling.
LATERAL TORSIONAL STABILITY
lef = l = 3150 mm

103
 𝟎.𝟕𝟖𝑏2 0.78x1502
σ crit = 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = x10302 = 382.64
ℎ𝑙𝑒𝑓 150x3150

.
𝑓m,k 33.17
.
𝜆. 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 =√ =√ = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟗𝟒
𝛔. 𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒕 𝟑𝟖𝟐.𝟔𝟒

Since λrel,m < 0.75, kcrit = 1

Check lateral torsional stability

2
𝜎𝑚,𝑑 𝜎𝑐,0,𝑑
(𝒌 ) +𝒌 ≤1
𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝑐,𝑧 𝑓𝑐,0,𝑑

4.62 2 1.03
(1x28.67) + = 0.148 < 1 𝑜𝑘
0.76x11.02

Hence the column is also adequate in lateral torsional buckling.

C) COLUMN B-2/ I-2

Applied axial action
Axial loads (x-x) =23.75KN
Axial loads (y-y) =6.37KN + 23.75KN = 30.12KN
Self-wt. =0.15 X0.15 X3.15 X7.5=0.238KN X1.35=0.72KN
TOTAL LOAD =23.75+6.37+23.75+0.72= 53.87KN

Geometric properties
L=3.15m
Effective length= 1.0 X3150=3150mm
B=h=150mm
Area =150 X150= 22500mm2

104
 𝒃𝒉𝟑 𝟏𝟓𝟎×𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟑
I= = = 42.1875×106mm4
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐

𝒃𝒉𝟐 𝟏𝟓𝟎×𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟐
W= = = 56.25×104mm4
𝟔 𝟔

𝑰 𝟒𝟐.𝟏𝟖𝟕𝟓×106
.
𝑳 =𝒍𝒚𝒚 = 𝒍𝒛𝒛 = √ = √ =43.3mm
.
𝑨 22500

Effective slenderness ratio

𝑳𝒆 𝟑𝟏𝟓𝟎
𝝀= = = 72.74
𝒊 𝟒𝟑.𝟑

𝜆. 𝑦 𝑓 72.74 𝟏𝟕.𝟗𝟏
𝜆. 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 =𝜆, 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑧 = √ 𝑬c,0,k = √ =0.9mm
𝝅 𝟎.𝟎𝟓 𝝅 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟎𝟐

𝜆. 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 > 0.3

BUCKLING (CL. 6.3.2, EC 5)
Design compressive stress
𝑵 𝟓𝟑.𝟖𝟕×103
𝝈, 𝒄,𝟎,𝒅 = = = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟗𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝑨 𝟐𝟐.𝟓×103

Applied bending moment 𝑀 is

𝑀 = (53.87 × 75) = 4040.22𝐾𝑁𝑚𝑚

Design Bending strength Fm, d is

𝑓𝑚,𝑘 1.0×0.8×33.19
fm,d = Kh Kmod. = = 28.67𝑁𝑚𝑚−2
𝑌𝑚 1.3

Design compression strength fc,0, d is

k𝐶,0,𝑘 0.8×17.91
fc,0,d =Kmod. = = 11.02𝑁𝑚𝑚−2
𝑌𝑚 1.3

Design bending stress about the y–y axis, σm,y,d

105
 𝑴𝒀 𝟒𝟎𝟒𝟎𝟐.𝟐 x 103
σ m,y,d = = = 𝟕. 𝟏𝟖𝑵𝒎𝒎−𝟐
𝒁𝒀 𝟓𝟔𝟐.𝟓x104

Design bending stress about the z–z axis, σm, z, d = 0.

𝑘𝑦 = 𝑘𝑧 = 0.5(1 + βc(λrel,y − 0.3) + λ2rel,y)
.

. 𝑘𝑦 = 0.5(1 + 0.2(0.9 − 0.3) + 0.92) = 0.965

1 1
𝑘𝑐𝑦 = 𝑘𝑐𝑧 = = = 0.76
𝑘𝑦 +√𝑘𝑦 2 −𝜆2 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦
. 𝑂.965+√0.9652 −0.92 . .

𝜎𝑐,0,𝑑 𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝜎𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

+ + 𝑘𝑚 ≤1
𝑘𝐶,𝑦, 𝑓𝐶,0,𝑑 𝑓𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝑓𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

2.39 7.18 0
+ + 0.7 x ≤1
0.76x11.02 28.67 𝐹𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

0.28+ 0.25= 0.53 <1 ok

Therefore 150 × 150 column is adequate in buckling.
LATERAL TORSIONAL STABILITY
lef = l = 3150 mm

𝟎.𝟕𝟖𝑏2 0.78x1502
σ crit = 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = x10302 = 382.64
ℎ𝑙𝑒𝑓 150x3150

𝑓m,k 33.17
𝜆. 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 =√ =√ = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟗𝟒
𝛔. 𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒕 𝟑𝟖𝟐.𝟔𝟒

Since λrel,m < 0.75, kcrit = 1

Check lateral torsional stability

2
𝜎𝑚,𝑑 𝜎𝑐,0,𝑑
(𝒌 ) +𝒌 ≤1
𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝑐,𝑧 𝑓𝑐,0,𝑑

106
 7.18 2 2.39
(1x28.67) + = 0.348 < 1 𝑜𝑘
0.76x11.02

Hence the column is also adequate in lateral torsional buckling.

. D) COLUMN C-2/ F-2

Applied axial action
Axial loads (x-x) =23.75KN
Axial loads (y-y) =6.37KN + 23.75KN = 30.12KN
Self-wt. =0.15 X0.15 X3.15 X7.5=0.238KN X1.35=0.72KN
TOTAL LOAD =23.75+6.37+23.75+0.72= 53.87KN
Geometric properties
L=3.15m
Effective length= 1.0 X3150=3150mm
B=h=150mm
Area =150 X150= 22500mm2
𝒃𝒉𝟑 𝟏𝟓𝟎×𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟑
I= = = 42.1875×106mm4
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐

𝒃𝒉𝟐 𝟏𝟓𝟎×𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟐
W= = = 56.25×104mm4
𝟔 𝟔

𝑰 𝟒𝟐.𝟏𝟖𝟕𝟓×106
𝑳 =𝒍𝒚𝒚 = 𝒍𝒛𝒛 = √ = √ =43.3mm
𝑨 22500

Effective slenderness ratio

𝑳𝒆 𝟑𝟏𝟓𝟎
𝝀= = = 72.74
𝒊 𝟒𝟑.𝟑

𝜆. 𝑦 𝑓 72.74 𝟏𝟕.𝟗𝟏
𝜆. 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 =𝜆, 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑧 = √ 𝑬c,0,k = √ =0.9mm
𝝅 𝟎.𝟎𝟓 𝝅 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟎𝟐

𝜆. 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 > 0.3

107
 BUCKLING (CL. 6.3.2, EC 5)
Design compressive stress
𝑵 𝟓𝟑.𝟖𝟕×103
.
𝝈, 𝒄,𝟎,𝒅 = = = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟗𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐
.
𝑨 𝟐𝟐.𝟓×103

Applied bending moment 𝑀 is

𝑀 = (53.87 × 75) = 4040.22𝐾𝑁𝑚𝑚

Design Bending strength Fm, d is

𝑓𝑚,𝑘 1.0×0.8×33.19
fm,d = Kh Kmod. = = 28.67𝑁𝑚𝑚−2
𝑌𝑚 1.3

Design compression strength fc,0, d is

k𝐶,0,𝑘 0.8×17.91
fc,0,d =Kmod. = = 11.02𝑁𝑚𝑚−2
𝑌𝑚 1.3

Design bending stress about the y–y axis, σm,y,d

𝑴𝒀 𝟒𝟎𝟒𝟎𝟐.𝟐 x 103
σ m,y,d = = = 𝟕. 𝟏𝟖𝑵𝒎𝒎−𝟐
𝒁𝒀 𝟓𝟔𝟐.𝟓x104

Design bending stress about the z–z axis, σm, z, d = 0.

𝑘𝑦 = 𝑘𝑧 = 0.5(1 + βc(λrel,y − 0.3) + λ2rel,y)
𝑘𝑦 = 0.5(1 + 0.2(0.9 − 0.3) + 0.92) = 0.965
1 1
𝑘𝑐𝑦 = 𝑘𝑐𝑧 = = = 0.76
𝑘𝑦 +√𝑘𝑦 2 −𝜆2 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦
. 𝑂.965+√0.9652 −0.92 . .

𝜎𝑐,0,𝑑 𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝜎𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

+ + 𝑘𝑚 ≤1
𝑘𝐶,𝑦, 𝑓𝐶,0,𝑑 𝑓𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝑓𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

108
 2.39 7.18 0
+ + 0.7 x ≤1
0.76x11.02 28.67 𝐹𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

0.28+ 0.25= 0.53 <1 ok

Therefore 150 × 150 column is adequate in buckling.
.

.
LATERAL TORSIONAL STABILITY
lef = l = 3150 mm

𝟎.𝟕𝟖𝑏2 0.78x1502
σ crit = 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = x10302 = 382.64
ℎ𝑙𝑒𝑓 150x3150

𝑓m,k 33.17
𝜆. 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 =√ =√ = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟗𝟒
𝛔. 𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒕 𝟑𝟖𝟐.𝟔𝟒

Since λrel,m < 0.75, kcrit = 1

Check lateral torsional stability

2
𝜎𝑚,𝑑 𝜎𝑐,0,𝑑
(𝒌 ) +𝒌 ≤1
𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝑐,𝑧 𝑓𝑐,0,𝑑

7.18 2 2.39
(1x28.67) + = 0.348 < 1 𝑜𝑘
0.76x11.02

Hence the column is also adequate in lateral torsional buckling.

2nd – 1st FLOOR

A) COLUMN C-1/F-1/E-8/I-8
Applied axial action

Loading from above = 24.233KN

109
 Axial loads (x-x) =17.55KN
Axial loads (y-y) =6.356KN
Self-wt. =0.2 X0.2 X3.15 X7.5=0.238KN X1.35=0.321KN
. TOTAL LOAD =17.55+6.356+0.321+24.233= 48.47KN
.
Geometric properties
L=3.15m
Effective length= 1.0 X3150=3150mm
B=h=150mm
Area =150 X150= 22500mm2
𝒃𝒉𝟑 𝟏𝟓𝟎×𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟑
I= = = 42.1875×106mm4
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐

𝒃𝒉𝟐 𝟏𝟓𝟎×𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟐
Z= = = 56.25×104mm4
𝟔 𝟔

𝑰 𝟒𝟐.𝟏𝟖𝟕𝟓×106
𝑳 =𝒍𝒚𝒚 = 𝒍𝒛𝒛 = √ = √ =43.3mm
𝑨 22500

Effective slenderness ratio

𝑳𝒆 𝟑𝟏𝟓𝟎
𝝀= = = 72.74
𝒊 𝟒𝟑.𝟑

𝜆. 𝑦 𝑓 72.74 𝟏𝟕.𝟗𝟏
𝜆. 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 =𝜆, 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑧 = √ 𝑬c,0,k = √ =0.9mm
𝝅 𝟎.𝟎𝟓 𝝅 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟎𝟐

𝜆. 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 > 0.3

BUCKLING (CL. 6.3.2, EC 5)
Design compressive stress
𝑵 𝟒𝟖.𝟒𝟔𝟔×103
𝝈, 𝒄,𝟎,𝒅 = = = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟓𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝑨 𝟐𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎

Applied bending moment 𝑀 is

110
 𝑀 = (48.466 × 75) = 3634.95𝐾𝑁𝑚𝑚

Design Bending strength fm,d is

𝑓𝑚,𝑘 1.0×0.8×33.19
. fm,d = Kh Kmod. = = 28.67𝑁𝑚𝑚−2
𝑌𝑚 1.3
.

Design compression strength fc,0, d is

k𝐶,0,𝑘 0.8×17.91
fc,0,d =Kmod. = = 11.02𝑁𝑚𝑚−2
𝑌𝑚 1.3

Design bending stress about the y–y axis, σm,y,d

𝑴𝒀 36349.5x 103
σ m,y,d = = = 𝟔. 𝟒𝟔𝟐𝑵𝒎𝒎−𝟐
𝒁𝒀 𝟓𝟔𝟐.𝟓x104

Design bending stress about the z–z axis, σm, z, d = 0.

𝑘𝑦 = 𝑘𝑧 = 0.5(1 + βc(λrel,y − 0.3) + λ2rel,y)
𝑘𝑦 = 0.5(1 + 0.2(0.9 − 0.3) + 0.92) = 0.965
1 1
𝑘𝑐𝑦 = 𝑘𝑐𝑧 = = = 0.76
𝑘𝑦 +√𝑘𝑦 2 −𝜆2 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦
. 𝑂.965+√0.9652 −0.92 . .

𝜎𝑐,0,𝑑 𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝜎𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

+ + 𝑘𝑚 ≤1
𝑘𝐶,𝑦, 𝑓𝐶,0,𝑑 𝑓𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝑓𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

2.15 6.462 0
+ + 0.7 x ≤1
0.76x11.02 11.02 𝐹𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

0.257 + 0.586= 0.843 <1 ok

Therefore 150 × 150 column is adequate in buckling.
LATERAL TORSIONAL STABILITY
lef = l = 3150 mm

𝟎.𝟕𝟖𝑏2 0.78x1502
σ crit = 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = x10302 = 382.64
ℎ𝑙𝑒𝑓 150x3150

111
 𝑓m,k 33.17
𝜆. 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 =√ =√ = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟗𝟒
𝛔. 𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒕 𝟑𝟖𝟐.𝟔𝟒

. Since λrel,m < 0.75, kcrit = 1

Check lateral torsional stability

2
𝜎𝑚,𝑑 𝜎𝑐,0,𝑑
(𝒌 ) +𝒌 ≤1
𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝑐,𝑧 𝑓𝑐,0,𝑑

6.462 2 2.15
(1x28.67) + = 0.30 < 1 𝑜𝑘
0.76x11.02

Hence the column is also adequate in lateral torsional buckling.

B) COLUMN A-2/ J-2 /A-7/J-7

Applied axial action
Loading from above = 34.64KN
Axial loads (x-x) =23.75KN
Axial loads (y-y) =10.17KN
Self-wt. =0.15 X0.15 X3.15 X7.5=0.238KN X1.35=0.72KN
TOTAL LOAD =23.75+10.17+0.72+34.64= 69.28KN
Geometric properties
L=3.15m
Effective length= 1.0 X3150=3150mm
B=h=150mm
Area =150 X150= 22500mm2

112
 𝒃𝒉𝟑 𝟏𝟓𝟎×𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟑
I= = = 42.1875×106mm4
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐

𝒃𝒉𝟐 𝟏𝟓𝟎×𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟐
W= = = 56.25×104mm4
𝟔 𝟔

𝑰 𝟒𝟐.𝟏𝟖𝟕𝟓×106
.
𝑳 =𝒍𝒚𝒚 = 𝒍𝒛𝒛 = √ = √ =43.3mm
.
𝑨 22500

Effective slenderness ratio

𝑳𝒆 𝟑𝟏𝟓𝟎
𝝀= = = 72.74
𝒊 𝟒𝟑.𝟑

𝜆. 𝑦 𝑓 72.74 𝟏𝟕.𝟗𝟏
𝜆. 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 =𝜆, 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑧 = √ 𝑬c,0,k = √ =0.9mm
𝝅 𝟎.𝟎𝟓 𝝅 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟎𝟐

𝜆. 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 > 0.3

BUCKLING (CL. 6.3.2, EC 5)
Design compressive stress
𝑵 𝟔𝟗.𝟐𝟖×103
𝝈, 𝒄,𝟎,𝒅 = = = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟕𝟗𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝑨 𝟐𝟐.𝟓×103

Applied bending moment 𝑀 is

𝑀 = (69.28 × 75) = 5196𝐾𝑁𝑚𝑚

Design Bending strength Fm, d is

𝑓𝑚,𝑘 1.0×0.8×33.19
fm,d = Kh Kmod. = = 28.67𝑁𝑚𝑚−2
𝑌𝑚 1.3

Design compression strength fc,0, d is

k𝐶,0,𝑘 0.8×17.91
fc,0,d =Kmod. = = 11.02𝑁𝑚𝑚−2
𝑌𝑚 1.3

Design bending stress about the y–y axis, σm,y,d

𝑴𝒀 𝟓𝟏𝟗𝟔𝟎 x 103
σ m,y,d = = = 𝟗. 𝟐𝟑𝟕𝑵𝒎𝒎−𝟐
𝒁𝒀 𝟓𝟔𝟐.𝟓x104

113
 Design bending stress about the z–z axis, σm, z, d = 0.
𝑘𝑦 = 𝑘𝑧 = 0.5(1 + βc(λrel,y − 0.3) + λ2rel,y)
𝑘𝑦 = 0.5(1 + 0.2(0.9 − 0.3) + 0.92) = 0.965
. 1 1
𝑘𝑐𝑦 = 𝑘𝑐𝑧 = = = 0.76
. 𝑘𝑦 +√𝑘𝑦 2 −𝜆2 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦
. 𝑂.965+√0.9652 −0.92 . .

𝜎𝑐,0,𝑑 𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝜎𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

+ + 𝑘𝑚 ≤1
𝑘𝐶,𝑦, 𝑓𝐶,0,𝑑 𝑓𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝑓𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

3.079 9.237 0
+ + 0.7 x ≤1
0.76x11.02 28.67 𝐹𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

0.367+ 0.322= 0.698<1 ok

Therefore 150 × 150 column is adequate in buckling.

LATERAL TORSIONAL STABILITY

lef = l = 3150 mm

𝟎.𝟕𝟖𝑏2 0.78x1502
σ crit = 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = x10302 = 382.64
ℎ𝑙𝑒𝑓 150x3150

𝑓m,k 33.17
𝜆. 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 =√ =√ = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟗𝟒
𝛔. 𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒕 𝟑𝟖𝟐.𝟔𝟒

Since λrel,m < 0.75, kcrit = 1

Check lateral torsional stability

2
𝜎𝑚,𝑑 𝜎𝑐,0,𝑑
(𝒌 ) +𝒌 ≤1
𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝑐,𝑧 𝑓𝑐,0,𝑑

114
 9.237 2 3.079
(1x28.67) + = 0.47 < 1 𝑜𝑘
0.76x11.02

Hence the column is also adequate in lateral torsional buckling.

.
C) COLUMN B-2/ I-2

Applied axial action

Loading from above = 53.87KN
Axial loads (x-x) =23.75KN
Axial loads (y-y) =6.37KN + 23.75KN = 30.12KN
Self-wt. =0.2 X0.2 X3.15 X7.5=0.238KN X1.35=1.275KN
TOTAL LOAD =23.75+6.37+23.75+1.275 +53.87KN = 109.015KN
Geometric properties
L=3.15m
Effective length= 1.0 X3150=3150mm
B=h=200mm
Area =200 X200= 40000mm2
𝒃𝒉𝟑 𝟐𝟎𝟎×𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟑
I= = = 133.33×106mm4
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐

𝒃𝒉𝟐 𝟐𝟎𝟎×𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟐
W= = = 133.33×104mm4
𝟔 𝟔

𝑰 𝟏𝟑𝟑.𝟑𝟑×106
𝑳 =𝒍𝒚𝒚 = 𝒍𝒛𝒛 = √ = √ =76.97mm
𝑨 22500

Effective slenderness ratio

𝑳𝒆 𝟑𝟏𝟓𝟎
𝝀= = = 23.625
𝒊 𝟏𝟑𝟑.𝟑𝟑

. , 𝜆. 𝑦 𝑓 23.625 𝟏𝟕.𝟗𝟏
𝜆 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 =𝜆 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑧 =
𝝅
√ 𝑬c,0,k = 𝝅
√
𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟎𝟐
=0.313mm
𝟎.𝟎𝟓

115
 𝜆. 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 > 0.3
BUCKLING (CL. 6.3.2, EC 5)
Design compressive stress
. 𝑵 𝟏𝟎𝟗.𝟎𝟏𝟓×103
𝝈, 𝒄,𝟎,𝒅 = = = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟐𝟓𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐
. 𝑨 𝟒𝟎×103

Applied bending moment 𝑀 is

𝑀 = (109.015 × 100) = 10901.5𝐾𝑁𝑚𝑚

Design Bending strength Fm, d is

𝑓𝑚,𝑘 1.0×0.8×33.19
fm,d = Kh Kmod. = = 28.67𝑁𝑚𝑚−2
𝑌𝑚 1.3

Design compression strength fc,0, d is

k𝐶,0,𝑘 0.8×17.91
fc,0,d =Kmod. = = 11.02𝑁𝑚𝑚−2
𝑌𝑚 1.3

Design bending stress about the y–y axis, σm,y,d

𝑴𝒀 𝟏𝟎𝟗𝟎𝟏𝟓 x 103
σ m,y,d = = = 𝟖. 𝟏𝟕𝟔𝑵𝒎𝒎−𝟐
𝒁𝒀 𝟏𝟑𝟑.𝟑𝟑x104

Design bending stress about the z–z axis, σm, z, d = 0.

𝑘𝑦 = 𝑘𝑧 = 0.5(1 + βc(λrel,y − 0.3) + λ2rel,y)
𝑘𝑦 = 0.5(1 + 0.2(0.9 − 0.3) + 0.92) = 0.965
1 1
𝑘𝑐𝑦 = 𝑘𝑐𝑧 = = = 0.76
𝑘𝑦 +√𝑘𝑦 2 −𝜆2 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦
. 𝑂.965+√0.9652 −0.92 . .

116
 𝜎𝑐,0,𝑑 𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝜎𝑚,𝑧,𝑑
+ + 𝑘𝑚 ≤1
𝑘𝐶,𝑦, 𝑓𝐶,0,𝑑 𝑓𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝑓𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

2.724 8.176 0
+ + 0.7 x ≤1
0.76x11.02 28.67 𝐹𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

.
0.325+ 0.285= 0.610 <1 ok
. Therefore 200 × 200 column is adequate in buckling.
LATERAL TORSIONAL STABILITY
lef = l = 3150 mm

𝟎.𝟕𝟖𝑏2 0.78x2002
σ crit = 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = x10302 = 510.19
ℎ𝑙𝑒𝑓 200x3150

𝑓m,k 33.17
𝜆. 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 =√ =√ = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝟒
𝛔. 𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒕 𝟓𝟏𝟎.𝟏𝟗

Since λrel,m < 0.75, kcrit = 1

Check lateral torsional stability

2
𝜎𝑚,𝑑 𝜎𝑐,0,𝑑
(𝒌 ) +𝒌 ≤1
𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝑐,𝑧 𝑓𝑐,0,𝑑

8.176 2 2.39
(1x28.67) + = 0.366 < 1 𝑜𝑘
0.76x11.02

Hence the column is also adequate in lateral torsional buckling.

D)COLUMN C-2/ F-2

117
 Applied axial action
Load from above = 53.87KN
Axial loads (x-x) =23.75KN
. Axial loads (y-y) =6.37KN + 23.75KN = 30.12KN
.
Self-wt. =0.20 X0.20 X3.15 X7.5=0.238KN X1.35=1.275KN
TOTAL LOAD =23.75+6.37+23.75+1.275+ 53.87KN = 109.015KN
Geometric properties
L=3.15m
Effective length= 1.0 X3150=3150mm
B=h=200mm
Area =200 X200= 40000mm2
𝒃𝒉𝟑 𝟐𝟎𝟎×𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟑
I= = = 133.33×106mm4
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐

𝒃𝒉𝟐 𝟐𝟎𝟎×𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟐
W= = = 133.33×104mm4
𝟔 𝟔

𝑰 𝟏𝟑𝟑.𝟑𝟑×106
𝑳 =𝒍𝒚𝒚 = 𝒍𝒛𝒛 = √ = √ =76.97mm
𝑨 22500

Effective slenderness ratio

𝑳𝒆 𝟑𝟏𝟓𝟎
𝝀= = = 23.625
𝒊 𝟏𝟑𝟑.𝟑𝟑

𝜆. 𝑦 𝑓 23.625 𝟏𝟕.𝟗𝟏
𝜆. 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 =𝜆, 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑧 = √ 𝑬c,0,k = √ =0.313mm
𝝅 𝟎.𝟎𝟓 𝝅 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟎𝟐

𝜆. 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 > 0.3

BUCKLING (CL. 6.3.2, EC 5)

Design compressive stress

118
 𝑵 𝟏𝟎𝟗.𝟎𝟏𝟕×103
𝝈, 𝒄,𝟎,𝒅 = = = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟑𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝑨 𝟒𝟎.×103

Applied bending moment 𝑀 is

.

.
𝑀 = (109.017 × 100) = 10901.7𝐾𝑁𝑚𝑚

Design Bending strength Fm, d is

𝑓𝑚,𝑘 1.0×0.8×33.19
fm,d = Kh Kmod. = = 28.67𝑁𝑚𝑚−2
𝑌𝑚 1.3

Design compression strength fc,0, d is

k𝐶,0,𝑘 0.8×17.91
fc,0,d =Kmod. = = 11.02𝑁𝑚𝑚−2
𝑌𝑚 1.3

Design bending stress about the y–y axis, σm,y,d

𝑴𝒀 𝟏𝟎𝟗𝟎𝟏.𝟕 x 103
σ m,y,d = = = 𝟖. 𝟏𝟕𝟔𝑵𝒎𝒎−𝟐
𝒁𝒀 𝟏𝟑𝟑.𝟑𝟑x104

Design bending stress about the z–z axis, σm, z, d = 0.

𝑘𝑦 = 𝑘𝑧 = 0.5(1 + βc(λrel,y − 0.3) + λ2rel,y)
𝑘𝑦 = 0.5(1 + 0.2(0.313 − 0.3) + 0.3132) = 0.55
1 1
𝑘𝑐𝑦 = 𝑘𝑐𝑧 = = = 0.845
𝑘𝑦 +√𝑘𝑦 2
−𝜆2
. 𝑂.55+√0.552 −0.3132 . .
𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦

𝜎𝑐,0,𝑑 𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝜎𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

+ + 𝑘𝑚 ≤1
𝑘𝐶,𝑦, 𝑓𝐶,0,𝑑 𝑓𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝑓𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

2.73 8.176 0
+ + 0.7 x ≤1
0.848x11.02 28.67 𝐹𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

0.292+ 0.285= 0.577 <1 ok

Therefore 200 × 200 column is adequate in buckling.
LATERAL TORSIONAL STABILITY
lef = l = 3150 mm

119
 𝟎.𝟕𝟖𝒃𝟐 𝟎.𝟕𝟖𝒙𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟐
σ crit = 𝑬𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟎𝟐 = 𝟓𝟏𝟎. 𝟏𝟗
𝒉𝒍𝒆𝒇 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒙𝟑𝟏𝟓𝟎

.
𝒇𝒎,𝒌 𝟑𝟑.𝟏𝟕
.
𝝀. 𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒚 =√ =√ = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝟒
𝝈. 𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒕 𝟓𝟏𝟎.𝟏𝟗

Since λrel,m < 0.75, kcrit = 1

Check lateral torsional stability

2
𝜎𝑚,𝑑 𝜎𝑐,0,𝑑
(𝒌 ) +𝒌 ≤1
𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝑐,𝑧 𝑓𝑐,0,𝑑

8.176 2 2.73
(1x28.67) + = 0.374 < 1 𝑜𝑘
0.846x11.02

Hence the column is also adequate in lateral torsional buckling.

120
 1ST TO GROUND FLOOR
A) COLUMN C-1/F-1/E-8/I-8

.
Applied axial action
Loading from above = 48.47KN
Axial loads (x-x) =17.55KN
Axial loads (y-y) =6.356KN
Self-wt. =0.3 X0.3 X3.15 X7.5=0.238KN X1.35=2.87KN
TOTAL LOAD =17.55+6.356+2.87+24.233+ 48.47KN=99.479KN

Geometric properties
L=3.15m
Effective length= 1.0 X3150=3150mm
B=h=300mm
Area =300 X300= 90000mm2
𝒃𝒉𝟑 𝟑𝟎𝟎×𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟑
I= = = 675×106mm4
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐

𝒃𝒉𝟐 𝟑𝟎𝟎×𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟐
Z= = = 450×104mm4
𝟔 𝟔

𝑰 𝟔𝟕𝟓×106
𝑳 =𝒍𝒚𝒚 = 𝒍𝒛𝒛 = √ = √ =86.6mm
𝑨 90000

Effective slenderness ratio

𝑳𝒆 𝟑𝟏𝟓𝟎
𝝀= = = 4.66
𝒊 𝟔𝟕𝟓

121
 𝜆. 𝑦 𝑓 4.66 𝟏𝟕.𝟗𝟏
𝜆. 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 =𝜆, 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑧 = √ 𝑬c,0,k = √ =0.06mm
𝝅 𝟎.𝟎𝟓 𝝅 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟎𝟐

BUCKLING (CL. 6.3.2, EC 5)

.

. Design compressive stress

𝑵 𝟗𝟗.𝟒𝟕𝟗×103
𝝈, 𝒄,𝟎,𝒅 = = = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟐𝟏𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝑨 𝟐𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎

Applied bending moment 𝑀 is

𝑀 = (99.479 × 100) = 9947.9𝐾𝑁𝑚𝑚

Design Bending strength fm, d is

𝑓𝑚,𝑘 1.0×0.8×33.19
fm,d = Kh Kmod. = = 28.67𝑁𝑚𝑚−2
𝑌𝑚 1.3

Design compression strength fc,0, d is

k𝐶,0,𝑘 0.8×17.91
fc,0,d =Kmod. = = 11.02𝑁𝑚𝑚−2
𝑌𝑚 1.3

Design bending stress about the y–y axis, σm,y,d

𝑴𝒀 99479x 103
σ m,y,d = = = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟔𝟖𝑵𝒎𝒎−𝟐
𝒁𝒀 𝟓𝟔𝟐.𝟓x104

Design bending stress about the z–z axis, σm, z, d = 0.

𝑘𝑦 = 𝑘𝑧 = 0.5(1 + βc(λrel,y − 0.3) + λ2rel,y)
𝑘𝑦 = 0.5(1 + 0.2(0.06− 0.3) + 0.062) = 0.479
1 1
𝑘𝑐𝑦 = 𝑘𝑐𝑧 = = = 1.04
𝑘𝑦 +√𝑘𝑦 2 −𝜆2 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦
. 𝑂.479+√0.4792 −0.062 . .

𝜎𝑐,0,𝑑 𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝜎𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

+ + 𝑘𝑚 ≤1
𝑘𝐶,𝑦, 𝑓𝐶,0,𝑑 𝑓𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝑓𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

4.421 17.68 0
+ + 0.7 x ≤1
0.76x11.02 11.02 𝐹𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

122
 0.257 + 0.586= 0.843 <1 ok
Therefore 300 × 300 column is adequate in buckling.
LATERAL TORSIONAL STABILITY
. lef = l = 3150 mm
.
𝟎.𝟕𝟖𝑏2 0.78x3002
σ crit = 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = x10302 = 765.29
ℎ𝑙𝑒𝑓 300x3150

𝑓m,k 33.17
𝜆. 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 =√ =√ = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟖
𝛔. 𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒕 𝟕𝟔𝟓.𝟐𝟗

Since λrel,m < 0.75, kcrit = 1

Check lateral torsional stability

2
𝜎𝑚,𝑑 𝜎𝑐,0,𝑑
(𝒌 ) +𝒌 ≤1
𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝑐,𝑧 𝑓𝑐,0,𝑑

17.68 2 4.421
(1x28.67) + = 0.95 < 1 𝑜𝑘
0.76x11.02

Hence the column is also adequate in lateral torsional buckling.

A) COLUMN A-2/ J-2 /A-7/J-7

Applied axial action
Loading from above = 69.28KN
Axial loads (x-x) =12.75KN
Axial loads (y-y) =10.17KN
Self-wt. =0.3 X0.3 X3.15 X7.5=2.12KN X1.35=2.87KN
TOTAL LOAD =12.75+10.17+2.87+69.28=201.8KN
Geometric properties

123
 L=3.15m
Effective length= 1.0 X3150=3150mm
B=h=3000mm
. Area =300 X300= 90000mm2
.
𝒃𝒉𝟑 𝟑𝟎𝟎×𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟑
I= = = 675×106mm4
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐

𝒃𝒉𝟐 𝟑𝟎𝟎×𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟐
W= = = 450×104mm4
𝟔 𝟔

𝑰 𝟔𝟕𝟓×106
𝑳 =𝒍𝒚𝒚 = 𝒍𝒛𝒛 = √ = √ =86.6.3mm
𝑨 90000

Effective slenderness ratio

𝑳𝒆 𝟑𝟏𝟓𝟎
𝝀= = = 4.66
𝒊 𝟔𝟕𝟓

𝜆. 𝑦 𝑓 4.66 𝟏𝟕.𝟗𝟏
𝜆. 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 =𝜆, 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑧 = √ 𝑬c,0,k = √ =1.521mm
𝝅 𝟎.𝟎𝟓 𝝅 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟎𝟐

𝜆. 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 > 0.3

BUCKLING (CL. 6.3.2, EC 5)
Design compressive stress
𝑵 𝟐𝟎𝟏.𝟖×103
𝝈, 𝒄,𝟎,𝒅 = = = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟒𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝑨 𝟗𝟎×103

Applied bending moment 𝑀 is

𝑀 = (201.8 × 100) = 20180𝐾𝑁𝑚𝑚

Design Bending strength Fm, d is

𝑓𝑚,𝑘 1.0×0.8×33.19
fm,d = Kh Kmod. = = 28.67𝑁𝑚𝑚−2
𝑌𝑚 1.3

Design compression strength fc,0, d is

124
 k𝐶,0,𝑘 0.8×17.91
fc,0,d =Kmod. = = 11.02𝑁𝑚𝑚−2
𝑌𝑚 1.3

Design bending stress about the y–y axis, σm,y,d

𝑴𝒀 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎 x 103
σ m,y,d = = = 𝟒𝟒. 𝟖𝟒𝑵𝒎𝒎−𝟐
. 𝒁𝒀 𝟒𝟓𝟎x104
.
Design bending stress about the z–z axis, σm, z, d = 0.
𝑘𝑦 = 𝑘𝑧 = 0.5(1 + βc(λrel,y − 0.3) + λ2rel,y)
𝑘𝑦 = 0.5(1 + 0.2(1.52 − 0.3) + 1.522) = 1.78
1 1
𝑘𝑐𝑦 = 𝑘𝑐𝑧 = = = 0.36
𝑘𝑦 +√𝑘𝑦 2 −𝜆2 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦
. 1.78+√1.782 −1.522 . .

𝜎𝑐,0,𝑑 𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝜎𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

+ + 𝑘𝑚 ≤1
𝑘𝐶,𝑦, 𝑓𝐶,0,𝑑 𝑓𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝑓𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

2.24 9.237 0
+ + 0.7 x ≤1
0.76x11.02 28.67 𝐹𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

0.367+ 0.322= 0.698<1 ok

Therefore 300 × 300 column is adequate in buckling.
LATERAL TORSIONAL STABILITY
lef = l = 3150 mm

𝟎.𝟕𝟖𝑏2 0.78x3002
σ crit = 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = x10302 = 382.64
ℎ𝑙𝑒𝑓 300x3150

𝑓m,k 33.17
𝜆. 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 =√ =√ = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟗𝟒
𝛔. 𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒕 𝟑𝟖𝟐.𝟔𝟒

Since λrel,m < 0.75, kcrit = 1

Check lateral torsional stability

125
 2
𝜎𝑚,𝑑 𝜎𝑐,0,𝑑
(𝒌 ) +𝒌 ≤1
𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝑐,𝑧 𝑓𝑐,0,𝑑

9.237 2 3.079
. (1x28.67) + = 0.47 < 1 𝑜𝑘
0.76x11.02
.
Hence the column is also adequate in lateral torsional buckling.

C) COLUMN C-2/ F-2

Applied axial action

Load from above =108.845KN
Axial loads (x-x) =14.75KN
Axial loads (y-y) = 23.75KN
Self-wt. =0.30 X0.30 X3.15 X7.5=0.238KN X1.35=1.275KN
TOTAL LOAD =23.75+14.75+1.275 + 53.87+108.845= 202.5KN
Geometric properties
L=3.15m
Effective length= 1.0 X3150=3150mm
B=h=3000mm
Area =300 X300= 90000mm2
𝒃𝒉𝟑 𝟑𝟎𝟎×𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟑
I= = = 675×106mm4
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐

𝒃𝒉𝟐 𝟑𝟎𝟎×𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟐
W= = = 450×104mm4
𝟔 𝟔

𝑰 𝟔𝟕𝟓×106
𝑳 =𝒍𝒚𝒚 = 𝒍𝒛𝒛 = √ = √ =86.6.3mm
𝑨 90000

Effective slenderness ratio

𝑳𝒆 𝟑𝟏𝟓𝟎
𝝀= = = 4.66
𝒊 𝟔𝟕𝟓

126
 𝜆. 𝑦 𝑓 4.66 𝟏𝟕.𝟗𝟏
𝜆. 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 =𝜆, 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑧 = √ 𝑬c,0,k = √ =1.521mm
𝝅 𝟎.𝟎𝟓 𝝅 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟎𝟐

𝜆. 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 > 0.3

.
BUCKLING (CL. 6.3.2, EC 5)
. Design compressive stress
𝑵 𝟐𝟎𝟐.𝟓×103
𝝈, 𝒄,𝟎,𝒅 = = = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟒𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝑨 𝟗𝟎×103

Applied bending moment 𝑀 is

𝑀 = (108.845 × 100) = 20250𝐾𝑁𝑚𝑚

Design Bending strength Fm, d is

𝑓𝑚,𝑘 1.0×0.8×33.19
fm,d = Kh Kmod. = = 28.67𝑁𝑚𝑚−2
𝑌𝑚 1.3

Design compression strength fc,0, d is

k𝐶,0,𝑘 0.8×17.91
fc,0,d =Kmod. = = 11.02𝑁𝑚𝑚−2
𝑌𝑚 1.3

Design bending stress about the y–y axis, σm,y,d

𝑴𝒀 𝟏𝟎𝟖𝟖𝟒.𝟓 x 103
σ m,y,d = = = 𝟖. 𝟏𝟔𝑵𝒎𝒎−𝟐
𝒁𝒀 𝟏𝟑𝟑.𝟑𝟑x104

Design bending stress about the z–z axis, σm, z, d = 0.

𝑘𝑦 = 𝑘𝑧 = 0.5(1 + βc(λrel,y − 0.3) + λ2rel,y)
𝑘𝑦 = 0.5(1 + 0.2(1.52 − 0.3) + 1.522) = 1.78
1 1
𝑘𝑐𝑦 = 𝑘𝑐𝑧 = = = 0.36
𝑘𝑦 +√𝑘𝑦 2 −𝜆2 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦
. 1.78+√1.782 −1.522 . .

127
 𝜎𝑐,0,𝑑 𝜎𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝜎𝑚,𝑧,𝑑
+ + 𝑘𝑚 ≤1
𝑘𝐶,𝑦, 𝑓𝐶,0,𝑑 𝑓𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝑓𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

2.24 8.16 0
+ + 0.7 x ≤1
0.76x11.02 28.67 𝐹𝑚,𝑧,𝑑

.
0.26+ 0.28= 0.54 <1 ok
. Therefore 300 × 300 column is adequate in buckling.
LATERAL TORSIONAL STABILITY

lef = l = 3150 mm
𝟎.𝟕𝟖𝒃𝟐 𝟎.𝟕𝟖𝒙𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟐
σ crit = 𝑬𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟎𝟐 = 𝟓𝟏𝟎. 𝟏𝟗
𝒉𝒍𝒆𝒇 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒙𝟑𝟏𝟓𝟎

𝒇𝒎,𝒌 𝟑𝟑.𝟏𝟕
𝝀. 𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒚 =√ =√ = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝟒
𝝈. 𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒕 𝟓𝟏𝟎.𝟏𝟗

Since λrel,m < 0.75, kcrit = 1

Check lateral torsional stability

2
𝜎𝑚,𝑑 𝜎𝑐,0,𝑑
(𝒌 ) +𝒌 ≤1
𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑚,𝑦,𝑑 𝑐,𝑧 𝑓𝑐,0,𝑑

8.16 2 2.24
(1x28.67) + = 0.35 < 1 𝑜𝑘
0.76x11.02

Hence the column is also adequate in lateral torsional buckling.

4.4 DESIGN OF FOUNDATION (PAD FOOTING)

PAD FOOTING FOR (CB -1)
Shear failure could arise: (a) at the face of the column (b) at a distance d
from the face of the column (c) punching failure of the slab

128
 FACE SHEAR (CL. 6.4.5, EC 2)
Load on footing due to column is 1.35 × 99.479= 134.30 kN
Design shear stress at the column perimeter,𝜈Ed, is 𝜈𝐸𝐷
. Effective depth d,
.
d = h − cover − diameter of bar = 300 − 50 − 8 = 242 mm.
𝑉𝐸𝐷 . 134.30×103 .
𝜈𝐸𝐷 = 𝛽 =1× = 1.44𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑈0 𝑑 (4×200)×242

VRd, max = 0.5νfcd

ν = 0.6[1 − (fck/250)] = 0.6[1 − (30/250)] = 0.528
𝑓𝑐𝑘 30
fcd =𝛼𝑐𝑐 =1 × = 20𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝛾𝑐 1.5

= 0.5 × 0.528 × 20 = 5.28 N mm−2 > νEd OK

TRANSVERSE SHEAR (CL. 6.4.4, EC 2)

From above, design shear force on footing, VEd = 134.30kN
𝑉𝐸𝐷 134.30
Earth pressure , PE = = =165.80 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 0.92

Ultimate load at 1d area is,

Figure 4.26
Area = ∆VEd = PE (0.9 × [0.9 − 0.108]) = 117.61 kN

129
 Applied shear force is
VEd,red = VEd − ∆VEd = 134.30− 117.61 = 16.69 kN
Design transverse shear stress, VEd, is
𝑉𝐸𝑑,𝑟𝑒𝑑 16.69 ×103
.
VEd = = = 0.076 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
.
𝑏𝑑 900×242

where b = width of footing = 0.9m

fck = 30 N mm−2
CRd,c = 0.18/γc = 0.18/1.5 = 0.12 N mm−2
200 200
𝐾 =1+√ = 1+√ =1.9 < 2.0 OK
𝑑 242

201
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 =1000 × = 1340mm2
150

𝐴𝑠𝑙,𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑙,𝑥
𝜌1 =√𝜌1𝑦 𝜌1𝑥 =√ × =
𝑏𝑑 𝑏𝑑

1340 1340
√ × =0.0055 < 0.02 OK
103 ×242 103 ×242

σcp = 0
νmin = 0.035k3/2fck1/2 = 0.035 × 1.93/2 × 301/2 = 1.8
Design shear resistance of concrete, VRd,c, is given by
VRd,c = [CRd,ck(100ρ1fck)1/3 + k1σcp] × (2d/a)
= [0.12 × 1.9(100 × 0.0055 × 30)1/3 + 0] × 2
= 3.6 N mm−2 ≥ [vmin + k1σcp] × (2d/a)
= 1.8 × 2 = 3.6 Nmm−2 Since VEd (= 0.076 Nmm−2) < VRd,c (= 3.6 Nmm−2)
shear reinforcement is NOT required.
PUNCHING SHEAR
Check punching shear at 2d from face of column.
130
 Basic control perimeter, u1, is
u1 = column perimeter + 2π(2d)
= 4 × 300 + 2π (2 × 242) =4241.06 mm
. Area within critical perimeter,
.
A = 4 × 300(2 × 242) + 3002 + π (2 × 242)2 = 1.406 × 106 mm2
Ultimate load on shaded area, ∆VEd = 𝜌E × A = 165.80 × 1.406 = 233.24 kN
Applied shear force, VEd,red = VEd − ∆VEd = 134.30 – 23.32 = 110.98 kN
Punching shear stress,
VEd 110.98×103
VEd = = = 0.108 Nmm−2 < VRd,c = 3.6 Nmm−2 OK
𝑈1 𝑑 4241.06×242

Hence, no shear reinforcement is required.

PAD FOOTING FOR (CB -2)
FACE SHEAR (CL. 6.4.5, EC 2)
Base for columns supporting a max axial load of 200KN
Load on footing due to column is 1.35 × 202.5= 273.4 kN
Design shear stress at the column perimeter,𝜈Ed, is 𝜈𝐸𝐷
Effective depth d,
d = h − cover − diameter of bar = 300 − 50 − 8 = 242 mm.
𝑉𝐸𝐷 . 273.4×103 .
𝜈𝐸𝐷 = 𝛽 =1× = 1.412𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑈0 𝑑 (4×200)×242

VRd, max = 0.5νfcd

ν = 0.6[1 − (fck/250)] = 0.6[1 − (30/250)] = 0.528
𝑓𝑐𝑘 30
fcd =𝛼𝑐𝑐 =1 × = 20𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝛾𝑐 1.5

= 0.5 × 0.528 × 20 = 5.28 N mm−2 > νEd OK

TRANSVERSE SHEAR (CL. 6.4.4, EC 2)

131
 From above, design shear force on footing, VEd = 273.4kN
𝑉𝐸𝐷 273.4
Earth pressure , PE = = =337.53 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 0.92

Ultimate load at 1d area is,

.

Figure 4.27
Area = ∆VEd = PE (0.9 × [0.9 − 0.108]) = 240.59 kN
Applied shear force is
VEd,red = VEd − ∆VEd = 273.4− 240.59 = 32.80 kN
Design transverse shear stress, VEd, is
𝑉𝐸𝑑,𝑟𝑒𝑑 32.80 ×103
VEd = = = 0.15 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑏𝑑 900×242

where b = width of footing = 0.9m

fck = 30 N mm−2
CRd,c = 0.18/γc = 0.18/1.5 = 0.12 N mm−2
200 200
𝐾 =1+√ = 1+√ =1.9 < 2.0 OK
𝑑 242

201
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 =1000 × = 1340mm2
150

𝐴𝑠𝑙,𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑙,𝑥
𝜌1 =√𝜌1𝑦 𝜌1𝑥 =√ × =
𝑏𝑑 𝑏𝑑

132
 1340 1340
√ × =0.0055 < 0.02 OK
103 ×242 103 ×242

σcp = 0
νmin = 0.035k3/2fck1/2 = 0.035 × 1.93/2 × 301/2 = 1.8
.

. Design shear resistance of concrete, VRd,c, is given by

VRd,c = [CRd,ck(100ρ1fck)1/3 + k1σcp] × (2d/a)
= [0.12 × 1.9(100 × 0.0055 × 30)1/3 + 0] × 2
= 3.6 N mm−2 ≥ [vmin + k1σcp] × (2d/a)
= 1.8 × 2 = 3.6 Nmm−2 Since VEd (= 0.076 Nmm−2) < VRd,c (= 3.6 Nmm−2)
shear reinforcement is NOT required.
PUNCHING SHEAR
Check punching shear at 2d from face of column.
Basic control perimeter, u1, is
u1 = column perimeter + 2π(2d)
= 4 × 300 + 2π (2 × 242) =4241.06 mm
Area within critical perimeter,
A = 4 × 300(2 × 242) + 3002 + π (2 × 242)2 = 1.406 × 106 mm2
Ultimate load on shaded area, ∆VEd = 𝜌E × A = 337.53 × 1.406 = 474.57 kN
Applied shear force, VEd,red = VEd − ∆VEd = 273.4 – 47.45 = 225.95 kN
Punching shear stress,
VEd 225.95×103
VEd = = = 0.22 Nmm−2 < VRd,c = 3.6 Nmm−2 OK
𝑈1 𝑑 4241.06×242

Hence, no shear reinforcement is required.

133
 4.5 COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN(TEKLA STRUCTURALDESIGNER )
.

. 4.5 .1ROOF DESIGN (TRUSSES)

Geometry
Geometry (m) - D50 (EC5)

fig 4.28
table 4.6
Materials
Name Density Youngs Shear Thermal
Modulus Modulus Coefficient
(kg/m3) kN/mm2 kN/mm2 C-1
D50 (EC5) 620 14 0.88 0
Sections

134
 Name Area Moment of inertia Shear area
parallel to
Major Minor Minor Major
2
(cm ) (cm4) (cm4) (cm2) (cm2)
Top - 50x100 50 416.7 104.2 41.7 41.7
Bottom - 75 1406.2 156.3 62.5 62.5
50x150
Internal - 37.5 175.8 78.1 31.3 31.3
50x75

7 0x100
Top - 5

Internal - 50x75
6 x 100
Top - 50
Internal - 50 x75
Interna l - 50x7 5

In t
5 0 75 e rn a
50x10 5 0x
Top - l-5
Internal - 50x75

5 al - 0 x7
07
x er n
Z l-5 In t 5
a
e rn
1 In t 2 3 4
X
Bottom - 50x150 Bottom - 50x150 Bottom - 50x150

fig 4.29

table 4.7
Elements

Element Length Nodes Section Material Releases Rotated

(m) Star End Start End Axial
t mom moment
ent
1 2 1 2 Bottom - D50 (EC5) Fixed Fixed Fixed
50x150

135
 Element Length Nodes Section Material Releases Rotated
(m) Star End Start End Axial
t mom moment
ent
2 3 2 3 Bottom - D50 (EC5) Fixed Fixed Fixed
.
50x150
.
3 3 3 4 Bottom - D50 (EC5) Fixed Fixed Fixed
50x150
4 2.054 5 6 Top - D50 (EC5) Fixed Fixed Fixed
50x100
5 3.036 6 7 Top - D50 (EC5) Fixed Fixed Fixed
50x100
6 3.036 7 8 Top - D50 (EC5) Fixed Fixed Fixed
50x100
7 0.6 1 5 Internal - D50 (EC5) Fixed Fixed Fixed
50x75
8 1.067 2 6 Internal - D50 (EC5) Fixed Fixed Fixed
50x75
9 1.533 3 7 Internal - D50 (EC5) Fixed Fixed Fixed
50x75
10 2 4 8 Internal - D50 (EC5) Fixed Fixed Fixed
50x75
11 2.267 1 6 Internal - D50 (EC5) Fixed Fixed Fixed
50x75
12 3.369 2 7 Internal - D50 (EC5) Fixed Fixed Fixed
50x75
13 3.369 7 4 Internal - D50 (EC5) Fixed Fixed Fixed
50x75

136
 Analysis Results
Forces Member results
Load combination: 1.0G + 1.0Q + 1.0RQ (Service)
Member Axial force
.
Pos Max Pos Min
.
(m) (kN) (m) (kN)
Bottom Chord 2 -5.1 0 -5.2 (min)
Top Chord 2.054 5.5 8.126 0.1
member 13 3.369 5.9 (max) 0 5.4
Member4 0 -0.2 3.369 -0.2
Load combination: 1.0G + 1.0Q + 1.0RQ (Service)
Member Axial deflection
Pos Max Pos Min
(m) (mm) (m) (mm)
Bottom 8 0.4 0 0
Chord
Top Chord 0 0.1 8.126 -0.1
member 13 0 0.7 (max) 3.369 0.4
Member4 3.369 -0.5 0 -0.5 (min)

4.5.2DESIGN RESULT FROM TEKLA STRUCTURES(MATERIALS)

Table 4.8
Material Listing
Structure
Timber Beams

137
 Section Size Grade No. Total Length Mass Embodied Carbon
[m] [kg] Mass
[kgCO2e]
75x100 D50 135 388.200 2154.51 1103
100x150 D50 27 102.600 1138.86 583
. 100x200 D50 42 78.900 1167.72 598
. 150x200 D50 108 205.200 4555.44 2332
150x300 D50 183 515.400 17162.82 8787
200x200 D50 48 144.000 4262.40 2182
200x300 D50 213 843.000 37429.20 19164
300x300 D50 3 24.000 1598.40 818
Total 759 2301.300 69469.35 35568

Timber Columns
Section Size Grade No. Total Length Mass Embodied Carbon
[m] [kg] Mass
[kgCO2e]
200x200 D50 42 132.300 3916.08 2005
300x300 D50 78 245.700 16363.62 8378
Total 120 378.000 20279.70 10383

Timber
Grade Mass Gross Surface Net Surface Area Volume
[kg] Area [m2] [m3]
D50 89749.05 [m2] 121.3
Custom 0.00 716.9 716.9 71.7
Total 89749.05 716.9 716.9 193.0

Total
Material Mass Gross Surface Net Surface Volume
[kg] Area Area [m3]
Timber 89749.05 716.9 [m2] 716.9 [m2] 193.0
Total 89749.05 716.9 716.9 193.0

138
 4.6 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE TWO METHODS

4.6.1Structural analysis of members

Strength grades
manual = N2 -7700Kg/m3
.

. CAD = D50 -620Kg/m3

BEAM
member parameter MANUAL CAD Difference
beam(4m) Max moment 10.17knm 8.3Knm 1.87
Shear force 10.17kn 8.3Knm 1.87
Beam(6m) Max moment 22.88knm 19.7knm 3.18
Shear force 15.25kn 13.13kn 2.25

column
member parameter MANUAL CAD Difference
COL C-1(3rd Axial forces 24.23kn 21.3kn 2.93
FLOOR)
COL C- Axial forces 48.47kn 43.5kn 4.97
1(2ndFLOOR)
COL C-1(1ST Axial forces 99.47kn 87.8kn 11.67
FLOOR)

139
 Fig 4.30 max moment bar chart

Fig 4.31 shear bar chart

Fig 4.32 max axial forces bar chart

4.6.2 COST ANALYSIS

The approximate cost of a Nigerian timber of cross section 100mm x150mm
(15000m2) is N7000
General sections provided by tekla structural designer for beams and
columns

140
 Table 4.9
Section Area Grade NO TOTAL
Size (mm) mm2 AREA
75x100 7500 D50 59 442500
100x150 1500 D50 22 330000
. 100x200 20000 D50 30 600000
. 150x200 30000 D50 65 1950000
150x300 45000 D50 15 675000
200x200 40000 D50 17 680000
200x300 60000 D50 40 2400000
300x300 90000 D50 45 4050000
Total 294000 293 8967500

From the above the total cost of the sections listed from tekla is given by
15000m2 ----------------- N7000
8967500m2 --------------------------
Nx
8967500m2 x N7000
Hence the cost is given to be =
15000m2

= N4,184,833.3

General sections provided from the manual design

Table 4.10

141
 Section Area Grade NO TOTAL
Size (mm) mm2 AREA
75x100 7500 N2 30 225000
100x150 15000 N2 42 630000
. 100x200 20000 N2 35 700000
. 150x200 30000 N2 59 1770000
150x300 45000 N2 15 675000
200x200 40000 N2 13 520000
200x300 60000 N2 50 3000000
300x300 90000 N2 49 4410000
Total 294000 293 11930000
11930000

15000m2 ----------------- N7000

11930000m2 --------------------------
Nx
11930000𝑚2 x N7000
Hence the cost is given to be =
15000m2

= N5,567,333.3

142
 COST ANALYSIS
6,000,000.00

5,000,000.00
COST IN NAIRA

4,000,000.00
.
3,000,000.00
.

2,000,000.00

1,000,000.00

0.00
CAD MANUAL
COST ANALYSIS BAR CHART

Figure 4.33

4.7 DISCUSSION
The comparative analysis done on the result of the structural analysis of the major
structural elements showed that both method ensures stability which is the primary.

Aim of design. the much difference in the CAD design output to the manual output
can be traced to the difference in the density of the timber being used being a result
of the software no having built in section classification of Nigerian timber.

The sectional values produced from both is then calculated in terms of cost to show
the cost effectiveness of each method hence it can be deduced that the CAD design
produced sections lower in size to that of the manual designs. the cost of the total
sectional area of the timber sections of the manual design are higher to a great extent
to that of the manual design making the CAD design method more Economical and
stress free while designing

143
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION
In summary, based on the findings presented in Chapter Four,

Timber has a great usefulness in the modern day construction industry having
several properties which makes it ecofriendly. It has demonstrated its ability to
withstand the various stresses.

1)The use of CAD designs in the design of timber structures provides sections which
are more economical than the manual design calculation. The ease of software
designs and time saving ability makes it necessary to be adopted fir economic design.

2)manual designs especially for Nigeria provides the designer the opportunity to
apply the properties of timber species nearest to them

3)the software provided lower sectional area to the section produced by the manual

design making the computer aided design more cost effective

design making the computer aided design more cost effective

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the result generated through this research, the following recommendation
can be given:

144
 1)The structural design of a multi –story timber building can be carried out using
either manual or computer aided design software built to design timber, since the
result from the structural analysis both satisfies the stability requirement

. 2)While carrying out the structural analysis and design of timber structural
.
members, the designer must seek to understand the full configuration of the software
in other to make proper decision as to Arrive at the expected results

3)structural analysis of members can be done on the computer design software since
it gives a lower value and the design done manually using a locally graded timber
nearest to the Engineer

4)The design of timber structures as thought in tertiary institution in Nigeria should

embrace teaching and training students to become confident in the use of computer
aided software in designing timber.

145
 REFERENCES
Abubakar I. and Nabade A.M (2013) "Physical and Mechanical Properties of Some
Common Nigerian Timber Species Based on Limit Sate Design Approach"
Study of Civil Engineering and Architecture (SCEA) Volume 2 Issue 4.

Abubakar I. and Nabade A.M (2014). "Bending Strength Classification of Some

Common Nigerian Timber Species" Jordan Journal of Civil Engineering
Volume 8, No. 2

ANSI/AWC NDS (2015) "National Design Specification (NDS) for Word

Construction", an American National Standard (ANSI) by American Wood
Council (AWC). Washington, DC.

Awosusi Damilola, "10 Yoruba Cities in Nigeria". Real Estate News. April 7, 2017

Atlantic cladding, (2018). Top ten reasons to use treated timber. From
www.atlanticcladding.com.uk/atlantics-top-10-reasons-use-treated-timber

Abimaje, J. and BABA, Adams Ndalai (2014). An assessment of timber as a

sustainable building material in Nigeria
Davies, I., (2016). Sustainable construction timber sourcing and specifying
EN 1995-1-2 (2004) (English): Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures - Part 1-2:
General - Structural fire design Authority: The European Union Per
Regulation 305:2011
EN 1992-1-1 (2004) (English): Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures - Part 1-
1: General rules and rules for buildings Authority: The European Union Per
Regulation 305:2011

146
 Matthew Caldwell (2021) https://www.burohappold.com/articles/is-timber-the-
most-sustainable-building-material
Ramage, H. Burridge, H. Busse-wicher, M. Fereday, G. Reynolds, T. Shah, D.
... Scherman, O. (2017). Renewable and sustainable energy reviews, volume
.

. 68, part 1
Samphina, (2020). A study of prospects and problems of timber as an external
material in building production, retrieved on 15/06/2020 from
www.samphina,com.ng/studyprospects-problems-timber-external-material-
building-production-hot-climate-region. local timber. 2nd Edition, May 2016
Hodgson, Fredric Thomas, (reprinted 2015) light and heavy timber framing made
easy
Prof. Dr. Ramazan. O.ZEN. "wood as a building material, it's benefits and
disadvantages". Online publication of zonguldak karaeelmas University,
turkey

147
.

148